Error Analysis

Experimental Error

Experimental Error

The uncertainty obtained in a measurement of an

experiment
Results can from systematic and/or random errors

Experimental Error

As a science student you must be careful to

learn how good your results are, and to report
them in a way that indicates your confidence in
your answers.

These are errors caused by the way in which the

experiment was conducted. In other words, they
are caused by the design of the system or arise
from flaws in equipment or experimental design or
observer
Sometimes referred to as determinate errors
Reproducible with precision
Can be discovered and corrected

Detection of Systematic Errors

Examples:

The electronic scale you use reads 0.05 g too

high for all your mass measurements (because it
was improperly zeroed at the beginning of your
experiment).

Systematic Errors

It is impossible to make an exact

measurement. Therefore, all experimental
results are wrong. Just how wrong they are
depends on the kinds of errors that were made
in the experiment.

The cloth tape measure that you use to measure

the length of an object had been stretched out
from years of use. (As a result, all of your length
measurements were too small)

Relates to the degree of confidence in an answer

Propagation of uncertainties must be calculated and
taken into account

Types of Errors

Systematic Error

Blunders
Human Error
Instrument Limitations

Analyze samples of known composition

Analyze blank samples

Use standard Reference material

Develop a calibration curve
Verify that the instrument will give a zero result

Obtain results for a sample using multiple

instruments

Verifies the accuracy of the instrument

How to Eliminate Systematic Errors

Elimination of systematic error can best be
accomplished by a well planned and well executed
experimental procedure

Types of Errors

Random Errors

How would you measure the distance between two

parallel vertical lines

Sometimes referred to as indeterminate

errors or noise errors
Arises from things that cannot be controlled

-most would pull out a ruler, align one end with

one bar, read of the distance.

-You should put ruler down randomly (as

perpendicular as you can). Note where each mark
hits the ruler, then subtract the two readings.
Repeat a number of times and average the
result.

Variations in how an individual or individuals read the

measurements
Instrumentation noise

Always present and cannot always be

corrected for, but can be treated statistically
The important property of random error is
that it adds variability to the data but does
not affect average performance for the data

-Minimize the number of human operations you

can

Random Errors

Accuracy or Precision

Precision

Examples:

Reproducibility of results
Several measurements afford the same results

Is a measure of exactness

You measure the mass of a ring three times

using the same balance and get slightly different
values: 12.74 g, 12.72 g, 12.75 g

The meter stick that is used for measuring,
slips a little when measuring the object

Accuracy vs Precision

Accuracy
How close a result is to the true value
True values contain errors since they too
were measured

Is a measure of rightness

Calculating Errors

Accuracy

Precision

NO

NO

7.18281828

NO

YES

3.14

YES

NO

3.1415926

YES

YES

Terminology


Significant Figures minimum number of digits required

to express a value in scientific notation without loss of

accuracy
 Absolute Uncertainty margin of uncertainty
associated with a measurement
 Relative Uncertainty compares the size of the
absolute uncertainty with the size of its associated
measurement (a percent)
 Propagation of Uncertainty The calculation to
determine the uncertainty that results from multiple
measurements

Significant Figures

Significant Figures

How to determine which digits are Significant




Write the number as a power of 10

Zeros are significant and must be included when they
occur

In the middle of a number

At the end of a number on the right hand side of the
decimal point


This implies that you know the value of a measurement accurately to

a specific decimal point

Scientific Notation
Lets look at 123.45
1.2345x102
We have 5 significant digits

Lets look at 0.000123

1.23x10-4

The significant figures (digits) in a measurement

include all digits that can be known precisely, plus a
last digit that is an estimate.

Significant Figures

We have 3 significant digits

Significant Figures

Determine

the number of significant digits in

the following numbers
142.7

142.7
142.70
0.000006302
0.003050
10.003 x 104
9.250 x 104
9000
9000.

4 significant digits

142.70

Significant Figures
6.302x10-6

9.250x104

4 significant digits
0.003050

1.4270x102

5 significant digits

Significant Figures

0.000006302

1.427x102

3.050x10-3

4 significant digits

9.250x104

4 significant digits
10.003x104

1.0003x105

5 significant digits

Significant Figures

Significant Figures

9x103

9000

1 significant digit

The last significant digit in a measured

quantity is the first digit of uncertainty

9.000x103

9000.

4 significant digits

Significant Figures

Significant Figures

Determine

the significant figures from the

diagram below

Certain values

1 degree of
uncertainty

True expression

Absorbance

0.23

0.234

0.234 0.001

% Transmittance

58

58.3

58.3 0.1

Adding Significant Digits

When adding or subtracting, the last digit

retained is set by the first doubtful
number.

When multiplying or dividing, the number
of significant digits you use is simply the
number of significant figures as is in the
term with the fewest significant digits.

Adding Significant Digits

4503+34.90+550= 5090
3 significant digits
5 is the first doubtful number
0 is the first doubtful number

2456.2345+23.21= 2479.4445

2479.44

23400.00+111.49= 23511.49

23511.49

23400+111.49= 23511.49

23500

234000-2340= 231660

232000

3 is the first doubtful number

Via Calculator: 5087.9

The 87.9 are the doubtful numbers

Multiplying Significant Digits

2.7812x1.7= 4.72804

4.7

Multiplying Significant Digits

14.200x3.2400= 48.008

48.008

1.00x150.03= 150.03

150

1200x1.234= 1480.8

1500

45.35.2345= 8.654121

8.65

Rounded to 4.7 because 1.7 only has 2 significant digits

Rounding
Rounding is the process of reducing the number
of significant digits in a number. The result of
rounding is a "shorter" number having fewer
non-zero digits yet similar in magnitude. The
result is less precise but easier to use. There
are several slightly different rules for
rounding.

Rounding

Rounding
Common method

This method is commonly used, for example in
accounting.

Decide which is the last digit to keep.

Increase it by 1 if the next digit is 5 or more (this is
called rounding up)

Leave it the same if the next digit is 4 or less (this is
called rounding down)

Example: 7.146 rounded to hundredths is 7.15
(because the next digit [6] is 5 or more).

Increasing Precision with Multiple

Measurements

This method is also known as statistician's rounding . It is identical

to the common method of rounding except when the digit(s)
following to rounding digit start with a five and have no non-zero
digits after it. The new algorithm is:

Decide which is the last digit to keep.

Increase it by 1 if the next digit is 6 or more, or a 5 followed by one or more nonzero digits.
Leave it the same if the next digit is 4 or less
Round up or down to the nearest even digit if the next digit is a five followed (if
followed at all) only by zeroes. That is, increase the rounded digit if it is currently
odd; leave it if it is already even.

Examples:

7.016 rounded to hundredths is 7.02 (because the next digit (6) is 6 or more)
7.013 rounded to hundredths is 7.01 (because the next digit (3) is 4 or less)
7.015 rounded to hundredths is 7.02 (because the next digit is 5, and the
hundredths digit (1) is odd)
7.045 rounded to hundredths is 7.04 (because the next digit is 5, and the
hundredths digit (4) is even)
7.04501 rounded to hundredths is 7.05 (because the next digit is 5, but it is
followed by non-zero digits)

One way to increase your confidence in experimental

data is to repeat the same experiment many times.
When dealing with repeated measurements, there are
three important statistical quantities
Mean (or average)
Standard Deviation
Standard Error