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1. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER:-
The operational amplifier was first introduced in the early 1940s. Primary
usage of these vacuum tube forerunners of the ideal gain block was in
computational circuits. They were fed back in such a way as to accomplish
addition, subtraction, and other mathematical functions. Expensive and
extremely bulky, the operational amplifier found limited use until new
technology brought about the integrated version, solving both size and cost
drawbacks. Volumes upon volumes have been and could be written on the
subject of op amps. In the interest of brevity, this application note will cover
the basic op amp as it is defined, along with test methods and suggestive
applications. Also, included is a basic coverage of the feedback theory from
which all configurations can be analyzed.
Earlier, the ideal operational amplifier was defined. No circuit is ideal, of
course, so practical realizations contain some sources of error. Most
sources of error are very small and therefore can usually be ignored. It
should be noted that some applications require special attention to specific
sources of error. Before the internal circuitry of the op amp is further
explored, it would be beneficial to define those parameters commonly
referenced.
Operational amplifier amplifier whose output voltage is proportional to
the negative of its input voltage and that boosts the amplitude of an input
signal many times, i.e., has a very high gain. It is usually connected so that
part of the output is fed back to the input. Operational amplifiers were
originally developed to be used in synthesizing mathematical operations in
analog computers, hence their name. Because of recent advances in
semiconductor technology, they have become available as integrated
circuits. They are widely used when a closely controlled amount of gain or
some form of signal processing is necessary in an electronic system. It has
high input impedance and low output impedance. Operational amplifiers
are normal amplifiers usually represented with a 3-terminal symbol, having
two input terminals, the inverting input (-) and non-inverting input (+), one
output terminal as shown below:-.
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Fig 1-1Symbol of Operational Amplifier
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Beginning points for any network analysis and will be explored in detail
later on.
Single-Ended Input:-
Input
When an operational amplifier is operated in a single-ended mode, one
input is grounded and the signal voltage is applied only to the other input,
as shown in the figure 1-3. In the case where the signal voltage is applied
to the inverting input as in part (a), an inverted amplified signal voltage
appears at the output. In the case where signal is applied to the non-
inverting input with the inverting input grounded, as shown in part (b), a
noninverted, amplified voltage appears at the output.
(a) (b)
Figure 1-3: Single-Ended Mode
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Differential Input:-
In the difference input, two opposite-polarity (out of phase) signals are
applied to the inputs, as shown in figure 1-4. Thus type of operation is also
referred to as double-ended. The amplified difference between two inputs
appears on the output.
Common-Mode Input:-
In the common mode, two signal voltages of same phase,
frequency and amplitude are applied to the two inputs, as shown in figure
1-5. When equal input signals are applied to both inputs, they cancel,
resulting in a zero output voltage.
This action is called common-mode rejection. Its importance lies
in the where an unwanted signal appears commonly on both op-amp
inputs. Common-mode rejection means that this unwanted signal will not
appear on the output and distort the desired signal.
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CMMR= Aol/Acm
The higher the CMMR, the better will be the performance of op-amp and
lower the CMMR, poor will be the performance of op-amp.
A. INVERTING AMPLIFIERS:-
An operational amplifier is connected as an inverting amplifier
with a controlled amount of voltage gain as shown in figure 1-6 below:-
The input signal is applied through a series resistor Rin at the inverting
input while the non-inverting input is connected to ground. The output is
also feed back through Rf to the same inverting input.
Virtual Ground:-
Ground
At this stage ideal characteristics are useful in specification, especially the
concept of infinite impedance. An infinite impedance implies zero current
to the inverting input through the input impedance thus there is no voltage
drop between inverting and non-inverting inputs. i.e. Vd =0. This further
illustrates that point A and point B are at the same potential. Since the point
B is at the ground potential, so point A is referred to as virtual ground as
shown below in figure 1-7.
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Figure 1-7: Virtual Ground
B. NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER:-
An operational amplifier as a non-inverting amplifier with a
controlled amount of voltage as shown below in figure 1-8:-
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The voltage follower configuration is the special case of non-inverting
amplifier where all the output is feed back through the inverting amplifier as
shown below in Figure 1-9.
It has a very high input impedance and very low output impedance, these
feathers makes it nearly an ideal buffer amplifier for interfacing high
impedance source and low impedance source.
There are four basic types operational amplifiers of which are as follows:-
(a) Operational Amplifier as a Difference amplifier.
Although, there are many ways to make a summer, this one is nice
because it keeps the interaction between inputs at a minimum. What does
that mean for you the designer? You can change the gain or add another
input without messing with the gains of the other inputs. Just remember
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that the circuit also inverts the input signals. Not a big deal. If you need the
opposite polarity, put an inverting stage before or after the summer.
2. BLOCK DIAGRAM:-
3. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-
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VCC
18V
XSC1
Ext T rig
VCC +
_
A B
_ _
0 + +
R1 7 1 5 U1
3
3
1kO 2
V2 6
2
5 Vrms
30 Hz 4 4 AD741CN 0
0° R2
R3
1kO
1kO
1 V1 VEE
3 Vrms
30 Hz
0°
0
VEE
-18V
A two inputs summing amplifier is shown in the figure 2, but any number of
inputs can be used. The operation and the derivation of the output
expansion are as follows. Voltage V1 is applied to the input and which
produces current.
Using the concept of infinite impedance and virtual ground, the inverting
input (-) of the op-amp is approximately 0 V, and there is no current at the
input. This means that both the input currents I1 and I2 combines at this
summer point and form the total current(IT),which goes through R3. The
output voltage will have the same magnitude as the sum of the two input
voltages but with a negative sign, indicating inversion. The output wave
form will be as follow.
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INPUT/OUTPUT WAVEFORM
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The summing amplifier" is a versatile device for combining signals. It can
either add signals directly, or scale them to fit some predetermined combination
rule.
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