Site Investigation and Soil Exploration

Before the engineer is in a position to design a foundation in economic and

intelligent way, he must possess reasonably accurate information about the physical
properties and the arrangement of the underlying materials. The field and laboratory
investigations required to get this essential information are known as soil exploration.
Due to very complex nature of deposits, no one method of exploration is best suited for
all conditions. Thus, the object of soil exploration may be outlined as follows
1. Depth, extent, nature and variations of soil strata.
2. Physical properties of soils encountered.
3. Depth to underlying rock bed, when necessary.
4. Approximate values of strength and compressibility of soil bed.
5. The seasonal variation in ground water-table.
6. Selection of foundation types.
The first step is to inspect the site and study the topographical features for
deciding the future programme of exploration. Many informations can be gathered from
the local people regarding the type of soil, seasonal variation of ground water-table,
highest flood level, types of cracks and failures in the existing buildings of that area. But
for important, costly and multi-storied buildings, it becomes essential to collect detailed
informations very accurately, thus necessitating a thorough investigation of the soil
available at the site.
Bearing Capacity
After conducting site reconnaissance and detailed exploration the Civil Engineer will
possess the following facts about the site
(1) Presence of boulders, gravels or other obstructions, if present
(2) The depth of rock strata, if any.
(3) Character of soil, i.e. clay, silt, sand, gravel, etc.
(4) Physical properties of soil.
(5) Variation in ground water-table throughout the year.
(6) Highest flood level of the area.

Now, the selection of the suitable type of the foundation, its depth, shape and size has to
be decided so that it can safely transmit the load from the building to the ground without
soil failure or detrimental settlement and at the same time it must be economical also.
Ultimately the load of the building or structure will be coming on the soil and hence it is
of utmost importance to know the strength and behavior of the soil. For further
considerations, it will be useful to define the bearing capacity as follows
BEARING CAPACITY.
The supporting power of a soil or rock bed is defined as its bearing capacity.
ULTIMATE BEARING CAPACITY.
The maximum pressure intensity at the base of the foundation at which the soil fails in
shear is known as ultimate bearing capacity.
ALLOWABLE BEARING CAPACITY.
It is the loading intensity at which neither the soil fails in shear nor there is excessive
settlement detrimental to the structure. It is normally obtained by dividing the ultimate
bearing capacity by a suitable factor of safety.
DETERMINATION OF BEARING CAPACITY
The bearing capacity of a soil can be determined by any one of the following methods:
(1) Local experience in the construction of similar buildings.
(2) Study of the soil type and selecting a corresponding value of bearing capacity
as obtained from the standard building codes.
(3) Field tests for determining directly the value of bearing capacity.
(4) Laboratory tests for engineering properties of soil and hence forth analytical
calculation of bearing capacity of soil.
FOUNDATION
Every structure consists of two parts, i.e. foundation and super structure. Foundation is
the lowest part of a structure which transmits the weight of the structure, together with
the effect of live loads and wind pressure, to the material on which the structure rests in
such a manner that the underlying material is not stressed beyond its safe bearing
capacity. Generally, the foundations re placed below the ground level to increase the
stability of a structure or building. Thus the objects of providing foundations may be
outlined as follows:

(a) To distribute and transmit the total load coming on the structure or building to
a larger area of underlying support.
(b) To prevent excessive settlement and differential settlement of the structure.
(c) To provide stability to the structures against many disturbing forces, i.e. wind,
rain, earthquake, etc.
If the underlying material is solid rock, the design of a foundation is greatly simplified,
since the bearing capacity of rock in natural beds is very high and the contact area
between the foundation and the rock can be kept to a minimum. But most of the time the
structures are to be built on ordinary soil.
Different types of materials are used for the construction of the foundations under various
circumstances. Stone, bricks, steel, concrete, reinforced concrete, etc. are some of the
materials used commonly. The type of structure or building and the nature of the
underlying soil are two main governing factors in selection of the material and type of
foundation.
Types of Foundations
Following are the various types of foundations commonly used:
Spread Foundations.
The total load coming at the base of the structure is spread over a larger area by such
foundations. The intensity of load transmitted to the supporting soil is less than its
allowable bearing capacity and thus the settlement of the building is prevented to
reasonable extent. The width of the wall is constructed thicker at the base in a stepped
fashion.
Pile foundations.
A pile may be defined as a long vertical load transferring element composed of timber,
steel, concrete or a combination of them. Loads are transferred to the soil by two
mechanisms, i.e. (i) by the friction between the pile and surrounding soil, and (ii) by the
bearing of pile on a hard rock bed at certain depth. The former is known as friction pile
and the latter is known as end bearing pile. The load, the type of soil encountered, and the
material of pile govern the number of piles to be used under any structure. All the pile
tops of a group are connected by R.C. beams so that the load may be uniformly

distributed to the soil. Pile foundation is used with advantage in water-logged area, or in
compressible soil, or in made up soil, or on steep slopes, etc.
Pier foundation.
When the structure is situated in sandy soil or soft soil, overlying hard bed at reasonable
depth, this type of foundation used. A hollow well or solid vertical shaft is sunk upto the
hard bed and in case of well, the hollow portion is filled up with some inert material like
sand, in moorum or lean concrete. It is rarely, used for buildings.
Spread Foundations
The various types of spread foundations are as follows which are constructed to spread
the loads:
(i) Wall footing
(iii) Combined footing
v) Continuous footing (vii) Grillage foundation
(ix) Stepped foundation.
(i)

Wall footing.

Wall footings are either simple or stepped.

Simple footings are provided to carry light loads and have only one projection outside
the width of the wall on both sides as illustrated in Fig. The projection provided in the
footing is 15 cm. on both side and the depth of the concrete bed is at least twice the
projections.
The base may be of concrete slab or completely build up of bricks or stones. In case
no concrete base is provided, the wall is built up in steps to transmit the load safely.
The bricks are projected regularly to one-fourth brick distance beyond the edge of the
wall. Rich mortar is used to join the bricks.
This type of foundation is rarely used these days as it is not economical,
When the width of foundation is considerably more than the wall width, it is economical
to make the brick footing stepped over a level concrete bed as shown in Fig. The footing
should be designed properly otherwise the upward reaction from soil will have a
tendency to break or crack the concrete bed as illustrated in Fig. 3.3 and 3.4.
The concrete used in footings consists of ordinary Portland cement, sand, and stone chips
or brick ballast in the proportion 1 : 3 : 6 or 1 : 4 : 8.
(ii) Isolated or column footing

1.

(iv) Cantilever footing

2.

(vi) Inverted arch footing (viii) Raft or mat foundation

(iii) Combined footing. A common footing constructed for two or more columns is called
as a combined footing. The construction of combined footing becomes essential when the
external column is situated near the boundary line and it is not possible to project the

(iv) Cantilever footing. Cantilever footing consists of an eccentric footing of the exterior
column and a concentric footing for the interior column; and they are connected by a
strap or a cantilever beam. Such footings are used when it is not possible to place a
footing directly below a column because of limitation of boundary or eccentric loading
conditions. The load from the exterior column is balanced by the load of the interior
column acting about a fulcrum. Sometimes, when the interior column load is not
available, a huge concrete block is built to act as an anchorage. In actual construction,
point shaped fulcrums are not used instead of that a suitable base is constructed for the
exterior column. The connecting strap or beam checks unequal settlement of the external
column. Concrete or steel may be used for the construction of a cantilever footing.
(v) Continuous footing. A single continuous R.C. slab is provided as foundation of two
or three or more columns in a row. This type of construction is more suitable to prevent
the differential settlement in the structure and for the safety against earthquake.
Sometimes, a deeper beam is constructed in between the columns to have better stability
(vi) Inverted arch footing. It is used to transmit loads above an opening to the
supporting walls. Inverted arches are constructed between the two walls at the base. The
loads transmitted to the soil through such footings are distributed over a larger area and
hence even soft soil can bear the pressure safely. It is suitable for soil of low bearInverted Arch Footing.

Inverted Arch Foundation

(vii) Grillage foundation. Grill age foundation is used to transfer the heavy structural
loads from steel columns to a soil having low bearing

Capacity. It. is light arid economical. The required base area to reduce the pressure
intensity is obtained at a shallow depth arid hence deep excavation is not essential.
Grillage foundation is constructed by rolled steel joists (R.SJ.) which are placed in single
or double tier. In double tier grillage, the top tier is placed at right angles to the bottom
tier. The steel joists of the grillage are kept in the position by 25 mm and pipe separators
and nuts. The distance between the flanges of R.S.J. should be equal to 1.5 to 2.0 times
the width of flange or 30 cm. whichever is small. The tiers of rolled steel joists are
completely embedded in concrete to protect the steel from corrosion. The bed of concrete
should have a minimum depth of 15 cm. arid at other points the concrete cover should not
be less than 8 cm. The concrete filling is not supposed to take any load but it keeps the
steel joists in position and prevents them from corrosion. A grillage foundation may be
constructed for a single column or for more than one columns (Figs. 3.14 and 3.15).

Raft or Mat foundation.

This type of foundation is very useful when the load coming on the soil is practically
uniform, while the soil is soft clay. made up ground or marshy land with low bearing
capacity. If there is any chance of subsidence in the structure due to. its being located in
mining area or due to unpredictable behavior of sub-soil water condition, the use of raft
foundation is recommended. Raft foundation is constructed of reinforced concrete slab
covering the whole area of the bottom of the structure. The slab is provided with steel
reinforcing bars in both the directions and on both the
observed.
Stepped foundation. It becomes very expensive to construct foundations at the same
level when the ground has steep inclination. Stepped foundation is provided as illustrated
in Fig. 3.17. The overlap between two layers of foundation concrete slab is equal to the
depth of concrete slab or two times the height of the step, whichever is more. The depth
of concrete bed is generally kept in even number of masonry courses.

Stepped Foundations.

Pile Foundations
Definitions Pile. It is an element of construction used as foundation and driven in the
ground vertically or with some inclination to transfer the load of the superstructure to the
soil safely.
Bearing pile. It transfers the superimposed load to hard strata at considerable depth.
Friction pile. It transfers the superimposed load to the soft soil by the frictional forces
existing between the ground and the periphery of the pile.
Battered pile. It is an inclined pile constructed to resist inclined forces.

Sheet pile. It is thin member of steel sheet or timber used as pile.

Under-ream pile. It is a pile with one or more bulbs in its vertical shaft. These bulbs are
known as under-reams and it increases the bearing capacity of the soil considerably.
Uses of Piles under the following circumstances the piles may be used as
foundation
1. The live load and dead load coming from the structure is considerably large.
2. The construction of grillage or raft foundation is not economical.
3. The seasonal variation of ground-water table is considerable.
4. This type of foundation is suitable in the locality where canals, deep sewers,
etc. are to be constructed at a latter date.
5. It is used in the construction of marine structures, e.g. docks, piers, etc. This
protects embankment from scouring.
6. It may give lateral support to take care of an upward pressure.

Load bearing Files

Cast iron, Timber, Wrought iron, Cement concrete, Steel, Composite. Sand
Under-reamed pile.

In black cotton soil and other expansive type of soils, buildings often crack due to relative
ground movements. This is caused by alternate swelling and shrinkage of the soil due to
changes in its moisture con tent. In order to safeguard this movement effectively, the best
remedy is to anchor the structure at a depth where the volumetric change of soil due to
seasonal variation is negligible. This has been economically obtained in shallow as well
as deep layers of expansive soil by using under-reamed piles. This was first designed at
Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee (U.P they have been found useful for
machine foundations, factory buildings, transmission line towers and other tall structures
also. Uiider-reaw.ed piles can be constructed at a batter also for transfer ring heavy lateral
loads. Hence, they are also suitable for tower footings, retaining walls and abutments. In
sandy soils with high water table, it is very difficult to build conventional footings
suitable to resist large up thrusts but it is possible to provide these piles under such
circumstance This makes them more useful for transmission line and other tail structures
where in addition to direct load, anchorage is also needed. Single under-reamed pile has
been used successfully for one and two storey buildings. With one additional bulb the
bearing capacity is increased by about 50%. Hence, by increasing the number of bulbs,

Cased Cast-in-situ concrete piles

When casing is left into the ground, it is easier to examine its verticality but the cost of
the pile increases considerably. The following are the examples of such piles
1. Raymond pile
2. Monotube pile
3. Swage pile.
4. Mac Arthur pile
5. Cobi pneumatic mandrel pile
6. Button-bottom pile
7. BSP base-driven pile
Construction Joints.
It is not possible to place concrete continuously in large construction works. In such cases
formwork for construction joints are provided before each stoppage of concreting (Figs.
7.7 to 7.11). Such joints are a potential source of weakness, and should be located and
formed with care. Generally, joints are either vertical or horizontal. Vertical joints are
formed against a stop board. Horizontal joints are leveled and, whenever possible, so
arranged that the joint lines coincide with the architectural features of the finished work.
Battens may be nailed to the for in work to ensure a horizontal line.
If possible, the position of construction joints should be settled before concreting starts.
As a general guide joints in columns are made as near as possible to the beam hunching.
Joints in beams and slabs should be made at the centre, or within the middle third of the
span. Horizontal joints in walls are usually provided in positions such as the top of a
plinth or the top or bottom of a window opening. Just before concreting is resumed, the
roughened joint surface is thoroughly dined and loose matters are removed. It is treated
with a thin layer of cement grout, worked well into the surface, or of cement-sand mortar
in which the ratios of sand to cement and water to cement do not exceed those in the newconcrete. Special care should be taken to obtain thorough compaction and to avoid
segregation of the concrete along the joint plane.

REINFORCED CEMENT CONCRETE

Plain concrete is very strong in compression but at the same time it is very weak in
tension. Hence plain concrete cannot be used at places where tensile forces may develop.
Steel is equally strong in compression and tension. But a long steel bar can develop its
full tensile strength whereas it cannot carry equal amount of compressive force due to its
buckling which is caused by the slenderness. A combination of concrete and steel is
ideally suited because the two materials are employed to resist the stresses they are most
suitable. The combination of concrete and steel in construction is known as Reinforced
concrete
Properties of Reinforced Concrete
1. The concrete develops very good bond with the surface of the steel bars. Hence, the
concrete transmits the excessive stresses which it cannot resist itself to the steel
reinforcement.
2. As the co-efficient of linear expansion of concrete and steel are nearly same, internal
stresses do not develop in the reinforced concrete due to temperature variations.

3. The cement grout protects the reinforcement from corrosion and at the same time it
does not react with the reinforcement.
Advantages of Reinforced Concrete
1. Its monolithic character provides more rigidity to the structure.
2. It is durable and fire-resisting. It is not attacked by vermins, termites, fungus, or any
other insects.
ACOUSTICS
The term acoustics may be defined as the science of sound, and it describes the origin,
propagation and sensation of sound. Improvements in construction during recent years
have resulted in buildings with poorer acoustical properties due to more rigid materials
and construction use; while on the other hand radios and radio broadcasting, sound
motion pictures, the noise in the street due to the automobile, and many other factors
have stressed the improvement in acoustical conditions The various acoustical
considerations which enter into the design of buildings are considered briefly in this
chapter so that the problems involved will be appreciated.
Sound
A sound is produced when the medium enclosing the body is compressed suddenly.
Sound travels in the form of wave through certain medium. It cannot travel in vacuum.
Velocity of Sound
The speed at which the sound waves propagate in a medium is known as sound velocity.
The magnitude of the sound velocity depends upon the nature and temperature of the
propagating medium. The under mentioned points should be noted.
1. The sound waves take appreciable time in traveling from one place to the other.
2. The sound velocity is not dependent on the frequency or pitch of sound.
3. The sound velocity is greatly affected by the presence of moisture in the air, the
temperature of the air and the intensity of wind.
4. Table 9.2 illustrates some of the representative sound velocities for various materials.

Reflection of Sound
Sound waves are reflected in the same manner as that of a light ray. When a sound wave
strikes a plane surface, the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. A
concave surface tends to concentrate the reflected waves at certain points. Thus a concave
surface may be used to work as a reflector of sound waves. On the other hand, a convex
surface spreads the ref sound waves. Sometimes convex surfaces are employed to spree
the sound throughout the room. The laws of reflection of sound help in deciding the
shape of the room and its surfaces.
Reverberation
The prolongation of the sound after the source ceases is known as reverberation, a
quantitative measure of reverberation was established by WC. Sabine who defined the
reverberation time as the time required for a sound to decrease to one millionth of its
original intensity after stopping the source. The sound decreases as the sound energy is
gradually converted in other form of energy by the interior surface of the room, the
furniture, the curtains, the people present in the room the air of the room and other
contents of the room. This transformation is generally brought about by friction between
the sound wave and air particles as well as the sound wave and the surfaces with which it
comes

Absorption of Sound
When a sound wave strikes a surface, the total sound energy is distributed in three ways.
A part of its energy is transmitted across the surface, a part of its energy is absorbed by
friction and the remaining of its energy is reflected back by the surface. Reverberation
directly depends on the loss of energy of sound wave due to friction and hence this factor
is of greater significance. This property of a surface which converts sound energy into

other form of energy is known as absorption. Absorption co-efficient of a surface is the

ratio of energy absorbed
Absorbent Materials
The commonly employed building materials absorb sound to a little extent. Hence for
providing better acoustical properties, suitable materials are placed on the surface of the
room. Such materials with better absorbing capacities are known as absorbent materials.
The following factors regarding absorbent materials need proper consideration.
1. A good absorbent material should be water-proof, fire-proof, strong, better in
appearance and economical and construction and maintenance.
2. Absorbent materials should considerably decrease the noise level of the hall. Speeches
should be heard clearly and music should be pleasantly enjoyed.
3. The absorbing capacity depends on the thickness of the absorbent materials, its
porosity density and the frequency of sound.
4. The acoustic properties of the absorbent materials varies by their mode of fixing.
5. The covering destroys the absorbent properties of the material.
6. Audience of a big hail contributes considerably to absorbing factor.
Sound Absorbing Materials
Various types of absorbent materials are used. The value of co efficient absorption AS
supplied by the manufacture. The materials generalized may be broadly classified to the
following categories:
(a) Hairfelt,
(b) Acoustic plaster (a plaster which includes granulated insulation material with cement),
(c) Compressed cane imperforated and perforate,
(d) Wood particle board,
(e) Compressed wood wool,
(f) Miner all glass wool quilts and mats,
(i) Composite units of perforated board (hard board, asbestos board, or
metal sheet) backed by mineral or glass woo1 quilt or slab,
(1) Special absorbers constructed of bard board, teak ply, etc. backed by air.

Conditions for Good Acoustics of an Auditorium

1. The initial sound should be amplified to adequate intensity such that it can be heard
throughout the hall.
2. The sound should be evenly distributed over the entire area covered by the audience.
3. In the hail used for music and dance, the initial sound should reach tke audience with
the same frequency and intensity.
4. Undesirable sound originating from either inside or outside of the hall should be
reduced such that it may not interfere with hearing of music or speech.
General Principles of Auditorium Design
(a) Site selection and planning. The choice 01 site for an auditorium is governed by
several factors which may be mutually conflicting, but a compromise has to be done
between the various considerations involved. The problem of noise is an important con
consideration. A noise survey should be made in advance so that noisy locations are
avoided where possible, as otherwise elaborate and costly construction may be required
to provide requisite sound insulation. In fact, the quietest possible condition should be
provided so that Intel ligibility of speech does not suffer and even soft passages of music
are heard. It is particularly necessary to keep the level of extraneous noise low by proper
orientation and site selection in cases where no air-conditioning is provided and doors
and windows are normally kept open during the performance. When air is provided
special care should be taken to attenuate the plant noise and the grill noise. For this
purpose plant should be suitably isolated and ducts as well as the plenum should be so
designed that noise gets adequately reduced so as to be within the permissible limits.
(g) Mineral/compressed glass wool tiles,
(h) Composite units of perforated hard board backed by perforated fibre board,
Defects is an Auditorium and their Remedies
In the design of an auditorium the following three objects should be fulfilled:
1. The path of sound should be unobstructed and direct. This makes the sound clear and
loud in hearing.
2. It should be checked that none of the subsequent reflections has the same strength as
the original sound.
3. The desired degree of reverberation in the should be achieved.
Following are the common defects found in most of the auditoriums.

1. Reverberation.
2. Formation of echoes.
3. Sound foci.
4. Dead spots.
5. Loudness.
6. External noise.
Acoustics of Studios
1. The noise level in the studio must be in the range of 20 to 0 dB.
2. There should be no echo formation.
3. For finishing the external surfaces of the building, sound reflecting materials should be
used.
4. For finishing the internal surfaces of the studio, sound absorbent materials should be
employed. This reduces the time of reverberation.
5. The partition walls and the external walls should be rigid enough to resist vibrations
and to prevent resonance.
6. The provision of window should be minimum.
7. Air-conditioning plant should be isolated and properly insulated such that the
vibrations of the plant are not carried inside the studio.
8. In no case, studios are located one above the other. There should be a minimum space
of one floor between two consecutive studios in elevation. However, a number of studios
may be located on the same floor.
9. Heavy curtain and draperies should be used to control the reverberation time.
10. Double doors should be provided in the studio.
11. Optimum reverberation time depends on the frequency of sound. Therefore, in some
studios, arrangements of hinged panels in walls or ratable cylinders in the ceiling are
made to control the acoustical conditions.