CommScope Cellular Fundamentals DR Thakker PDF

Fundamentals of Cellular
Communication
Dr. Rikin Thakker
Engineering Services Group
March 2014
PRIVATE AND CONFIDENTIAL 2013 CommScope, Inc
Introduction:
Description:
Foundation theories of Cellular Communication are important yet often
overlooked domain in todays wireless world. This course provides a
footing of Radio Frequency (RF) theories and practices of todays
cellular systems.
Intended Audience:
Personnel without any Cellular/RF background
Personnel who want to revive their learning of RF fundamentals
Personnel with enhanced RF knowledge who want to learn about Cell
Site Design and Measurements
Instructors Bio:
Dr. Rikin Thakker, CommScope, Inc.
Course Content:
Day One: (4 Hrs)
Fundamentals of RF Communication
RF Propagation Characteristics
Basic RF Principles
Modulation Schemes
Introduction of Cellular Technologies:
GSM, UMTS, CDMA, LTE, LTE-A
2G, 3G and 4G Standards by ITU
Cellular Technology Evolution Path
International Standardization
ITU, FCC, 3GPP
Roles and Responsibilities
Other Key Players
Mobile Backhaul Options
T1/E1, Fiber, Microwave Links
Cellular/Wireless Connectivity
Link Budget Analysis Uplink vs.
Downlink, Path Loss
Signal-to-Noise Ratio
Foot Print Coverage
Day Two: (4 Hrs)

Spectrum
Frequency Assignment
Cellular Bands in the U.S.
Radio Channels
Data Rates and Capacity
Cell Site Design and Components
What is an RF Plumbing Diagram?
Components at a typical cell site: Antennas,
Jumpers, Feeders, Filters, Combiners,
Amplifiers, etc.
What is Co-Siting?
Why is it needed?
How to read an RF Data Sheet
RF Measurements at a Cell Site
Line Sweep Fundamentals
Return Loss, VSWR, Insertion Loss, Gain
PIM (Passive Intermodulation Measurement)
AISG Introduction and Components
E911 and Location Based Services
Setting the background first:
45 percent of the
worlds population
was covered by a 3G
mobile networkaccording to The ITU
(2011).
50 percent of the
world's population will
be covered by 4G in
2017
How does Ranking get

decided?
Cellular Infrastructure:
Top 10 US Tower Companies

Source: WirelessEstimator.com
Date: 01/23/2014
Total Companies: 87
Total Towers: 101,763
Cell Site Infrastructure: Very Important
CTIA: Carriers continue their

investments in their networks and
infrastructure to improve their
customers coverage and speeds.
From June 2011-June 2012, the
annual capital investment
increased to $26 billion.
Article: Grading the

top 10 US Carriers in
3Q of 2013
Source: Strategy
Analytics
Date: November,
2013
This list does not
include resellers or
MVNOs such as
TracFone.
10
Fundamentals of RF Communications:
Two Way Communication
Up Link
Rx Signal
Down Link
Tx Signal
Where is Tx and Rx?
12
RF Fundamentals:
An electrical signal is generated by Transmitter; Tx Antenna will
convert that signal into Electromagnetic wave (aka RF wave) which
will radiate.
RF wave propagates (moves through matter and/or space) and is
picked up by the Rx Antenna which converts the RF wave into
electrical signal
13
RF Characteristics:
Amplitude and Wavelength
Wavelength
Amplitude
Time
Loss of Amplitude
Gain of Amplitude
14
Wavelength, Frequency, and Velocity
15
RF Signal Measurements:
Amplitude: Power of the wave.

Higher is better for Rx Antenna to interpret the signal
properly
Receiver Sensitivity: More details during Link Budget
Analysis
Watt, milliWatt, dBm, dBd, dBi, dB

Units of Absolute Power watt, milliwatt, dBm
Are used to measure Tx and Rx amplitudes Absolute
Power
Units of relative comparison dB, dBi, dBd

Are used to measure how much gain or loss due to inline
components (cable, antenna etc) Change in Power
16
Units of Absolute Power

Watt 1 Amp of current flowing at 1 Volt.
Milliwatt 1/1000 of a watt
dBm Power of signal compared to 1 milliwatt
It is the decibel reference with respect to 1 mWatt
17
Milliwatts and Watts Vs dBm:
dBm 10 log10 PmW
Transmitted Power
Receiver Sensitivity
mW
dBm
Watts
dBm
10
10
10
40
100
20
20
43
37
1000
30
40
46
80
49
18
Units of Relative Comparison

dB: Represents difference in two values.
Indicates change in power
Bels log 10 ( P1 / P2 )
decibels 10 log 10 ( P1 / P2 )
dBi: Gain of an antenna relative to a theoretical Isotropic
Radiator.
dBd: Gain of an antenna when it is compared to the signal
of a dipole antenna.
A dipole antenna has a dBi value of 2.14
So, a 2 dBd antenna = 4.14 dBi
19
Amplitude:
Signal Strength or Power

Loss of amplitude Attenuation / Loss
Increase in amplitude Gain
Tx Amplitude and Rx Amplitude are always different due to Path Loss
and many other factors
Signal also loses amplitude when it travels through confined medium,
i.e. wires, cables Loss due to cables and connectors
20
Example values of Amplitudes:

Few examples of different amplitudes for different
applications
Mobile Communication at PCS frequencies (1900 MHz) Tx
Power ~ 20 Watts
AM Radio Stations at 750 KHz Can Tx at 250 Watts to 50,000
Watts
Radio Cards for indoor Access Points for 802.11 Can Tx from 1
mWatt to 100 mWatt
Signals of same frequencies can have different

amplitudes because of different application
WiMax Vs Wi-Fi
Cell Foot-Print is the key factor
21
Gain:
A.k.a. Amplification
Increase in signal strength or amplitude
Two types
Active Gain
Passive Gain
Active Gain: use of external Amplifiers to boost signal strength
External Amplifiers need external power source to operate

Concept applies to both Tx and Rx signals
Example: Tower Mounted Amplifiers
Active device
Passive Gain: gain achieved through sending RF signal into certain

direction
Example: Antenna
Doesnt require external power source to operate
Passive device
22
Loss:
A.k.a. Attenuation
Decrease in Amplitude
When signal travels through Wire/Cable
Electrical Impedance decreases signal
strength
Concept of Insertion Loss
When RF travels through air Absorption,

Multipath, Distance etc causes signal to lose
strength
RF also encounters loss in signal strength as
it travels through air as a function of
distance
Free Space Path Loss
23
Frequency Vs Wavelength:
Wavelength = Distance Required to Complete One Cycle (mm, cm)
Frequency = Number of Cycles per Second (Hz, MHz, GHz)
Radio Waves move at speed of light.
c = 300,000,000 meters / second
Inverse relationship between Wavelength and Frequency

Higher the Frequency, Smaller the wavelength..(1)
24
Frequency Vs Wavelength:
F0 (MHz)
(Meters)
30
10.0
393.6
80
3.75
147.6
160
1.87
73.8
280
1.07
42.2
460
0.65
25.7
800
0.38
14.8
960
0.31
12.3
1700
0.18
6.95
2000
0.15
5.9
(Inches)
25
Wavelength/Frequency Vs Attenuation:
Electromagnetic signals travel forever in a vacuum
In real world no vacuum
there are matters, objects, atmosphere
As RF propagates through space and matter, it loses signal strength
(it attenuates)
An RF signal with smaller wavelength will attenuate

faster..(2)
Higher frequency signal (smaller wavelength) will not travel as
far as the lower frequency signal (larger
wavelength).....(3)
Both (2) and (3) assume equal amplitude (power level) at the
Tx Antenna
26
Wavelength/Frequency Vs Penetration:
Higher the frequency, the less it will penetrate

through obstructions.(4)
AM Vs FM Radio
AM wave of 750 KHz has wavelength of 400
meter
FM wave of 88.5 MHz has wavelength of 3.39
meter
You can hear AM station much farther than FM
station. (Using all four principles)
27
Amplitude:
Higher frequency signal (smaller wavelength) will
not travel as far as the lower frequency signal
(larger wavelength).....(3)
Does this mean that two signals of same
frequencies travel same distance?
What is missing? Amplitudes of both signals
Higher the amplitude of wave, the more powerful

the wave is and the farther it will
travel..(5)
28
Basic RF Principles:
1. Higher the Frequency, Smaller the wavelength

2. An RF signal with smaller wavelength will
attenuate faster
3. Higher frequency signal (smaller wavelength)
will not travel as far as the lower frequency
signal (larger wavelength)
4. Higher the frequency, the less it will penetrate
through obstructions
5. Higher the amplitude of wave, the more
powerful the wave is and the farther it will travel
29
Why do we need to know all these?

During the design phase
Before designing, perform a site survey
Know the technology and frequency band you are using
Coverage can be defined by received signal strength at
various points in your cell foot-print
Optimize the number of Cell Towers
Which band will need more Cell Towers for given area?
1900 MHz
850 MHz
700 MHz
30
Mobile Communication:
Frequency Bands in the U.S.
Cellular: 800 MHz

PCS: 1900 MHz
AWS: 2100 MHz
700 MHz (LTE)
Technology is not frequency dependent.

-GSM can be deployed in 850 and 1900
MHz band
-LTE can be deployed in 700 and AWS
band
31
Frequency Bands:
32
Uplink Vs Downlink
Cellular (800 MHz) band:
Uplink: From Mobile to Cell Tower
824 to 849 MHz
Downlink: From Cell Tower to Mobile

869 to 894 MHz
PCS (1900 MHz) band:

Uplink: 1850 MHz to 1910 MHz
Downlink: 1930 MHz to 1990 MHz
AWS (2100 MHz) band:

Uplink: 1710-1755 MHz
Downlink: 2110-2155 MHz
Notice any similarity?

- Uplink frequencies are lower
than Downlink frequencies.
33
Uplink Vs Downlink: 700 MHz
34
Uplink Vs Downlink: 700 MHz
Downlink Frequencies are lower in 700 MHz band
35
Uplink Vs Downlink (Conti..)

Different Frequency Band
Different Link Budget
Link Balance is necessary
To match Foot Prints
Hand-over consideration
To reduce Dropped Calls
36
Source: Ehud Gelblum, Morgan Stanley Research

37
With 700 MHz spectrum, a wireless carrier in an urban area may need 50%
fewer cell towers to cover the same wireless service area.
Fewer towers mean lower capital and recurring expenditures for wireless
carriers.
38
What is a Cell Site?
Tower, Mono Pole

Antennas
Dish Antenna
Cables
A Tiny-Room
Or a Cabinet
(a.k.a. Shelter)
39
What is a Cell Site?

Up Link
Rx Signal
Down Link
Tx Signal
Shelter
40
41
Types of Cell Site
Indoor Within Shelter (most common)

Outdoor Outside Shelter
Roof-top Sites
Micro Cell
In-Building Site (DAS)
COW (Cell On Wheel)
COLT (Cell on Light Truck)
Femto Cell
42
A Mono Pole Tower
43
Cell Site in a Church
44
Cell Site in a Church
45
A three sector Palm-Tree Tower:

(Bionics Monopole)
46
Photo Credit: Tower Systems Inc. and

National Association of Tower Erectors
47
Photo Credit: WesTower Comm. and

National Association of Tower Erectors
48
Photo Credit: Crown Castle
49
Photo Credit: Crown Castle
50
Roof-top Site
51
Cell On Wheel (COW)
52
Three Sector Tower
53
Indoor Shelter
54
Cell Site Components:

BTS / NodeB / eNodeB Peripheral Components
Vendor Neutral
Power Amplifiers in Tx Line

Tower Mounted Amplifiers (TMAs) in Rx Line
Antennas and Tilt Controlling Components
Filters and Combiners
Multicouplers
Diplexers and Duplexers
Power Sources, Bias Tees
Cables and Connectors
RF and Power Measurements at Cell Site
Alarming Scheme, Lightning Protectors, Grounding Material
55
Link Budget: Down Link

-CL
+ ANT gain
EIRP
- Path Loss
- LL
Down Link
Rx Threshold
-CL
Tx Power
56
Path Loss:
For an Electromagnetic Wave, Path Loss is:
Reduction in Power Density
while it propagates through space.
Major component in Link Budget.

Due to:
Free Space Loss

Refraction
Diffraction
Reflection
Coupling Loss
Absorption
57
Free Space Path Loss: (FSPL)

Free space path loss results from sending a RF signal
over the air: The further you go, the weaker the signal
gets.
Loss in signal strength as a function of distance
Due to Natural Broadening of Wave, as it travels
It attenuates even if it doesnt encounter Absorption, Reflections,
Refractions.
A.k.a. Beam Divergence
Decrease in amplitude is Logarithmic and not Linear

Amplitude doesnt decrease as much in second segment of equal
length as it decreases in the first.
E.g. at 2.4 GHz, lets assume its -80dB in first 100 meters; only 6dB in next 100 meters
58
Any Radio Receiver, either FM, Cellular or

Satellite, has a fixed amplitude threshold, called
Rx Sensitivity, below which it can not detect the
signal.
If they receive a signal above this threshold, they
can differentiate between the received signal and
background RF noise (noise floor).
Need to make sure that the received signal
doesnt fall below Rx Sensitivity Threshold just
because of FSPL.
FSPL : Important parameter for Link Budget
59
d = distance from Tx (m)

f = frequency of the signal (hertz)
60
d = distance from Tx (kilometers)

f = frequency of the signal (MHz)
dB is the difference in power level
Loss and Gain can be represented in a relative
measurement of change in power (dB)
3 dB rule:
6 dB rule: Doubling the distance from Tx will result in a loss of 6 dB
At 2.4 GHz
At 1 km FSPL is 100 dB
At 2 km FSPL is ~106 dB
At 4 km FSPL is ~112 dB
61
Milliwatts Vs dBm:
1 milliwatt is the reference point 0 dBm
+ve value of dBm amplitude is greater than 1 mW
-ve value of dBm amplitude is less than 1 mW
E.g. Tx value of 100 mW
i.e. +20 dBm
FSPL ~ 60 dBm
Rx value = -40 dBm
i.e. 0.0001 mW
dBm calculations are easier to understand

Makes it easier for Link Balance Calculations
62
Insertion Loss:
The loss in power due to the insertion of a

component or device in a transmission system.
Expressed as the ratio in decibels (dB) of the
power received at the load before insertion of the
component, to the power received at the load
after insertion.
Connector Loss, Line (Cable) Loss
63
Connector and Cable Loss:
Loss of energy at connector

Inevitable: No matter how
perfect the connection was
made
Connector
Cable
64
Connector Specification:
65
Cable (Line)
Performance:
66
Link Budget Calculation:

Down Link
Net Value
Tx Power:
Connector Loss:
Line Loss:
ANT gain:
45 dBm
-0.5 dBm
-2.5 dBm
17 dBi
45 dBm
44.5 dBm
42
dBm
59 dBm
EIRP = 59 dBm
Path Loss ~ 160 dB
Signal reaching to your mobile = 59 dBm 160 dB = -101 dBm

67
Link Budget: Down Link

-CL
+ ANT gain
EIRP
- Path Loss
- LL
Down Link
Rx Threshold
-CL
Tx Power
68
Rx Threshold at Mobile:
In this case, it has to be better than
-101 dBm
- 99 dBm
(NO)
-103 dBm
(YES)
69
Link Budget: Up Link

+ ANT gain
Up Link
-CL
- Path Loss
- LL
Tx Power
-CL
Rx Threshold
70
Link Budget Calculation:

Uplink
Tx Power: 32 dBm
ANT gain: 17 dBi
CL, LL: -3.0 dBm
Net Value
32 dBm
49 dBm
46 dBm
Path Loss ~ 160 dB
Signal reaching to BTS = 46 dBm 160 dB = -114 dBm

71
Rx Threshold at BTS:
In this case, it has to be better than
-114 dBm
What if Rx Threshold for BTS is -104 dBm ??
72
TMA in Uplink-Limited Network

Usable coverage area is defined
by the uplink range
Downlink range is larger due to
high power BTS transmitter
A Tower Mounted Amplifier is a
hearing aid for the BTS receiver
Improves sensitivity
Extends coverage range
Expands coverage area
Uplink
Range
Downlink
Range
73
What is a TMA?
A Bandpass Filter and Low Noise Amplifier (LNA) mounted near the
receiving antenna
The best solution for improving uplink performance before it is degraded
by feeder loss
Can be easily retrofitted on existing sites
An optional enhancement base station can operate without it.
Maximizes service at minimum cost
Compatible with all air interface standards
Dual Duplex TMAs allows transmit on the same feeder and antenna
Todays TMAs are Dual Duplex
Other names
TTA Tower Top Amplifier
TTLNA
MHA Masthead Amplifier
74
TMA benefits
75
Functionality: What does the TMA do?

Provides gain to Uplink Signal
Improves BTS receiver sensitivity by lowering the system noise figure
Improves interference immunity by
Providing additional filtering
Reducing handset transmit power
Improves cell capacity by reducing total spectral density

Enables increased data rates by raising signal-to-noise ratio
76
Advantages: Why use a TMA?
Better call quality

Better data throughput
Longer battery life of Handset
Improved coverage at fringe areas
Increased capacity in networks
Higher customer satisfaction
Increased air time and revenue
77
Cellular Technologies:
Wireless Generations:
1G
2G
GSM
IS54/IS136
2.5G
AMPS
IS95(CDMA One)
GPRS/EDGE
IS95B (CDMA2000)
3G
UMTS
EVDO
3.5G
4G
HSPA / HSPA+
LTE
WiMAX
79
International Standardization
ITU (International Telecommunication Union)

Radio standards and spectrum
IMT-2000
ITUs umbrella name for 3G which stands for International Mobile
Telecommunications 2000
National and regional standards bodies are collaborating in 3G

partnership projects
ARIB, TIA, TTA, TTC, CWTS. T1, ETSI
3G Partnership Projects (3GPP & 3GPP2)

Focused on evolution of access and core networks
80
3GPP:
Third Generation Partnership Project
Partnership of 6 regional standards groups, which translate
3GPP specifications to regional standards.
ITU references the regional standards.
81
2G GSM:
Global System for Mobile (GSM) is a second generation
cellular standard developed to cater voice services and data
delivery using digital modulation, replacing the
incompatible analog system.
Full set of specifications phase-I became available in 1990
User/ terminal authentication for fraud control and
encryption of speech and data transmission over radio path
are its main features
Supports full International roaming along with SMS
Today many providers all over the world use GSM (more
than 135 countries in Asia, Africa, Europe, Australia,
America)
82
GSM Specifications:
RF Spectrum:
GSM 850Mobile to BTS (Uplink): 824-849 Mhz
BTS to Mobile (Downlink): 869-894 MHz
Bandwidth: 2*25 MHz

BTS to Mobile (Downlink): 935-960 Mhz
Bandwidth: 2*25 Mhz

BTS to Mobile (Downlink): 1805-1880 Mhz
Bandwidth: 2*75 Mhz
Carrier Separation: 200kHz

Duplex Distance: 45 MHz
No. of RF Carriers: 124
Access Method: TDMA/ FDMA
Modulation Method: GMSK
Modulation Data Rate: 270. 833 Kbps
83
Handovers:
Between 1 and
2- Inter BTS/
Intra BSC
Between 1 and
3- Inter BSC/
Intra MSC
Between 1 and
4- Inter MSC
84
Two Segments of Mobile

Communication:
A mobile cellular communication system can be divided into two
segments:
a radio access network that performs air-interface related
functions and
a core network that performs switching functions and interfaces
to external networks such as the Internet or a public-switched
telephone network (PSTN)
Source: Altera
85
Evolution:
The evolution to next-generation technology is taking
place in both the radio access network and the core
network.
3G - air interface standards include W-CDMA and
cdma2000-1X.
The corresponding wireless networks are universal
mobile telecommunication system (UMTS) and
cdma2000.
86
UMTS Wireless Network

Infrastructure
The universal mobile telecommunication system (UMTS)
is a 3G wireless system that delivers high-bandwidth data
and voice services to mobile users.
Evolved from global systems for mobile communications (GSM).
UMTS has an air interface based on W-CDMA
And, Internet protocol core network based on general-packet
radio service (GPRS).
Voice and data transport is performed by the transport
layer nodes, colored blue:
Node B = Base transceiver station (BTS)
RNC = Radio network controller or base station controller
(BSC)
SGSN = Serving GPRS support node
GGSN = Gateway GPRS support node
MGW = Media gateway
The call control function is mainly performed by the call
control layer nodes, colored yellow:
CSCF = Call state control function
MGCF = Media gateway control function
HSS = Home subscriber server
Source: Altera
87
Mobile Communication:
Base Station
GSM (2G): BTS
UMTS (3G): Node B
LTE (4G): eNB
Would you be able to see GPRS and EDGE BTS or NodeB in the
plumbing diagram?
How about HSPA?
88
3.5 G Radio Network Evolution
High Data rate, low latency, packet optimized radio access

Support flexible bandwidth up to 20 MHz, new transmission schemes,
advanced multi-antenna technologies, and signaling optimization
Instantaneous peak DL 100 Mb/s and UP 50 Mb/S within 20 MHz

spectrum
> 200 users per cell within 5 MHz spectrum
Spectrum flexibility from 1.25 MHz to 20 MHz

Eliminate dedicated channels; avoid macro diversity in DL
Migrate towards OFDM in DL and SC-FDMA in UL
Support voice services in the packet domain
89
HSPA and HSPA+

High Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA) and High Speed
Uplink Packet Access (HSUPA)
Improving performance of existing WCDMA protocols
HSPA: peak data rates of up to 14 Mbit/s in the downlink and 5.8
Mbit/s in the uplink
HSPA+: data rates up to 84 Mbit/s in the downlink and 22 Mbit/s in
the uplink (per 5 MHz carrier) with multiple input, multiple output
(MIMO) technologies and higher order modulation
90
GSM Evolution:
91
Wireless Technology Evolution Path:
92
Engineering GK: What is 4G?

Following a detailed evaluation against stringent technical and operational
criteria, ITU has determined that LTE-Advanced and WirelessMAN-Advanced
should be accorded the official designation of IMT-Advanced. As the most
advanced technologies currently defined for global wireless mobile broadband
communications, IMT-Advanced is considered as 4G, although it is recognized
that this term, while undefined, may also be applied to the forerunners of
these technologies, LTE and WiMAX, and to other evolved 3G technologies
providing a substantial level of improvement in performance and capabilities with
respect to the initial third generation systems now deployed.
What the ITU basically said was that while it has defined what 4G will look like,
those technologies that provide superior performance to what was seen as
standard 3G can also call themselves 4G.
In other words, all of those carriers that are now calling their not officially
recognized 4G technologies 4G can continue to do so even though they really
aren't.
93
Engineering GK: What is 4G?

The ITU in 2003 noted in a report that 3G technology provided a
minimum speed of 2 [megabits per second] for stationary or walking
users, and 348 [kilobits per second] in a moving vehicle.
So, that would mean that 4G could be any technology that provided a
minimum speed of 2.00000001 Mbps for stationary or walking users
and 348.0000000001 Kbps in a moving vehicle.
94
TECHNOLOGY ROAD MAP FOR LTE AND

WiMAX
1
95
With 38 frequency flavors, LTE

wont unify 4G
ATT to use 704-746 MHz

VZW to use 746-787 MHz
http://gigaom.com/mobile/with-38-frequency-flavors-lte-wont-unify-4g/
96
Future of 2G and 3G:

REMEMBER: 2G and 3G are not going away
Source: Ericsson Mobility

Report
97
LTE Progress around the World:
US lags in LTE Network Speeds

20th Feb, 2014
Source: RCR Wireless
The United States trails 13 countries when it comes to LTE network speeds
according to the latest OpenSignal report.
The report found that average LTE network speeds in the U.S. have declined 32%
this year.
6.5 Mbps posted by the United States
The operators struggled to keep pace with increasing data downloads.
Australia posted the fastest LTE speeds

an average download speed of 24.5 megabits per second.
Last year the U.S. ranked 8th in the OpenSignal study, with an average LTE
network download speed of 9.6 Mbps.
Many of the nations with faster speeds than the United States do not have as
much LTE coverage.
AT&T Mobility and VZW, which together have roughly 200 million subscribers, are
both nearing completion of their LTE roll outs with more than 300 million potential
customers covered.
98
LTE Progress around the World:
Source: OpenSignal
99
Backhaul Options:
What is Backhaul?
Rapidly increasing growth in data traffic across mobile infrastructure
continues to stretch networks to their limits. A critical part of the
network design is backhaul namely taking the traffic from the
cell site back to the core.
What do we mean by core?
Typically, one of three technologies is used for backhaul:

1.
Copper: with its limitations in capacity and reach;
2.
Fiber: which can be prohibitively expensive to deploy; and
3.
Microwave: To date, microwave has been the technology of

choice an excellent combination of reliability, cost and rollout
speed has given microwave the dominant position in mobile
infrastructure backhaul.
101
For 2G, 3G and 4G:

In existing cellular networks, RAN backhaul is defined as the connection between
the radio at the cell site and the radio controller.
Backhaul comprises the "last mile" between the base station and the base station
controller (BSC) or radio network controller (RNC), as well as the transport network
between the BSC or RNC and the core network. This backhaul network can be
delivered by any number of methods or can be outsourced fully or partially to thirdparty wholesale network providers.
102
Core Network:
The core network is responsible for setting up and controlling connections between mobile
or fixed line customers attached to access networks by locating the called party and routing
voice calls towards it.
Additionally, the core network handles data traffic by allowing customers to access service
platforms offering services such as Facetime, web browsing, email, mobile TV and other
data related services.
The core network comprises three domains:
The Circuit Switched domain enables voice and video calls. Its key nodes are switches
(which manage the set-up of connections) and user databases.
The Packet Switched domain allows customers to use data services. Its key nodes are
responsible for a variety of functions, such as the delivery of data packets to and from
mobile devices within a geographical service area.
The IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS) domain is the first step of a wider evolutionary path
from the current core network to an all internet protocol (IP) next generation network. It
enables delivery of advanced multimedia services, both mobile and fixed, leveraging the
flexibility and effectiveness of internet technologies.
103
Access Transmission Network:

Microwave radio network design is a subset of activities that
constitute overall transmission network design.
Transmission networks are AKA:
Transport networks
Access networks
Connectivity networks
Different wireless operators use different names
For wireless operators, wireline transport (T1/E1) is one option

Microwave is preferred due to many reasons
104
Need for improved Backhaul Solutions:

Backhaul plays a critical role in mobile broadband
Heterogeneous networks (known as hetnets)
Small cells
Deploying vast numbers of small cells to complement improved and

densified macrocell layers will require a range of highly scalable,
flexible mobile backhaul solutions that support superior user
experience.
105
Demand:
Mobile Data Demand Scenarios:
In the few years since smartphones have been commercially
available, shipments have risen drastically, reaching almost 500
million units in 2011, when they surpassed PC shipments for the first
time.
Smartphone users are consuming more data than ever before: an

average of about 300MB per month, and have downloaded more than
15 billion applications from Apples App Store alone since it first
opened for business in 2008.
Smartphone shipments, bandwidth-heavy services and rising
popularity of applications are some of the drivers behind the tenfold
increase that is expected in mobile traffic during the next five years
reaching a projected global monthly total of almost 5,000 petabytes by
the end of 2016.
106
Demand:
Source: MobileDevDesign.com
107
Increasing Backhaul capacity & speed

Cisco Systems in its latest global mobile traffic study, asserted that
from 2010-2015,
Global mobile traffic will grow at a 92% CAGR.
Global traffic will go from 0.24EB/month to 6.3EB/month.
Mobile n/w connection speed will go from 215 Kbps to 2.2 Mbps and
smartphone speed will reach 4.4 Mbps.
Backhaul capacity should be increased.
Backhaul speeds
HSPA/HSPA+: 30 Mbps Backhaul
LTE: 50-110 Mbps Backhaul

108
RAN Vs Spectrum:
Spectrum limitations in the radio access network (RAN) mean that the
maximum capacity per cell site is limited
the only way to further increase the bandwidth supplied to each user is
to increase the density of cell sites.
This approach reduces the number of users per cell site and allows
each user access to a larger portion of a cell sites capacity.
To achieve this, operators are adopting Wi-Fi offload and small-cell
deployment strategies.
109
Backhaul Solutions:
Some solutions to meet the data demand:
Deploying more advanced HSPA and LTE technologies;
Gaining access to additional spectrum;
Implementing techniques that are more spectrum-efficient;
Densifying the macro layer.
However, continued enhancement and densification may not always

be the most cost-efficient way to boost capacity at hotspots and
improve performance indoors and at cell edges.
additional capacity can be provided by deploying small, low-power cells
that cover less extensive areas. Tens of thousands of these cells could
potentially be deployed in dense mobile networks in urban areas.
110
Backhaul Solutions:
With the arrival of small cells on the scene, backhaul requirements
are once again in the spotlight.
Challenges:
Deploying small cells to boost capacity in hotspots and inside buildings
will off-load the macro layer and support the delivery of ubiquitous,
constant connectivity.
The backhaul should not limit the radio access network and should have
sufficient end-to-end performance to meet the desired user quality of
experience (QoE) everywhere.
This is valid for backhaul of mobile networks today, and will be equally
important for backhaul in both the macro and micro layers of a hetnet in
the future.
111
Backhaul Challenges:
The new network realities of higher cell-site capacity and higher cellsite density are dramatically changing backhaul requirements.
First, the data format has changed from T1/E1 interfaces on 2G and
3G basestations to Ethernet interfaces, forcing a move to all-IP
(Internet protocol) backhaul technologies.
Second, the capacity per site is increased to several hundred
megabits per second, driving the need for higher-capacity radios or
the move to fiber-based backhaul.
112
Backhaul Solutions:
Selection of backhaul solution:
Ongoing development of radio networks to maximize

the use of available spectrum puts greater demands
on delay, delay variation and synchronization
particularly between the macrocells and small cells.
Such performance requirements impact the choice of
backhaul solution for a given scenario, where the
best solution will result from a holistic view of the
network.
113
Backhaul Solutions:
Three ways to enhance performance
Source: http://www.ericsson.com/res/docs/whitepapers/WP-Heterogeneous-Networks-Backhaul.pdf
114
Backhaul Solutions:
Backhaul Technologies:
Line-of-sight (LOS ) microwave

Non/near LOS (NLOS) microwave
Point-to-point (PTP) fiber
Point-to-multipoint (PMP) fiber
Category 5/6 LAN
Digital subscriber line (DSL) technologies.
115
Backhaul Solutions:
When you're looking for alternatives to T1 lines, microwave backhaul
offers far greater flexibility, improved system performance, greater
control and lower operating costs.
116
Comparison:
117
Microwave Vs Wireline Transport:

1.
Wireline is Leased Line
Microwave - Low monthly operating cost
2.
3.
4.
More economical over the long term
Wireline - Lease expenses
Microwave Radio Equipment costs are decreasing

Microwave installations are becoming simpler
Wireless carriers own and control microwave radio network
Vs relying on other service providers for network components
118
Microwave Backhaul Capacity:

More than half of the LTE networks currently deployed in the world
use microwave in their backhaul.
According to the Next Generation Mobile Networks (NGMN) alliance,
a typical LTE macro tail site (also known as TriCell as it covers 3
sectors) requires about 135 Mbps downstream capacity.
If we will consider an extreme scenario of a microwave link that
aggregates as much as 20 tail sites, we will receive a backhaul
requirement of 1.5Gbps for LTE networks
119
Common Bands:
120
Common Bands (1)

<1GHz: Ordinary Cellular, AM, FM, VHF (TV), etc
Some unlicensed bands available, but limited
1-2.2 GHz: Once a popular p2p MW band now reallocated for cellular.
Also L/S band Satellites
4/6 GHz: C band Satellites
6 GHz very popular p2p MW band:
Lower 6: 5.9256.425 GHz
Upper 6: 6.4257.125 GHz
7/8 GHz: Military, X band Satellites
121
Common Bands (2)

11/14 GHz Ku band Satellites
11 GHz Band: 10.7-11.7 GHz: very popular p2p MW band

13 GHz Band: 12.7- ~13.25: new p2p MW band
18 GHz Band: 17.7-19.7: new popular p2p MW band
20/30 GHz: Ka band Satellites

23 GHz: 21.223.6 GHz now widely used for p2p MW
38 GHz: 37.040.0 GHz some licensing for short p2p MW
44 GHz: Q band Satellites, Military use

60 GHz: unlicensed usage
80 GHz: 7176/8186/9295 GHz: E band: just opened.
122
123
Cell Site Design and Components:

Co-Siting Techniques
What is Co-siting?
Any technique which can help maintain minimum

number of feeder lines, jumper cables and/or cellsite equipments at the cell site (to reduce the
CapEx), without jeopardizing the performance
and capacity of the cell-site AND without
hindering the cell-site growth is called Co-siting.
Always ask the question: What component can I
add and/or remove to get the same or added
functionality at the cell-site?
125
What is a TMA?
A Bandpass Filter and Low Noise Amplifier

(LNA) mounted near the receiving antenna
Can be easily retrofitted on existing sites
The best solution for improving uplink
performance
Maximizes service at minimum cost
Compatible with all air interface standards
126
Functional Diagram of a TMA:
What do we mean by Compatible

with all air interface standards?
127
128
Crossband Coupler: (CBC Or Dipelxers)

A diplexer is a passive device that implements frequency domain
multiplexing.
It is a three port device.
Two ports (e.g. Low and High) are multiplexed onto a third port (e.g.,
Common). The signals on ports Low and High occupy disjoint
frequency bands.
E.g. Low Cellular (850 MHz) and High PCS (1900 MHz)
The signals on Low and High ports can coexist on Common port without
interfering with each other.
129
Crossband Coupler: (CBC Or Dipelxers)

Key requirements for Diplexers:
Should have high performance bandpass filters

Should provide extremely low insertion loss
Should provide high isolation
Should be able to handle high power
Should be compact and rugged
Weatherproof housing
The diplexer is reciprocal:

the device itself doesn't have a notion of input or output.
Used in pairs
130
Plumbing diagram showing

use of Diplexer
- Notice the pairs
131
132
Possible configurations for

BTS/NodeB/eNB
Separate Tx and Rx
Tx/Rx ports combined
Two Tx Ports for more

carriers/channels
More than two Tx Ports for

more carriers/channels (still
two Rx Ports)
Two Tx Ports for more

carriers/channels
- Each with its own Rx pair
133
Why two Rx lines?

Concept of Space Diversity:
Signal transmitted by a mobile phone is reflected in the

propagation field and reaches the base station taking
different paths and phase angle.
If two receiving antennas are separated horizontally

from each other, then it is highly likely that one of them
will provide better signal strength (principle of
uncorrelated signals).
Use of Space Diversity provides a diversity gain of 3 to 5

dB, as compared to using only one single receiving
antenna.
134
Why two Rx lines?
Space Diversity - Three Antennas,Three Feeders

-Higher number of Antennas
-Higher number of Feeder
-Increased Space Requirements
-Greater mechanical hardware on tower, undesirable
-Approval from Property owners and other authorities
Alternate Solution
-Two Antennas
- Three feeder lines
- What diversity is used here?
- Polarization
135
Duplexed Vs Simplexed:
Rx1
Tx
Tx/Rx1
Rx2
Rx2
Simplexed
Line
Hatch Plate
???
Tx
Rx
Duplexed
Line
Simplexed
Lines
136
Duplexer
A duplexer is a device that allows bi-directional (duplex)
communication over a single channel.
A duplexer is a device which allows a transmitter operating on one
frequency and a receiver operating on a different frequency to share
one common antenna with a minimum of interaction and degradation
of the different RF signals.
137
Duplexer
Duplexer
Contains filters
Combines the transmit and receive paths into a common output.
Is used to interface with simplexed BTS ports
Increases Transmission Efficiency
Isolates the receiver from the transmitter while permitting them to
share a common antenna.
How many ports on Duplexer?
138
Datasheet for Duplexer
DIN-f
DIN-f
SMA-f
139
What is different here?
140
Duplexer Vs Diplexer:
Everyone is clear on what a filter is, but there exists some confusion over
what is the difference between a duplexer and a diplexer.
a lot of opinions - even between manufacturers.
A duplexer allows simultaneous transmitter and receiver operation in a

single antenna system.
The duplexer isolates the receiver from the transmitter and reduces Tx noise.
By comparison, a diplexer is a device that permits parallel feeding of one

antenna from two transmitters at different frequencies, without the
transmitters interfering with each other.
The duplexer separates 2 frequencies within the same band, while the
diplexer separates 2 different bands.
141
Can you combine more than two bands?

A diplexer multiplexes two ports onto one port, but more than two
ports may be multiplexed:
a three-port to one-port multiplexer is known as a triplexer.
142
Plumbing diagram showing

use of Triplexer
-Notice the pairs
-Notice the antenna type
How many feeders would you need
without the Triplexers?
143
Antennas:
Parameters:
Gain, Radiation Pattern and Frequency Band

Beamwidth and Aperture
Azimuths and Elevation
Tilt Electrical and Mechanical
144
What is an Antenna?
Antennas transform one form of waves (Wire

Propagated) into another (Space Propagated).
Rx Antenna:
receives electromagnetic waves and pass them onto a
receiver
Tx Antenna:
transmits electromagnetic waves which have been
produced by a transmitter.
145
Connections of an Antenna:
From a connection point of view, an antenna appears to have dual
gate.
In reality it is a quad gate.
One connection is to RF-cable.
The other connection is to the environment.
The surroundings of the antenna have a strong influence on the
antennas electrical properties.
146
Principle of an Antenna:
Principle of an antenna can easily be shown by

bending a co-axial cable open :
A transmitter sends a high frequency wave into a coaxial cable. A pulsing electrical field is created
between the wires, which cannot free itself from the
cable.
147
Principle of an Antenna: Continued.

If the end of the cable is bent open, the field lines become longer and
are orthogonal to the wires.
148

If the cable is bent open at right angles, the field lines
have now reached a length, which allows the wave to
free itself from the cable.
149

The device radiates an electromagnetic wave, whereby the length of
the two bent pieces of wire corresponds to half of the wave length.
This simplified explanation describes the basic principle of
dipole.
150
Antenna Gain:
Is there any Amplifier?

In reality, no amplification of energy via antenna
gain.
Antenna Gain
Is defined as the ratio of
the radiation intensity of an antenna in a given direction to
the intensity that would be produced by a hypothetical ideal
antenna that radiates equally in all directions (isotropically)
and has no losses.
151
Antenna Gain:.Continued
An antenna without gain radiates energy in every direction.
An antenna with gain concentrates the energy in a defined angle
segment of 3-dimensional space.
152
Antenna Gain:.Continued
The
-dipole is used as a reference for defining gain.
At higher frequencies the gain is often defined with
reference to the isotropic radiator.
Gain (with reference to the isotropic radiator dBi) = Gain
(with reference to
-Dipole dBd) + 2.14 dB
The gain of an antenna is linked to the radiation
characteristic of the antenna.
EIRP: Effective Isotropic Radiated Power
153
Radiation Pattern:
154
Omni-directional Pattern Gain:
Most common and

most popular type of
base station gain
antenna
- Collinear (Vertical)
Phased Array
This figure illustrates how stacking four dipoles vertically in line

changes the pattern shape (squashes the doughnut) and increases
the gain over a single dipole.
The area of the horizontal pattern measures the gain.
155
Radiation Pattern:
In a two way mobile communication, we really arent concerned about
the antennas vertical pattern. In the field, we are looking at horizon
elevations.
E.g. for a 200 feet tall tower on a hill that is 200 feet high, total
antenna height is 400 feet.
At a distance of 20 miles, the angle between the base station and the
mobile unit would be less than 1 degree.
156
Radiation Pattern and Gain:

Antenna gain and pattern shape are interrelated: if one is changed,
the other will be affected.
By changing the radiation pattern, we are changing the focus of
antenna, i.e. directivity of the antenna.
157
Aperture:
As the aperture or opening size of a valve controls the amount of
water that flows through a pipe, the aperture or beamwidth
determines the gain of the antenna.
The effective aperture actually takes in something more than the
physical size. We think of the aperture as the signal surrounding the
antenna in all directions and extending out a given distance from the
sides and ends.
The aperture is a volume of space.
Effectiveness can be measured through Beamwidth.
As an example, a smaller aperture or beamwidth, say 65 degrees, will have a
greater gain than a larger aperture, say 90 degrees.
158
Beam Width:
Beamwidth is the angle between the half-power (-3 dB) points of the
main lobe, when referenced to the peak effective radiated power of the
main lobe.
-Usually expressed in degrees.

-Usually expressed for the horizontal plane
159
Beam Width:
The radiation pattern in the smaller beam width is
projected farther forward along the horizontal plane and
less along the vertical plane; this results in a higher gain.
Conversely, the radiation pattern in the larger beam width

has more of the signal projected along the vertical plane
and less along the horizontal plane; this results in a lower
gain.
160
Azimuth Vs Elevation:
161
Why two Rx lines?
Space Diversity - Three Antennas,Three Feeders

-Higher number of Antennas
-Higher number of Feeder
-Increased Space Requirements
-Greater mechanical hardware on tower, undesirable
-Approval from Property owners and other authorities
Alternate Solution
-Two Antennas
- Three feeder lines
- What diversity is used here?
- Polarization
162

Space Diversity: is any one of several wireless diversity schemes
that use two or more antennas
to improve the quality and reliability of a wireless link.
Often used in urban and indoor environments as there is not a clear
line-of-sight (LOS) between transmitter and receiver.
Antenna diversity is used to mitigate the multipath situations.
Each antenna will experience a different interference environment.
If one antenna is getting a faded signal, it is likely that another
has a sufficient signal.
163

Signal transmitted by a mobile phone is reflected in the
propagation field and reaches the base station taking
different paths and phase angle.
If two receiving antennas are separated horizontally from
each other, then it is highly likely that one of them will
provide better signal strength (principle of uncorrelated
signals).
Use of Space Diversity provides a diversity gain of 3 to 5
dB, as compared to using only one single receiving
antenna.
164
Each antenna showing Vertical

Polarization
One port for each antenna
# of antennas = # of feeder lines
165
Concept of Polarization Diversity:
Polarization diversity is completely effective only in high multipath

environments.
Use of Horizontal and Vertical Polarity of received signal
Orthogonal polarizations:
You can improve uplink performance by using two receive
antennas with orthogonal polarizations and combining these
signals.
Two receive antennas do not need to be spaced apart
horizontally to accomplish this.
Can be mounted under the same housing.
166

A dual-polarized antenna is an antenna-device with two arrays within
the same physical unit.
The two arrays can be designed and oriented in different ways as
long as the two polarization planes have equal performance with
respect to gain and radiation patterns.
167
Each antenna showing Dual

Polarization
Two ports for each antenna
# of antennas # of feeder lines
Possible configuration on two ports:

Port 1
Port 2
Rx1
Rx2
Tx/Rx1
Rx2
Tx1/Rx1
Tx2/Rx2
Rx1
Tx/Rx2
168
The two arrays can be used as

combined TX/RX antennas and
then the number of antenna units
is reduced compared with space
diversity.
169
Typical Examples of Base Station

Antennas:
Dual port antenna:

- Polarization Diversity
- Single-band Antenna
-One technology per sector
- How many antenna per
sector?
Dual port antenna:

- Single-band or Dual-band
Antenna?
- How many technologies per
sector?
- How many antennas per
sector?
Dual port antenna:

-What Diversity?
- Space Diversity (Single Polarization)
- Single-band or Dual-band Antenna?
- How many technologies per sector?
- How many antennas per sector?
-Two antennas per sector
170
Typical Examples of Base Station

Antennas:
Quad antennas (four ports)
Quad port antenna:

- Single-band or Dual-band Antenna?
- How many technologies per sector?
- How many antennas per sector?
171
RET Overview:
REMOTE
ELECTRICAL
TILT
Network Optimization:
1) By Selecting Frequency Hopping

2) By Selecting number of carriers
(Channels) per sectors for capacity
3) Selecting coverage area
(foot-print) for the cell-site
a) By Changing the Azimuth
b) By Providing Beam-tilting
- Mechanical Tilt
- Electrical Tilt
173
Why optimize?
To reduce dropped calls

To reduce interference from adjacent sites
Closes gaps in coverage
To increase throughput and capacity
Mandatory when building new sites
Smooth hand-overs
174
Azimuth Vs Tilt:
Azimuth and Tilt of Antenna during Installation
Accuracy depends on:
Installation process
Human and Instrumentation Errors
Azimuth Set-up:
Using Compass and alignment tool
175
Azimuth Error:
Azimuth Error:
Is the absolute difference between actual azimuth installed
and designed azimuth
Always Positive
120 degree
240 degree
0 degree
176
Tilt Error:
Tilt Error:
Uptilt errors are ve
Downtilt errors are +ve
More crucial than
Azimuth Errors
177
What is Beam-tilting?
Its a technique to direct maximum radiation

power towards an area below horizon.
Why?
Provides more coverage to the areas near Base
Station.
More penetration of RF energy
to nearby buildings
and high density garages.
Low interference with
adjacent frequencies
178
Beam Width:
Beamwidth is the angle between the half-power (-3 dB) points of the
main lobe, when referenced to the peak effective radiated power of the
main lobe.
-Usually expressed in degrees.

-Usually expressed for the horizontal plane
179
Four Considerations for Beam-tilting:

1)
2)
3)
4)
Needs to be done often to adjust network configuration in

accordance with subscriber movements
Needs to be done quickly not necessarily in maintenance
window
Preferable if done remotely
Needs to be done accurately
180
Beam Tilting for optimized coverage:

Nearly 30 % of network optimization can be achieved with
beam-tilting.
Nearly 40% of sites are out of specification from original
requirements on antenna angles
Tower climb can cost ~ $ 3,500 $ 4,000
Roof-top site climb ~ $ 1,000 $ 1,500
Frequent changes to tilt translate to frequent site visits
time consuming and expensive
Manual tilting can be inaccurate, more delays and
expensive
181
The Old Way: Mechanical Tilting

For every antenna configuration change, someone needs:
to drive out to the site.
to climb the tower or rooftop.
to tilt the antenna mechanically.
Site access is a major concern for many sites.
Expensive.
Time consuming and weather dependent.
Long delay until the complete optimized RF
plan is actually implemented.
Coverage gaps until all sites are optimized.
Number of optimization changes reduced
to minimum in order to save costs.
182
The New Way: Electrical Tilting

For every antenna configuration change:
No one needs to drive out to the site.
No one needs to climb the tower or rooftop.
The antenna does not need to be moved.
No site access issues or paperwork.
Convenient modifications made from the office.
Independent from bad weather.
Full network visibility.
Almost no running costs.
Quick and immediate real-time execution.
Optimization changes can be scheduled and executed several
times a day.
183
Mechanical Vs Electrical Tilt:
Front lobe peak tilts below horizon

Back lobe tilts above horizon
Useful tilt only at beam-peak
Front lobe peak tilts below horizon

Back lobe also tilts below horizon
Entire pattern tilts, not just front lobe
184
Typical Antenna Pattern: Horizontal
185
Benefits of Electrical Tilt:

Pattern tilt is achieved all around the site and not only in the front (like
Mechanical Tilt).
Pattern style remains stable.
Higher values of tilt is possible.
186
AISG Compliance
AISG Antenna Interface Standards Group.
Formed 2001 between operators, OEMs,
and equipment suppliers.
Mission was to create an open specification
for the data interface for base station
antennas.
Expanded to include tower mounted
amplifiers and other tower top devices.
CommScope has products in compliance
with the AISG standards.
Web site: www.aisg.org.uk
CommScope RET controller fully supports
AISG 1.1 and 2.0
Two AISG Versions:

AISG 1.1
AISG 2.0
187
Actuators:
Attached Below Antenna.

In-built motor and other mechanism provides
electrical tilt to Antenna.
Two connectors for ease in daisy-chaining.
Up to 32 actuators can be supported
in a daisy-chain.
AISG standards 1.1 and 2.0
The actuator is equipped with a flashing LED
which indicates data transfer and tilt movements.
It comes in a weather resistant gasket-sealed
container that has a drain hole to permit drainage
of condensed moisture.
188
CommScopes controller hardware
189
AISG Signal:
The controller provides an 8-pin circular female RET AISG
connector port. This port is used to connect the controller
to a RET system using AISG RET cabling.
190
Three Basic Configurations:
Three Basic Configurations:

Home-Run Cable Configuration
Smart Bias Tee Configuration
Smart Bias Tee and TMA Configuration
RET system always include:
RET Controller
AISG Control Cable
Actuators
191
1)
Home-Run Cable Configuration:
RET Controller is connected to Actuators via dedicated AISG control

cable
Multiple actuators can be joined via Daisy-chaining or by using
Junction Box.
Electrical tilt adjustments can be made remotely from the BTS using a
portable or rack mount controller or over a network using a rack
mount controller.
192
Home Run Cable

Configuration:
193
2) And 3) Smart Bias Tee and TMA

Configuration:
To reduce the number of cable runs leading to a tower,
AISG can be injected on existing RF Feeder line via
Smart Bias Tee.
On tower side, another Smart Bias Tee can be used to
restore the control signal back on AISG control cables
going to actuators.
If a TMA is required on Rx Lines, a Smart TMAs (TMA
with AISG capability) can also be used to inject the signal
back on control cables.
194
Smart Bias Tee and

TMA Configuration:
195
RET Video:
http://www.commscope.com/andrew/eng/product/antennas/teletilt/index.html
196
SmartBeam Antenna Systems
SmartBeam antenna systems enhance optimization options and execution.

SmartBeam antenna systems allow load balancing.
1-Way SmartBeam (1D)
Tilt
Remote Electrical Tilt (e.g. 010)
2-Way SmartBeam (2D):
Tilt
Pan
Tilt
Pan

Remote AZ Steering (+/ 30)
3-Way SmartBeam (3D):
Fan
Remote AZ Steering (+/ 30)

Remote AZ Beamwidth (35 to
105)
197
RF Measurements at a Cell Site:
Insertion Loss:
The loss in power due to the insertion of a

component or device in a transmission system.
Expressed as the ratio in decibels (dB) of the
power received at the load before insertion of
the component, to the power received at the
load after insertion.
Connector Loss, Line (Cable) Loss
199
Return Loss:
is a measure of power reflected from imperfections in a transmission
line.
It is the ratio PR / PT, representing the power of the wave reflected
from the imperfection (PR) to that of the incident wave, (PT).
200
Return Loss Concept:
Incident
Light
Reflected
Light
Glass
Incident
Wave
Transmission
Line
Reflected
Wave
Transmitted
Light
Imperfection
in
Transmission
Line
Transmitted
Wave
201
Return Loss:
For best performance, the reflected signal should be as small as
possible, meaning the ratio PR / PT should be as small as possible.
It is the reduction in the amplitude of the reflected energy, as
compared to the forward energy.
Expressed in dB.
-3 dB of returned signal = 3 dB of loss; dropping the negative sign and
adding loss.
E.g. for a device with 15 dB of return loss, the reflected energy from
that device, PR, is 15 dB lower than the transmitted energy PT.
When expressed in dB, larger (in magnitude) negative numbers
represent smaller reflected power, PR, which is much better and
preferable.
i.e. Return loss of 15 dB is better than return loss of 12 dB.
202
VSWR:
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio

Pronounced as viswar
Measure of how well the impedance is matched
Impedance matching means you will get

maximum power transfer from source to load
203
VSWR:
204
VSWR:
Standing Wave is a pattern created due to

Reflected Waves
To prevent all reflections of the signal back into
the source, the load must be matched exactly to
the source impedance.
Reflections cannot be avoided
Due to imperfections in line as well
205
VSWR and RL:
VSWR: is the ratio of the maximum to minimum

values of the "standing wave" pattern that is created
when signals are reflected on a transmission line.
Return Loss: is a measure of power reflected from
imperfections in a transmission line.
It is the ratio PR / PT, representing the power of the wave
reflected from the imperfection (PR) to that of the incident
wave, (PT).
For best performance, the reflected signal should be

as small as possible
the ratio PR / PT should be as small as possible.
206
VSWR and RL:

RL: When expressed in dB, larger (in magnitude) negative
numbers represent smaller reflected power, PR, which is much
better and preferable.
The VSWR is a measure of impedance mismatch between the
transmission line and its load.
The higher the VSWR, the greater the mismatch and hence,
bigger reflected waves.
A perfect impedance match corresponds to a VSWR 1:1
Return Loss
, VSWR
207
VSWR and RL:
RL = 20log((VSWR+1) / (VSWR-1))
Line Sweep Measurement of RL
VSWR and RL Table
VSWR is always expressed as a ratio with 1 in the denominator
2:1, 3:1, 10: 1
208
Passive Intermodulation (PIM):

3rd Order IMD
What is IMD?
Non Linear Devices:
InterModulation Distortion: occurs when the non-linearity of a

device or system with multiple input frequencies causes undesired
outputs at other frequencies.
A nonlinear device is a device which does not have a linear
input/output relation.
Non-linear means that the relationship between input power (or
voltage) and output power does not plot on a graph as a straight
line.
In general, passive components are purely linear (loss is constant
versus input power), while active components are all nonlinear.
In a communications system, this means that signals in one

frequency can cause interference with adjacent frequency.
Minimizing intermodulation distortion is very important.
209

3rd Order IMD
To measure IMD, inject two equal power signals

with a set frequency spacing at the input of the
device-under-test (DUT) and measure the output.
At mobile-communication frequencies, IMD is
measured in dBm. Usually a ve number.
E.g. -112 dBm @ 1900 MHz
dBm Vs dBc
210

3rd Order IMD
3rd order IMD:

1) 2*f1-f2
2) 2*f2-f1
211

3rd Order IMD
As +ve dBc
with two carriers at +ve dBm
for instance 155 dBc for two tones at +43 dBm
As ve dBm
with two carriers at +ve dBm
for instance -112 dBm for two tones at +43 dBm.
212

3rd Order IMD
Carrier
Reference
0 Reference
213

3rd Order IMD
Intermodulation can only occur in non-linear systems.

Non-linear systems are generally composed of active components.
Components must be biased with an external power source which is not the input signal
(i.e. the active components must be "turned on").
Passive components are Linear by definition. But they can perform in a

non-linear manner and cause intermodulation.
Passive: Components with one source of energy at the input
For example RF connectors and antennas can exhibit non-linear characteristics.
Passive intermodulation (PIM): occurs in passive systems when
The input signal is very high power and

The system consists of junctions of metals and oxides.
These junctions effectively form diodes, which are non-linear.
With higher signal amplitude, more effects of non-linearity and more prominent IM
PIM can occur in connectors, or when conductors made of two unmatched

metals come in contact with each other.
214
Line Sweeping Fundamentals:

At any cell-site, end-to-end integration of all
components has to be good enough for maximum
transfer of RF energy from BTS to Antenna
Problems such as a bad connector, a broken or

bent cable, improper installation of jumpers can
reduce Signal Power
Dropped Calls, Data-loss
i.e. loss of revenue for Service Provider
215

Cell-sites have filter components in RF path from BTS
to Antenna
Examples of devices with Filter as component
TMA, Duplexer, Diplexer
Check Filter Response:
Is the reflection high and flat with no visible filter
response?
Verify through Return Loss Measurements
DTF (Distance To Fault) sweep

Locate the source causing excessive reflections
216
Case for having better RL:

Calculate the % of power returned for 20 dB RL and 10 dB RL:
A 20 dB system return loss measurement is considered very efficient
as only 1% of the power is returned and 99% of the power is
transmitted.
If the return loss is 10 dB, 10% of the power is returned.
217

Communication Systems have losses
Return Loss
Reflections due to Imperfection in transmission medium
Reflections due to Impedance Mismatch
Insertion Loss
Cable or Line loss
Can not be eliminated

Active components have gain
Gain needs to be verified before installation or during troubleshooting
218
What is Line Sweeping:
Line Sweeping is a technical method

To measure quality of transmission line
To identify location of imperfection
To determine if RF components meet technical specifications (RL, IL,
Gain)
219

Cable and Connector Problems
Cable:
Discontinuities
Corrosion or Moisture
Pinched Cables due to cable ties
Connector:
Moisture due to improperly applied weather sealant
Corroded Connectors
Center Pin Damaged
Poor Quality Connectors
Water ingress
Loose or improperly torqued connectors
220
Weather-Proofing:
221

Measurement Units (MU): e.g. Anritsus Site Master, Agilents
Network Analyzer
Uses FDR
Frequency Domain Reflectometry
Uses RF Signal for Sweep
TDR (Time Domain Reflectometry) uses DC Pulse
TDR - Not sensitive to RF problems. Unable to evaluate Antenna
quality. Cannot evaluate band-limit devices like Duplexer, Filter
FDR - More sensitive than TDR
Example
Anritsu: Site Master, Cell Master
Agilent Network Analyzer
222
Sweep Measurements:
Types of measurements in the field:
1)Return Loss (VSWR) Measurement of
Transmission Line
Antennas
TMAs
Diplexers
Connectors
2)Insertion Loss Measurement

Line Loss or Connector Loss
3) Gain Measurement for
TMA, GMA, Power Amps
active components
4) DTF Measurement
Distance To Fault Measurement
Fault isolation to identify signal path degradation for Coax and
Waveguide Transmission Line
223
Sweep Measurements:
System Sweep Vs Component Level Sweep

System Sweep: From BTS port to Antenna including
all cables, connectors and components
Component Sweep:
Stand Alone Sweep
Individual performance of component check for DS specs
E.g. Sweep of Transmission Line, Sweep of TMA, Sweep of
Antenna
Use of Load to terminate the component
Performed on components before installation
224
System Sweep:
Antenna
Antenna Jumper
LNA (could also be located near cabinet)
LNA jumper
Devices not tested:

grounding kits, connectors,
surge arrestors, hangers, etc.
End-to-End sweep at
this point
Feeder
Cabinet jumper
225
Component Level Measurement:

(Example: Antenna)
Test Signal
24"
>=Two Feet
Antenna Position Face-up

Above Ground (at least two feet)
Away from Metallic Structure
Source: Anritsu
226
Calibration:
Source: Anritsu Site Master

Application Note
227
RL Sweep :
228
RL Measurement of a TMA:
50
Test Signal
P
C
S
A
W
S
Note that TMA is not

powered up in this
measurement set-up.
229
RL Measurement of a TMA:
Measure Return Loss
1. For RL, Select RL mode
2. Select Freq range
Cellular
Uplink:
824 to 849 MHz
Down Link:
869 to 894 MHz
PCS
Uplink:
1850 to 1910 MHz
Down Link:
1930 to 1990 MHz
AWS
Uplink:
1710 to 1755 MHz
Down Link:
2110 to 2155 MHz
3. Perform Calibration
4. Connect cable from RF OUT of MU to BTS
5. Put load on ANT port of TMA
6. Auto Scale
7. Marker to the peak
230
Gain Measurement of a TMA:
From RF OUT of MU
Test Signal
P
C
S
A
W
S
Dual Band TMA

(Measuring gain for PCS)
No need to terminate AWS Side
To RF IN of MU
DC Bias from RF IN to TMA
231
Gain Measurement of a TMA:
GAIN VALIDATION AND CURRENT DRAW BOTH can be verified

1. Go to MODE: Select Insertion Gain (-30 dB)
2. Select Freq range

3. Perform calibration
4. From RF IN port of MU to BTS
5. From ANT port to RF OUT port of MU

6. Auto Scale
7. Select Markers and Limit Lines
8. Provide supply voltage through Bias Tee option
232
Source: Anritsu Site Master

Application Note
233
Return Loss Measurements:
Antennas and TMAs need to

be tested separately from the
bottom end to validate that
they are meeting specification.
To accurately test an antenna,
the TMA has to be bypassed
with either an adapter or short
jumper.
Likewise, to accurately test a
TMA, the antenna has to be
replaced by a 50 ohm dummy
load.
234
Insertion Loss Measurement:

Insertion loss measurement is one of the critical
measurements used to analyze transmission feed line
installation and performance quality.
Insertion loss measures the energy absorbed by the
transmission line in the direction of the signal path in
dB/meter or dB/feet.
Transmission line losses are dependent on cable type,
operating frequency and the length of the cable run.
Insertion loss of a cable varies with frequency
the higher the frequency, the greater the loss.
235

Insertion loss can be measured by disconnecting the antenna and
connecting a Precision Short at the end of the transmission line.
If a Tower Mounted Amplifier (TMA) is used in the transmission feed
line system, it is best to remove the TMA and antenna from the
system configuration to perform an insertion loss measurement.
236
Source: Anritsu

Precision Short:
Provides Mirror Image
Full reflection of RF signal back to source
MU will measure the reflected signal and compare it with transmitted
signal
Used to terminate the other end of component for Insertion Loss
Measurement
In Cable Loss mode, the MU
automatically considers the signal
path in both directions when
calculating the cable insertion loss.
Calculate the insertion loss by
averaging M1 (MARKER TO PEAK)
and M2 (MARKER TO VALLEY):
Source: Anritsu
237
Distance To Fault (DTF):
DTF: Screen displays RF Return Loss (VSWR) versus Distance.

Distance-to-fault measurements are an excellent tool for
troubleshooting problem sites.
Poor Connections, Cable damage, faulty components like
Antenna, TMAs can be identified quickly.
Site-commissioning baseline data can be compared to
subsequent measurements to determine deteriorating site
conditions such as cable/component aging, loose or damaged
connectors, and changes due to seasonal temperature
variations.
238
Source: Anritsu
239
DTF Interpretation:
Source: Anritsu
Recommended Values for DTF:
- Cable length is known in this case.

- Trying to measure the quality of
the line by performing DTF on
entire system (including jumpers,
feeder, connectors, TMA, Diplexers,
Antenna)
240
Troubleshooting using Sweeps:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
Troubleshooting of a line with TMA and Antenna

Perform System Sweep
Perform DTF to find location
Perform System Sweep - bypassing TMA
Sweep existing TMA stand alone
Stand alone sweep on new TMA before inserting in
line
Perform System Sweep with new TMA in line
241
242
243
244
245
246
E911 Technologies
As part of LBS Location Based Services
LBS: Location Based Service

Based on subscribers location, wireless carriers would like to provide
various services (mandatory and revenue generating)
Mandatory: FCC rules for E911 caller
Revenue Generating: Roadside Assistance, yellow pages, turn-by-turn
driving directions, promotion at local stores (e.g. coupons for Starbucks
on Rt 1) etc.
Location Based Apps
248
E911 History:
How to locate callers making 911 emergency calls when they are
Mobile?
In 1996, the FCC, passed rulemaking requiring wireless carriers to
provide enhanced information to Public Safety organizations for
wireless 911 calls.
The idea is to provide information to public safety agencies for
wireless calls that is similar to what is provided for wireline calls.
The callback number
The location from which the call is being made.
The FCC provided two options for wireless carriers to choose the
technology they favor to provide location information:
based on the wireless handsets
based on the network
249
Handset Vs Network Solution:
The FCC created the rules with a two-phase timeline.

For Phase I, the wireless carriers are required to provide qualified public
safety organizations the location of the 911 caller based on the location of
the cell site serving the call.
For Phase II, the wireless carriers must provide qualified public safety
organizations more accurate location information for wireless 911 calls.
If a carrier chooses a handset solution, it must provide location

accuracy of
50 meters 67% of the time, and
100 meters 95% of the time.
If a carrier chooses a network solution, it must provide location accuracy

of
100 meters 67% of the time and
300 meters 95% of the time.
250
Handset Solution:
Based on GPS receiver inside the Handset
Not all handsets have GPS Rx capability
Costly solution for Subscribers (in early stage)
Cannot force subscribers to get rid of their old and noncompatible phone
Restricted with Open-sky requirement
Requires handset to Tx location parameters back to BTS
What if coverage is not good
What if the channel is not available
251
Network Solution:
Unlike Handset Solution, Network based solution

doesnt require transmitting any thing back on
Voice/Control channel
Sensor Unit is located at each BTS
Works on Rx Signal (Uplink)
Time Difference of Arrival (TDOA)

Angle of Arrival (AOA)
252
TDOA: Time Difference of Arrival
The TDOA technique works by measuring the exact

time of arrival of a radio signal at three or more
separate cell sites.
Radio waves travel at a fixed and known rate (the speed
of light)
Calculate the difference in arrival time at few cell-sites
Based on that, calculate hyperbolas on which the
transmitting device (i.e. Mobile Phone) is located.
253
TDOA:
Measurements at two pairs of cell sites

Sites 1 & 2
Sites 1 & 3
Create two intersecting hyperbolas
indicating the location of the Mobile
device.
The TDOA technique uses the existing
receive antennas already present at a
cell site.
Site 1
Site 2
Site 3
254
Notice that there is no

Tx port on LMU
255
AOA: Angle of Arrival

What if a cell phone doesnt find three sites for triangulation?
AOA:
This technique determines
the direction of arrival of a handset's signal at the cell site.
The phase difference of the signal on panel antenna mounted

at the cell site provides the angle of arrival.
The intersection of the angles from two or more sites provides
the location.
Needs calibrated Antenna Panels, in addition to Cell-Site Rx
Antennas, for AOA measurements.
Needed where triangulation is not possible
E.g. Rural Highway
For more accuracy, AOA + TDOA combined option

256
AOA:
257
GSM Network Design:
In GSM systems, BSC provides more information on

Mobile unit than MPC
Because BSC manages the air interface
The required mobile information is available from the

BSC through the GSM SMLC (Serving Mobile
Location Center) function
SMLC is a standard element of the GSM architecture
Typically a RAN vendor provided server
May serve multiple BSCs and GCSs
258
GSM Architecture with SMLC & Lbis
Wireless Carrier
BTS
Abis
BSC
Lb
LEC
MSC
SMLC
ALI
(WAN/IP)
(DS0)
PDE Vendor
SR
PSAP
Lbis
WLS
WLS
WLS
LMU
(ISUP)
GCS
MLC
Lg
E2
(MAP/SS7)
(WAN/IP)
MPC/GMLC
E2
MPC/GMLC
Vendor
WALI
259
GSM Call Flow with SMLC
E911 Vendor
GSM
MS
WLS
WLS
LMU
MLC
SMLC
BSC
MSC
PSAP
GMLC
Invoke call
Voice call routed to PSAP
U-TDOA Req
RF
Measurements
Task the
appropriate
LMUs
Return location
measurements
U-TDOA Resp
Analyze dialed
digits and sends
msg
Task the PDE
Calculate and
provide location
Send location information to GMLC

Forward location
information to PSAP
Um (RF)
DS0
Lbis
Lb
Lg
E2
260
Network Interfaces:
Link
Notes
A link (SS7) connects GSM switch (MSC) to base station controller (BSC) using MAP protocols.
Abis
Abis link (SS7) connects BSC to base station (BTS) using vendor proprietary protocol.
E5+
E5+ link (IP run over various data layers) connects the MLC to the MPC in the Non-Standard GSM
arrangement, and for TDMA.
ISUP Trunk
MSC directs call routing to PSAP via ISUP trunk to LEC
Lb
A location services link (SS7) defined in the GSM standards to connect the BSC with the Serving
Mobile Location Center (SMLC). This link is added when the GSM system is upgraded to
Standard E911 Phase 2 operation.
Lbis
A location services link (IP over IP net) to connect an SMLC with a remote (external) MLC. Used
in the Standard solution to transfer radio data from the BSC complex to the TDOA system.
This link is added when the GSM system is upgraded to Standard E911 Phase 2 operation.
Lg
A location services link (SS7) defined in the GSM standards to connect the MSC with the a
location services client i.e. MPC/GMLC. This link is added when the GSM system is
upgraded to Standard E911 Phase 2 operation.
Private IP over DS0
The TDOA system, both Standard and Non-Standard uses a spare DS0 circuit to connect the WLS
located at the BTS to the GCS located at an office or center.
261
Acronyms for E911 Network Architecture

LMU: Location Measurement Unit
MLC: Mobile Location Center
PDE:
Position Determining Entity
LEC:
SR:
ALI:
Local Exchange Carrier

Selective Router
Automatic Location Information
PSAP: Public Safety Access Point

MPC: Mobile Positioning Center
SMPC: Serving MPC
GMLC: Gateway Mobile Location Center
SMLC:
Serving Mobile Location Center
262
DAS: In-Building Coverage
DISTRIBUTED ANTENNA
SYSTEMS
DAS is basically a network of antennas connected to a common
wireless carrier that provides service in particular area.
Power to be transmitted is split amongst several antennas to provide
coverage to areas that are not covered by the main antenna.
The reliability of the system is improved reducing the total power.
NEED OF DAS?
Poor signal strength due to construction techniques To be able to

communicate in emergency situations.
Increase in the number of subscribers.
Interference with existing cell sites.
296,000 E911 calls per day.
According to the FCC, 50% of E911calls are made from wireless phones.
The events of 9/11 highlighted the need for reliable radio coverage in
large buildings.
Whenever the area

needing radio
coverage is below
grade, it is almost
certain a RF
distribution system
will be needed.
How does DAS work?
DAS ARCHITECTURE
Signal source from the main service providers.
Interface to convert the RF signals to optical signals.
A transport medium-optical fibers, co-axial cables.
Redistribution elements like splitters.
Strategically placed antennas to provide signal coverage.
OUTDOOR DAS
An outdoor DAS network consists of a central hub location.
Hub links a system of strategically placed antenna locations.
Provide carriers with pinpoint coverage not provided by traditional
coverage methods.
Antennas can be placed on street lights or utility poles or cleverly
camouflaged.
OUTDOOR DAS
IN-BUILDING DAS
IN-BUILDING DAS SYSTEM

Remote antennas are strategically placed throughout a building.
They are connected with fiber optic cable to a single hub.
The hub contains all of the wireless service provider's equipment.
IN-BUILDING DAS
IN-BUILDING DAS
COMPONENTS USED IN
DAS
IN-BUILDING DAS SYSTEM

Repeater - Amplifies signals in multiple frequency bands
as a signal source for IBW system.
Fiber Distribution Unit - Converts RF signals to optical

signals to be transported over a single mode medium.
Fiber Distribution Remote Unit - Converts and amplifies
the optical signal to RF signal to be transmitted over coaxial lines.
Splitters - Used to split or combine the RF signals
between to or more cable paths.
Omni-coverage Antennas Used to transmit and receive
multiple RF signals simultaneously.
Donor Antenna Transmits and receives RF signals from
cellular or public safety towers.
DAS COMPONENTS
Coaxial Cables used to carry RF signals to antennas .
Leaky-line coax technology allows a single run of coax to
function as a long, winding antenna that repeats signal
coverage.
Leaky coax might be a good way to fill in the coverage holes in
out-of-the-way places.
While normal coaxial cables use outer conductor shields to
minimize RF leakage, the outer conductor of leaky coax contains
openings to let a controlled amount of RF signal leak out into the
air.
DAS COMPONENTS LEAKY LINE

COAX
PASSIVE AND ACTIVE DAS

SYSTEMS
Passive
Extension of an adjacent
wireless network such as a
local wireless carrier.
Used where there is strong
signal to site but requires
penetration.
Active
Extension of wireless
network with help of
additional active
components.
Used where there is weak
signal to the site.
Installed in buildings of small

to medium in size with less
than 120,000 sq. ft.
Installed in bigger buildings

and complexes of area
greater than 200,000 sq. ft.
There is no amplification of
RF signal required.( except
donor)
The RF signal is converted

into optical signal and then is
amplified.
Mainly supports single band

or a single carrier service.
Supports multiple bands and

services.
STEPS REAL WORLD

DEPLOYMENTS OF DAS
STEP 1
STEP 2
STEP 3
STEP 4
Master
Planning
Design
Installation
Support
Involves
Executive
decisions
budget
development
along with
prioritizing
the need,
amount of
usage and
required
infrastructure
Site
assessment
and survey,
RF
PROPOGATI
ON modeling,
Equipment
specification
Bill of
materials
System
design
Signal
source
installation
and cabling
and coax
deployment
antenna
system
implementat
ion System
testing &
optimization
.
System asset
management
Technical
support and
system
monitoring ,
lease and
licensing
access to
service
providers.
COWBOYS STADIUM,
ARLINGTON, TEXAS
COWBOYS STADIUM,
ARLINGTON, TEXAS
Extreme Impact on cellular coverage because of concrete, glass
and steel used in construction.
The venue owners wanted best cell coverage possible.

Commscope provided the upgrade for high performance LTE
network before Super bowl.
This venue is the home to the Dallas cowboys(NFL team) is one
of the largest domed stadium in the world with a capacity of
110,000 the stadium exceeds superior wireless coverage
provided by an optical Das implementations.
More than 5 million feet of copper and fiber cabling roughly the
walking distance of Dallas to Chicago.
3000 TV's using IPTV technology which made it worlds largest
IPTV installation.
REAL WORLD DEPLOYMENTS OF

DAS
DAS deployments have rolled DAS on wheels
(DOW). It consists of a mobile head end situated in
a truck and portable antennas located within the
arena where the event takes place.
A proper Das system takes months of planning and
implementation. But DOW allows deployment of a
network in days.
At&ts antenna solutions are responsible for the
implementation of this model. Specifics of this model
are still under wraps.
It was trialed in last Democrats National Convention
ADVANTAGES OF
DAS
Coverage: Improving the existing coverage
Reliable data transfer: It ensures reliable data transfer rates
due to a fiber backbone
Capacity: Increased capacity for enhanced web, video and data
applications
Battery Life: Improves the battery life of phones
Increase in Revenue: Improves the revenue not only for the
carries but also for commercial builders
Future Proof: Can be utilized for future technologies
Spectrum: Can use available frequency spectrum
Productivity: Increase in employee productivity

Concealed: Not spoiling the aesthetics of the architecture
Customer Service: Improvement in customer service
CommScope Academy:
http://commscopetraining.com/
289
Base
Station
Antennas
Base Station
Antennas
TMA
Connectors
Jumpers
TMAs,
Diplexers
Duplexer,
Diplexers
Cable
Filters,
Amplifiers
Bias Tee
Duplexer,
Diplexers
290
Thank You!
291

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Fundamentals of Cellular

PRIVATE AND CONFIDENTIAL 2013 CommScope, Inc

PRIVATE AND CONFIDENTIAL 2013 CommScope, Inc

PRIVATE AND CONFIDENTIAL 2013 CommScope, Inc

Day Two: (4 Hrs)

Setting the background first:

PRIVATE AND CONFIDENTIAL 2013 CommScope, Inc

How does Ranking get

PRIVATE AND CONFIDENTIAL 2013 CommScope, Inc

Top 10 US Tower Companies

PRIVATE AND CONFIDENTIAL 2013 CommScope, Inc

PRIVATE AND CONFIDENTIAL 2013 CommScope, Inc

Cell Site Infrastructure: Very Important

CTIA: Carriers continue their

PRIVATE AND CONFIDENTIAL 2013 CommScope, Inc

Article: Grading the

PRIVATE AND CONFIDENTIAL 2013 CommScope, Inc

Two Way Communication

Where is Tx and Rx?

PRIVATE AND CONFIDENTIAL 2013 CommScope, Inc

PRIVATE AND CONFIDENTIAL 2013 CommScope, Inc

PRIVATE AND CONFIDENTIAL 2013 CommScope, Inc

Wavelength, Frequency, and Velocity

PRIVATE AND CONFIDENTIAL 2013 CommScope, Inc

Amplitude: Power of the wave.

Watt, milliWatt, dBm, dBd, dBi, dB

Units of relative comparison dB, dBi, dBd

Units of Absolute Power

PRIVATE AND CONFIDENTIAL 2013 CommScope, Inc

Milliwatts and Watts Vs dBm:

dBm 10 log10 PmW

PRIVATE AND CONFIDENTIAL 2013 CommScope, Inc

Units of Relative Comparison

PRIVATE AND CONFIDENTIAL 2013 CommScope, Inc

Signal Strength or Power

PRIVATE AND CONFIDENTIAL 2013 CommScope, Inc

Example values of Amplitudes:

Signals of same frequencies can have different

Cell Foot-Print is the key factor

PRIVATE AND CONFIDENTIAL 2013 CommScope, Inc

Active Gain: use of external Amplifiers to boost signal strength

External Amplifiers need external power source to operate

Passive Gain: gain achieved through sending RF signal into certain

PRIVATE AND CONFIDENTIAL 2013 CommScope, Inc

When RF travels through air Absorption,

Inverse relationship between Wavelength and Frequency

PRIVATE AND CONFIDENTIAL 2013 CommScope, Inc

PRIVATE AND CONFIDENTIAL 2013 CommScope, Inc

An RF signal with smaller wavelength will attenuate

PRIVATE AND CONFIDENTIAL 2013 CommScope, Inc

Higher the frequency, the less it will penetrate

Higher the amplitude of wave, the more powerful

1. Higher the Frequency, Smaller the wavelength

Why do we need to know all these?

PRIVATE AND CONFIDENTIAL 2013 CommScope, Inc

Cellular: 800 MHz

Technology is not frequency dependent.

PRIVATE AND CONFIDENTIAL 2013 CommScope, Inc

PRIVATE AND CONFIDENTIAL 2013 CommScope, Inc

Downlink: From Cell Tower to Mobile

PCS (1900 MHz) band:

AWS (2100 MHz) band: