Eur J Appl Physiol (2009) 105:695704

DOI 10.1007/s00421-008-0951-z

O R I G I N A L A R T I CL E

Acute hormonal and neuromuscular responses to hypertrophy,

strength and power type resistance exercise
Grant O. McCaulley JeVrey M. McBride
Prue Cormie Matthew B. Hudson James L. Nuzzo
John C. Quindry N. Travis Triplett

Accepted: 24 November 2008 / Published online: 9 December 2008

Springer-Verlag 2008

Abstract The purpose of the current study was to determine the acute neuroendocrine response to hypertrophy
(H), strength (S), and power (P) type resistance exercise
(RE) equated for total volume. Ten male subjects completed three RE protocols and a rest day (R) using a randomized cross-over design. The protocols included (1) H: 4
sets of 10 repetitions in the squat at 75% of 1RM (90 s rest
periods); (2) S: 11 sets of three repetitions at 90% of 1RM
(5 min rest periods); and (3) P: 8 sets of 6 repetitions of
jump squats at 0% of 1RM (3 min rest periods). Total testosterone (T), cortisol (C), and sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG) were determined prior to (PRE), immediately
post (IP), 60 min post, 24 h post, and 48 h post exercise
bout. Peak force, rate of force development, and muscle
activity from the vastus medialis (VM) and biceps femoris
(BF) were determined during a maximal isometric squat
test. A unique pattern of response was observed in T, C,
and SHBG for each RE protocol. The percent change in T,
C, and SHBG from PRE to IP was signiWcantly (p 0.05)
greater in comparison to the R condition only after the H
protocol. The percent of baseline muscle activity of the VM
at IP was signiWcantly greater following the H compared to
the S protocol. These data indicate that signiWcant acute
increases in hormone concentrations are limited to H type
protocols independent of the volume of work competed. In
addition, it appears the H protocol also elicits a unique pattern of muscle activity as well. RE protocols of varying
intensity and rest periods elicit strikingly diVerent acute

G. O. McCaulley J. M. McBride (&) P. Cormie

M. B. Hudson J. L. Nuzzo J. C. Quindry N. Travis Triplett
Neuromuscular Laboratory,
Department of Health Leisure and Exercise Science,
Appalachian State University, Boone, NC 28607, USA
e-mail: mcbridejm@appstate.edu

neuroendocrine responses which indicate a unique physiological stimulus.

Keywords

Testosterone Cortisol Force

Introduction
The acute responses of both the endocrine and nervous system to hypertrophy (H), strength (S), and power (P) type
resistance exercise (RE) have not been deWned within a single investigation. Much research has been conducted on H
type RE protocols which incorporate large muscle group
(lower body) at intensities of 7080% of one repetition
maximum (1RM), volumes of three sets of 1012 repetitions, and rest periods of short duration (6090 s) (Crewther
et al. 2006; Kraemer et al. 1990). However, there is a
paucity of research regarding the acute neuroendocrine
response to strength type RE, which has included higher
intensities (8590% 1RM), lower volumes (35 sets of 35
repetitions) and extended rest periods (35 min) (Crewther
et al. 2006; Kraemer et al. 1995; Willardson and Burkett
2006b). Additionally, little research has investigated the
acute neuroendocrine response to power type RE, which
has included high velocity total body movements (jump
squats) with lower intensity (030% 1RM) and signiWcant
volumes (35 sets of 6 repetitions) and moderate rest periods (3 min) (Cormie et al. 2007; Linnamo et al. 2005).
H type RE has been observed to elicit acute increases in
testosterone (T), coritsol (C), sex hormone binding globulin
(SHBG), and lactate (La) (Kraemer et al. 1990; Kraemer
et al. 2002; Kraemer and Ratamess 2005; Linnamo et al.
2005; McCall et al. 1999). Previous literature has advocated RE of increased volume and relatively short rest periods to elicit an acute hormone response and possibly

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muscle hypertrophy (Kraemer et al. 2002). In contrast, S

type RE has typically been performed with greater intensity
and signiWcantly less volume when compared to H type
RE (Kraemer et al. 1990, 1995; Willardson and Burkett
2006b). Therefore, the higher intensity protocols have been
observed to be less eVective at eliciting an acute hormone
response when compared to moderate intensity protocols
(Hakkinen and Pakarinen 1993; Smilios et al. 2003). However, the diVerences in the volume examined between S and
H type RE cannot be ruled out as the critical determinant of
the blunted acute hormone response observed following
higher intensity RE (Gotshalk et al. 1997; Kraemer et al.
1990; Ratamess et al. 2005). Moreover, many investigations have not controlled for RE volume when attempting
to investigate the eVects of other protocol variables on the
acute hormone response to RE (Goto et al. 2005; Kraemer
et al. 1990; Smilios et al. 2003). Data describing the acute
hormone response following P type RE (i.e. light loads
moved explosively) are limited. In a previous investigation
the leg press was used as the power training exercise and
non-signiWcant increases in serum concentrations of T, C,
and La were observed (Linnamo et al. 2005).
The acute changes in the neuromuscular system that
selectively optimize chronic adaptation to the nervous system are not known. Previous research has observed that the
magnitude and source of such fatigue may vary when
diVerent contraction type (Babault et al. 2006), intensity
(Linnamo et al. 2000), repetition speed (Linnamo et al.
1998), and rest period (Pattersson et al. 1985) are incorporated into the RE protocol design. One source of fatigue can
be deWned as peripheral, which has been identiWed as the
failure of force generation by the muscle, due to metabolic
by-product accumulation and decreased excitation-contraction coupling (Bigland-Ritchie et al. 1986). In contrast,
central fatigue is manifested as an attenuation of muscle
activity and force output due to a decreased ability of the
central nervous system to elicit motor unit activation
(MUA) (Babault et al. 2006). Moderate intensity RE performed under vascular occlusion, which may be similar to
that of the H type RE, has been observed to elicit strength
gains and increase MUA (Moore et al. 2004). Moreover,
RE with short rest periods may promote peripheral fatigue
and increase strength through muscle morphology and
cross sectional area changes (Moore et al. 2004). Acute
decreases in muscle activity have been observed in H type
RE previously (Bigland-Ritchie et al. 1986). In contrast, S
type RE is known to stimulate type II muscle Wbers as well
as increase MUA and therefore may optimize the training
stimulus to the nervous system (Campos et al. 2002; Sale
1987). Thus it may be theorized that S type RE may result
in greater fatigue due to central origins (Hakkinen 1994).
The adaptations to P type RE may include preferential
recruitment of type II motor units and the appearance of

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Eur J Appl Physiol (2009) 105:695704

doublet and triplet muscle activation patterns (Van Cutsem

et al. 1998) although the acute neural response to P type RE
involving large muscle groups is not well documented.
The purpose of the current study was to examine the
neuroendocrine response to H, S, and P type RE in a volume controlled randomized investigation. This comparison
will assist in determining what acute endocrine and nervous
system patterns occur as a result of intensity and rest period
manipulation. The observed diVerences may provide some
possible insight into chronic training adaptations as a result.

Methods
Subjects
Ten male subjects of mean (standard deviation) age 21.8
(1.9) years, height 176.3 (7.0) cm, body mass 92.4 (9.5) kg,
body fat 13.2 (4.2)%, 1RM squat 170.8 (24.9) kg, strength
to body mass ratio 1.9 (0.2) were recruited to participate in
this investigation. The subjects were chosen due to their
experience (minimum of 2 years) with RE and proWciency
in the back squat exercise. During the 1RM testing if the
subjects were unable to complete the back squat with
acceptable form they were excluded from the investigation.
The subjects were instructed to refrain from any intense
lower body training 24 h prior to testing and between the
testing sessions. Subjects completed a diet recall for the day
prior to testing and each day during the testing for each protocol. The diet logs were analyzed using (Food Processor
SQL ESHA; Salem, OR). The participants were notiWed
about the potential risks involved and gave their written
informed consent. This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board at Appalachian State University.
Testing sessions
The subjects completed four experimental lower body RE
protocols. The experimental protocols (H, S, P, and control
or rest (R)) were completed in a randomized fashion all on
separate days (Fig. 1). Following completion of each protocol the subjects then returned to the lab at 24 and 48 h for a
follow-up fasted blood sample and a maximum isometric
squat test (Fig. 1). One week was allowed between each
treatment (H, S, P, and R).
Strength testing
Baseline strength levels were determined by assessing 1RM
for the back squat exercise as previously described by
Matuszak et al. (2003). Prior to completing the dynamic
squat the subjects were familiarized with the isometric
squat test, described below. Only back squats that achieved

Eur J Appl Physiol (2009) 105:695704

697

Randomized Cross-Over
Design
Hypertrophy 4 sets
of 10 squats @ 75%
1RM
(90 sec rest)

1RM squat
protocol

Strength 11 sets of
3 squats @ 90%
1RM (5 min rest)
Power 8 sets of 6
jump squats @
maximum power
load (3 minute rest)

24 hours post
Fasted BS 0800
MIS

48 hours post
Fasted BS 0800
MIS

Control day subject

quietly rests

Fig. 1 A schematic of the experimental design for the study (blood samples (BS), maximum isometric squat (MIS), one repetition maximum in
back squat (1RM))

a knee angle of 90 were considered successful attempts.

This knee angle was veriWed by the same individual
throughout the study using an elastic cord set to a height at
a 90 knee angle. Subjects were motivated equally throughout the study by the three spotters used during all maximal
attempts.
Experimental protocols
All testing was performed between 0600 and 0800 to control
for diurnal hormone variation (Bird and Tarpenning 2004).
The subjects fasted for 12 h and slept for 8 h prior to each
morning blood sample and experimental protocol. The H protocol included four sets of 10 repetitions of parallel back squat
at 75% of the 1RM, with 90 s rest periods. The S protocol
included 11 sets of three repetitions of parallel back squat at
90% of the 1 RM, with 5 min rest periods. The P protocol
included eight sets of six jump squats at body mass, with 3 min
rest periods. This load was selected because it has been shown
to maximize power output in the jump squat (Cormie et al.
2007). The sets, repetition, and intensity schemes were
designed to have equated volume but varied intensity. During
the testing the subjects were encouraged to squat to a consistent 90 knee angle squat (ensured by elastic cord as explained
above) and repetitions were not considered completed if this
knee angle was not achieved or spotter assistance was needed
to complete the lift. If failure was reached during a set the load
was reduced by 5% for the subsequent set. During all back
squats and jump squats the subjects were encouraged to move
the bar as fast as possible during the concentric phase.
Determination of volume
The mechanical work performed as a representation of volume during the eccentric and concentric portion of the back

squats and jump squats was calculated using techniques

previously described (Liu et al. 2006). BrieXy, eccentric
and concentric work was determined by integrating the area
under the curve of the force-displacement graphs attained
during the eccentric and concentric phases of each jump
(Liu et al. 2006). Both vertical and horizontal displacement
was measured during all back squats and jump squats
through the utilization of two linear position transducers
(LPTs) (Cormie et al. 2007). The LPTs were mounted
anterior and posterior above the subject on a custom built
power rack, then attached to the bar which was held across
the subjects back during the back squats and jump squats.
Combining the known distances between the two LPTs in
conjunction with the displacement measurements of both
LPTs as a result of barbell movement allowed for the calculation of vertical and horizontal displacement of the barbell. Vertical ground reaction force (Fz) was measured
throughout the series of back squats and jump squats by a
force plate (AMTI, BP6001200, Watertown, MA). Analog
data (two LPTs and force plate) was recorded by a
shielded BNC adapter chassis (National Instruments, BNC2090, Austin, TX) and an A/D card (National Instruments,
NI PCI-6014, Austin, TX) at 1,000 Hz. LabVIEW
(National Instruments, Version 7.1, Austin, TX) was used
for recording and analyzing the digital data in which speciWcally designed programs were used to extract and determine the mechanical work (Cormie et al. 2007).
Hormone testing
Blood samples were performed at baseline following
20 min of quiet sitting prior to exercise (PRE), immediately
following the experimental protocol (IP), 1 h post (60P),
24 h post (24P), and 48 h (48P) post to determine the acute
responses of serum T, C, and SHBG (Fig. 2). Blood was

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Eur J Appl Physiol (2009) 105:695704

Fig. 2 Schedule of blood samples (BS) and maximum isometric squat (MIS) throughout
experimental procedures

collected in 10-ml serum Vacutainer tubes and then

allowed to coagulate. After approximately 15 min the
whole blood was centrifuged at 3,000 rpm (5,000g) for
10 min at room temperature. The serum was then separated
from the blood cells and stored at 20C until analyzed
(Raastad et al. 2000). Blood lactate levels were measured
by Wnger tip blood samples at the pre, IP, and 60P. Whole
blood lactate concentrations were analyzed using a lactate
analyzer (Sport Lactate Analyzer 1500, Yellow Springs
Instruments, Yellow Springs, OH). Receptors in the target
tissues are exposed to the speciWc serum levels of hormone
concentrations, therefore hormone concentration were not
adjusted due to changes in plasma blood volume (Rubin
et al. 2005). Serum samples for the hormone analyses were
only thawed once prior to analysis. Serum concentrations of
T, C and SHBG were determined in duplicate using
enzyme linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) kits from
DRG diagnostics International (Berlin, Germany). The T/
SHBG ratio has been considered the free androgen index
(Ratamess et al. 2005) and was determined to account for
the change in bioavailability of T. All the assays were carried out as advised by manufacturers directions. All samples for each subject were assayed in the same assay for
each hormone to avoid inter-assay variation (Ahtiainen
et al. 2005). The intra-assay coeYcients of variation were
5.4, 6.7, and 7.6, respectively.
Neuromuscular performance
Isometric muscle strength and muscle activity were measured while the subjects performed an isometric squat at
PRE, IP, 60P, 24P, 48P to determine the diVerences in the
neuromuscular responses. The subjects stood on a force
platform under the Wxed bar position at a 100 knee angle
and exerted maximal eVort by pressing into a Wxed bar for
3-seconds. The subjects were encouraged to push as fast
and hard as possible during all trials. The subjects performed at least two trials of isometric squat with the highest peak RFD at 200 ms recorded and used for statistical
analysis. RFD was determined at 200 ms after initiation of
force. Muscle activity from the vastus medialis (VM) of
the subjects dominant leg was recorded through the use of
EMG during the isometric squat attempts at 1,000 Hz
using a telemetry transmitter (eight channel, 12 bit analog
to digital converter, Noraxon USA Inc., Scottsdale, AZ).

123

A disposable surface electrode (Noraxon USA Inc.,

Scottsdale, AZ) with a 2 cm inter-electrode distance and
1 cm circular conductive area was attached to the skin over
the belly of each measured muscle, distal to the motor
point, and parallel to the direction of muscle Wbers. Positioning of the electrodes was marked in permanent marker
throughout the experiment to maintain consistency in electrode placement. The ampliWed myoelectric signal,
recorded during the three trials of isometric squat was
detected by the receiver-ampliWer (Telemyo 900,
gain = 2,000, diVerential input impedance = 10 M
, bandwidth frequency 10500 Hz, common mode rejection
ratio = 85 dB, Noraxon USA Inc., Scottsdale, AZ) and
then sent to an A/D card. LabVIEW was used for recording and analyzing the data. The signal was full wave rectiWed and Wltered (six pole Butterworth, notch Wlter 60 Hz,
band pass Wlter 10200 Hz). The integrated value (V s)
was then calculated and averaged over the 3-s isometric
contraction (V).
Statistical analysis
Standard statistical methods were used to determine means,
standard deviations and Pearson product correlation coeYcients. DiVerences between and within the experimental
protocols were determined using a general linear regression
model (SPSS version 13.0) (repeated measures, Bonferoni
Post-Hoc). Statistics performed where compared to resting
control values. The signiWcance level was set at p 0.05
for this investigation.

Results
Volume and quality of resistance exercise completed
The total volume of work performed in the H, S and P protocols was found to be equivalent (p = 0.99) (Table 1).
Intensity (%1RM) was maintained by the subjects throughout the squat and jump squat sets. SigniWcant (p < 0.01)
diVerences with respects to relative intensity existed
between each protocol with S displaying the highest intensity, followed by H and then P type RE (Table 1). The number of repetitions completed throughout the protocols was
inversely relative to intensity, with P greater than H and H

Eur J Appl Physiol (2009) 105:695704

699

Table 1 Comparison of the mean (SD) volume of work, intensity,

repetitions, and rest period, peak velocity, peak force, peak power, and
time/rep completed between the hypertrophy, strength, and power
protocols
Hypertrophy

Strength

Work (J) 103

84.2 (8.5)

84.2 (19.7)

77.0 (22.5)

Intensity
(% of 1RM)

72.8 (2.47)a

89.3 (1.36)a,b

0 (0)

Total repetitions

37 (3)c

33 (0)

48 (0)b

Rest period
(minutes)

1.5

Velocity (m/s)

0.83 (0.12)

Force (N)

2464.8 (104.5)

Power (W)

1882.1 (492.0)

Time/rep (ms)

2298.4 (311.7)

Power

3.67 (.09)b,c

0.82 (0.04)
a

2890.0 (55.0)

a,b

2143.9 (144.3)b
a

2856.5 (214.3)

a,b

2185.9 (92.2)
5831.5(211.7)b,c
736.9 (132.6)

The values are expressed as means (standard deviation)

a
SigniWcant (p < 0.05) diVerence from power
b
SigniWcant (p < 0.05) diVerence from hypertrophy
c
SigniWcant (p < 0.05) diVerence from strength

exceeding S. Rest period was maintained throughout the

experiment as previously described.
Acute hormone response
The H protocol elicited a signiWcantly (p < 0.05) diVerent
percent change from pre to IP for all three hormones analyzed (T, C, and SHBG) in comparison with the R condition (Fig. 3ac). No signiWcant diVerences at PRE, IP, or

60P were observed in the raw hormone data within or

between protocols. The metabolic demands of the RE protocols represented a titrated pattern dictated by the intensity
and rest periods. There was a signiWcant within protocol
diVerence from pre to IP in whole blood lactate concentration during the H and S protocols. Furthermore, a signiWcant diVerence in IP lactate values existed between the H
protocol and the S, P, and R. Additionally, the IP lactate
value for the S protocol was signiWcantly greater than P and
R. A noticeable non-signiWcant trend was observed in the
T, C and SHBG data; a doseresponse relationship was
observed between metabolic demand of the protocol and
percent change of the hormone concentrations from pre to
IP (Fig. 3ac). This doseresponse relationship was also
evident in the signiWcant (p < 0.01) correlation between the
IP lactate values and the percent change from baseline of
SHBG (Fig. 4).
Acute neuromuscular response
Both the S and H protocols resulted in signiWcant decreases
in isometric squat percent of peak force and rate of force
development at the IP time point in comparison to the R
condition (Fig. 5a, b). The R and P type RE did not result in
signiWcant decrements in any variable examined (Fig. 5ac).
P type RE actually resulted in an increase in peak force that
surpassed the R condition. At 60P all protocols had recovered to baseline force, RFD, and whole blood lactate values. The percent of baseline muscle activity from the VM

Fig. 3 Comparison of (a) total

serum testosterone concentration; (b) total serum cortisol concentration; (c) total serum
steroid hormone binding globulin (SHBG) concentration; and
d) whole blood lactate concentration mean (SE) at rest (PRE
black bars), immediately post
exercise (IPlight grey bars),
and at an hour following completion of exercise (60Pdark
grey bars) for each resistance
exercise protocol (hypertrophy
(H), strength (S), power (P) and
rest (R)). The numbers represent
the percent change from pre to
IP (n = 10). #SigniWcant
(p < 0.001) diVerence from pre
value; *signiWcant (p < 0.05)
diVerence from R protocol;
$
signiWcant (p < 0.05) diVerence
from P protocol; ^signiWcant
(p < 0.05) diVerence from S
protocol

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Eur J Appl Physiol (2009) 105:695704

Relationship between Lactate and SHBG
Hypertrophy
Strength
Power
Rest

20
18
16

Lactate (mmol/L)

14
12

R = 0.521
p < 0.001

10
8
6
4
2
0
-40

-20

0
20
40
SHBG (% change from baseline)

60

80

Fig. 4 The signiWcant (p < 0.001; R = 0.521) relationship between

the percent change from rest to immediate post (IP) exercise of the serum concentration of steroid hormone binding globulin (SHBG) and
the whole blood lactate concentration at IP for the hypertrophy,
strength, power and rest protocol

signiWcantly (p < 0.05) decreased IP following the S protocol in comparison to the H protocol (Fig. 5c). The muscle
activity from the VM was actually slightly above baseline
at the IP time point following the H protocol. A nonsigniWcant trend (p = 0.45) in the VM muscle activity-to-isometric peak force ratio was observed IP following the H
protocol in comparison the to R condition (4.1 (1.6), 5.7
(1.8) arbitrary units, respectively).
Following the exercise bouts, RFD recovered more readily following the H as opposed to the S protocol. This was
evident by the recovery pattern of RFD at 24 and 48 h,
which was steeper for the H protocol in comparison the S
protocol. This diVerence in recovery was observed as the
signiWcant (p < 0.05) diVerence in the percent of RFD at the
24-h time point between the S and the R condition
(Fig. 5b). This was the only diVerence in any variable at
24P and 48P.
Basal hormone response
No signiWcant diVerences were found at 24P or 48P for any
of the tested hormones concentrations, T/C ratio, or free
androgen index (Table 2). A trend following the H protocol
was noted with increased levels of T, and T/C ratio at 24 h
post in comparison to the other protocols.
Nutritional results
No signiWcant diVerences in the macronutrient composition
of the diet on the day preceding and the days during testing
were observed between the protocols (Table 3).

123

Fig. 5 Comparison of the mean (SE): (a) percent of baseline force values; (b) percent of baseline rate of force development (RFD) values;
and (c) percent of baseline average intergraded electromyography
(Avg IEMG) muscle activity from the vastus medialis (VM) at immediate post exercise (IP), 60 minutes (60P), 24-h (24P), 48-h (48P) between the hypertrophy (H), strength (S), power (P), and rest (R)
conditions during an isometric squat test. *H protocol signiWcantly
(p < 0.05) decreased in comparison to R condition. ^S protocol signiWcantly (p < 0.05) decreased in comparison to R condition. #H protocol
signiWcantly (p < 0.05) increased in comparison to S

Discussion
The primary Wndings from this investigation illustrate that
intensity and rest period modiWcation inXuence the magnitude of the acute hormone response to volume equated RE.
This is the Wrst study to equate the total volume of RE
between two or more protocols with varied goals (H, S, P)
and observe signiWcant diVerences in the acute hormone
response elicited. Additionally, both H and S type RE

Eur J Appl Physiol (2009) 105:695704

Table 2 The mean (SE) for the
basal hormone response at PRE,
24P and 48P post exercise for
Testosterone (T), cortisol (C),
steroid hormone binding globulin (SHBG), and T/C ratio to the
hypertrophy, strength, and power protocols

701

Hypertrophy

Strength

Power

Rest

T (nmol l1)
PRE

17.78 (3.27)

18.05 (2.42)

19.44 (2.13)

17.95 (2.60)

24P

20.31 (2.67)

17.61 (2.39)

17.75 (1.75)

20.22 (2.75)

48P

19.37 (2.67)

18.93 (3.06)

18.73 (1.87)

19.50 (2.99)

PRE

443.51 (24.73)

413.05 (77.34)

426.10 (97.80)

453.13 (87.13)

24P

380.37 (34.54)

412.32 (100.45)

445.19 (71.04)

437.92 (114.23)

48P

364.49 (44.20)

394.51 (95.31)

400.12 (129.11)

378.37 (77.74)

C (nmol l1)

SHBG (nmol l1)

PRE

33.83 (5.83)

31.69 (6.15)

30.48 (5.09)

31.31 (5.18)

24P

35.44 (5.17)

33.88 (5.29)

30.34 (4.64)

30.21 (4.60)

48P

30.29 (5.16)

33.51 (5.55)

28.00 (4.66)

29.45 (4.93)

PRE

4.07 (0.76)

4.93 (1.03)

4.75 (0.67)

4.11 (0.64)

24P

5.91 (0.95)

4.14 (0.44)

4.03 (0.39)

4.52 (0.77)

48P

5.64 (0.86)

5.13 (0.99)

4.82 (0.53)

5.37 (813)

T/C ratio (%)

Table 3 The mean (SD) for

total Kcals, percent fat, percent
saturated fat, percent protein,
and percent carbohydrate
consumed during the hypertrophy, strength, power, and rest
condition

Calories (kcals)

Hypertrophy

Strength

Power

Rest
2791.1 (799.0)

2494.3 (800.0)

2897.7 (754.4)

2953.3 (616.4)

Fat (%)

29.4 (7.2)

31.9 (6.8)

35.7 (10.6)

33.9 (11.6)

Saturated fat (%)

25.6 (8.7)

27.8 (10.6)

31.1 (8.2)

32.1 (8.1)

Carbohydrate (%)

54.8 (10.1)

51.7 (12.6)

47.2 (15.8)

49.7 (14.9)

Protein (%)

18.7 (4.1)

18.6 (4.9)

18.9 (5.0)

18.4 (4.1)

resulted in acute neuromuscular fatigue, although presumably from diVerent sources, central versus peripheral. The
H protocol resulted in signiWcantly elevated muscle activity
in comparison to the S protocol at the IP time point. Furthermore, the rate of recovery of RFD capabilities was
noticeably slower following the S in comparison the H possibly indicating greater disruption of nervous system function.
Hypertrophy
The H protocol was the only condition which elicited a signiWcant increase in T, C, and SHBG in comparison to the R
condition (Fig. 3ac). This Wnding is not unexpected and is
in agreement with previous literature (Kraemer et al. 1987,
1990; McCall et al. 1999; Ratamess et al. 2005). The
biochemical mechanisms responsible for the observed
increases in blood concentrations of hormones are not fully
understood and are beyond the scope of the current paper.
However, the signiWcant amount of lactate accumulation
during H type RE may decrease blood pH and signiWcantly
increase catecholamine levels and is speculated to be a key
mechanism responsible for the increased T concentrations
(Gordon et al. 1994; Kraemer et al. 1987; Lu et al. 1997).

The increased C concentration is indicative of a state of

catabolism during H type RE. However, the acute increase
in T observed may increase androgen receptor binding and
set forth the adaptive process leading to increased protein
synthesis and thus muscle hypertrophy (Mayer and Rosen
1977). However, a causative link between the acute
increases in T, C, and SHBG to muscle hypertrophy cannot
be made based on the current data.
The H protocol resulted in signiWcant decreases in peak
force and RFD with slight elevations in agonist muscle
activity. The diVerence in agonist muscle activity observed
between the H and S protocol at the IP time point is a novel
Wnding and is representative of the diVerences that can be
elicited by varying the metabolic demand of RE through
protocol variable arrangement. The phenomenon of
increased muscle activity and decreased force output has
been termed neuromuscular ineYciency (Deschenes et al.
2000) and may be indicative of peripheral fatigue (Babault
et al. 2006; Bigland-Richie 1981; Bigland-Ritchie et al.
1986). The current data are in agreement with previous
studies that have elicited neuromuscular fatigue by using
vascular occlusion (Moore et al. 2004; Pierce et al. 2006;
Taylor et al. 1997). However, the current investigation was
the Wrst to elicit this acute eVect with structural lower body

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RE in a non-vascular occluded state. Short rest periods may

increase motor unit recruitment in spite of attenuated force
outputs (Sale 1987); which may explain the increased muscle activity observed following the H protocol. However,
this theory is not in agreement with the Henneman et al.
(1965) size principle, which states that the majority of
larger motor units are not recruited until high relative intensities (90% 1RM) are achieved (Takarada et al. 2000).
Recent EMG data have displayed that motor unit recruitment may be optimized without the use of near maximal
loading when neuromuscular ineYciency is induced by
using vascular occlusion (Pierce et al. 2006; Moore et al.
2004; Takarada et al. 2000). The current Wndings illustrate
that neuromuscular ineYciency may be achieved with traditional RE of moderate volume without the use the vascular occlusion. However, conclusions regarding this data
should be made with caution; in that neuromuscular ineYciency was not induced by the H protocol in comparison to
the rest condition (p = 0.45).
Strength
Previous studies have examined signiWcantly lower volumes
of RE when comparing S to H type RE (Crewther et al. 2006;
Hakkinen and Pakarinen 1993; Kraemer et al. 1990; Raastad
et al. 2000). During RE that incorporates higher intensities
(90% of 1RM), as in the S protocol, the volume of RE completed may fall under the threshold necessary to elicit an
acute hormone response (Kraemer et al. 1990; Ratamess
et al. 2005). However, when performed with substantial volume, high intensity RE was observed to result in a blunted
acute hormone response in comparison to the H protocol.
This is a novel Wnding and reinforces the importance of
manipulating the rest period length and intensity of RE when
an acute increase in T is desired. The current data are in
agreement with previous Wndings, in which a signiWcant hormone response was not elicited by the higher intensity RE
(i.e. S protocols) (Crewther et al. 2006; Hakkinen and Pakarinen 1993; Kraemer et al. 1990). During higher intensity RE a
longer rest period length is used to allow for recovery and to
maintain volume during the training sets (Willardson and
Burkett 2006a, b; Willardson and Burkett 2005). However,
the extended rest period length appears to attenuate the magnitude of acute hormone response following S type RE.
The S protocol resulted in decreased neuromuscular performance which was evident in the decreased peak force,
RFD and muscle activity. There were no diVerences in the
degree of decline in both peak force and RFD between the
H and S protocol. However, the agonist muscle activity following the S protocol was signiWcantly decreased in comparison to the H protocol. The observed decreases in
muscle activity following the S protocol were expected and
are in agreement with previous literature (Ahtiainen et al.

123

Eur J Appl Physiol (2009) 105:695704

2003; Hakkinen 1995; Hakkinen 1994). Due to the 5 min

rest periods used during the S protocol, whole blood lactate
concentrations remained signiWcantly lower than that of the
H protocol. This may have accounted for the diVerence in
muscle activity observed immediately following exercise
between the S and H protocols. However, the decreased
muscle fatigue does not reveal the cause of the reduction in
peak force and RFD observed following the S protocol. The
source of fatigue following the S protocol is speculated to
be associated with central activation failure which results in
decreased muscle activity and force production (BiglandRichie 1981). The use of higher intensity loading in the S
protocol may optimize the stimulus to the nervous system
and result in central fatigue. Following the S protocol RFD
was signiWcantly lower than the R condition at 24P. The
Wnding that high intensity training of suYcient volume may
decrease RFD in the acute sense is in agreement with Chiu
et al. (2004) and Hakkinen (1994). However, a novel Wnding exists in that RFD was decreased at 24P following the S
protocol and the recovery pattern of the S protocol was
notably slower than that of the H protocol.
Power
The current data are in agreement with the few studies that
have found a negligible hormone response to P type RE
(Linnamo et al. 2005). This investigation used zero external
loading which may have negatively inXuenced the acute
hormone response. Investigations of power training at
higher relative intensities may elicit greater magnitudes of
hormone response (Crewther et al. 2006). Furthermore,
investigations of varied intensities are needed to describe
the acute hormone response to the spectrum of P type RE
used in practice. However, hormone status following P type
RE may not be a critical mechanism related to chronic
adaptations following P training.
The neural adaptations to P type RE are in contrast to
tradition high intensity RE (Sale 1988), and the recommendations for volume and intensity of P type RE are largely
unknown. The current study found no acute manifestation
of fatigue following a signiWcant volume of jump squats
(eight sets of six repetitions). A non-signiWcant trend was
noticed as peak force at 60P, 24P and 48P following the P
protocol surpassed the R condition. This Wnding is in agreement with Linnamo et al. (2000), in which explosive type
lower body RE potentiated multiple aspects of performance. However, the isometric squat may not be a suitable
outcome measure to detect fatigue following P type RE. A
velocity speciWc test (CMJ, isokenitic dynamometer) may
increase the resolution needed to detect changes in the
kinetic and kinematic variables following an acute bout of
P type RE. Furthermore, the speciWc volume and frequency
of P type RE needed to elicit positive neural adaptation is

Eur J Appl Physiol (2009) 105:695704

unknown and further research into the acute changes associated with P type RE is needed.
In summary, the total volume of RE completed is not
the critical variable in eliciting the acute hormone response
and may only represent a minimum threshold to be
achieved. There is a consensus in the literature that moderate intensity RE of signiWcant volume with short rest periods induces lactate accumulation and increased blood
hormone concentrations following RE (Crewther et al.
2006; Kraemer and Ratamess 2005; Kraemer et al. 2002).
However, the impact of repeatedly elevated hormone status following extended resistance training on chronic
adaptations (i.e. strength expression, muscle hypertrophy)
is not known. Future eVorts should be made to understand
the link between the acute hormone response and the
chronic adaptations to muscle elicited by diVerent variations of RE. This representation of the acute milieu following volume equated RE may prove to be an eVective model
for future longitudinal investigations. The data implicate
that traditional H type RE may create an internal muscular
environment which is similar to that of the vascular occlusion model and may optimize motor unit recruitment to
that of high intensity RE. Furthermore, manipulating
intensity and rest period can either increase the metabolic
or neural demand of the RE. This diVerence in RE
protocols may lead to a diVerentiated source of fatigue
(peripheral or central). However, a causative link to the
source of fatigue is outside the scope of the current investigation and further study is required. The acute neuromuscular responses to H, S, and P type RE are varied and
illustrate the diVerent adaptations that can be achieved
when chronic training occurs. These data have direct
implications to the prescription of RE which should be
developed according to the speciWc goal of training.

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