Basics of Research

Modern Tools used to assess quality of a research

- Quality of a research is reflected through
(a) End result or finding or product
(b) Peer review
(c) Publications like journal papers, books, monographs,
reports
- For general purposes journal papers, because of their
wider circulation, is a larger knowledge source for the
researchers than other means. Quality depends primarily
on the quality of the journal itself and on its contents.
- Two modern indices used for automatic assessment of
quality of a paper are Citation index and Impact factor.

Basics of Research
- Citation index(for journal papers): It is a bibliographic base. It is the number of
times in year a particular paper has been cited in other publications including
books. Discipline wise citation indices are published by Elsevier, ISI (Thomson
Reuters) and Indian Citation Index for journals published in India.
- Impact Factor (for journals): It indicates how relevant the particular journal
publications are i.e. how many of the papers published by it are cited in other
publications. It is measured year wise, but the calculation is based on average
citations in previous two years. If a journal has an impact factor 4 in the year
2013, it means that the average number of citation received per paper published
in 2012 and 2011 is 4. For calculation of impact factor let us assume X to be the
number of times all papers published in that journal in those two years were
cited, where as Y is the number of papers published in these years. Then impact
factor = X / Y.
Demerits: Impact factor in 2013 is published in 2014, arithmetic mean may not be
accurate
Manipulation by the journal, such as, Review papers have more citation, Papers
published in the first quarter of the year are likely to receive more citations

Research Proposal
Selection of Topic
Literature Survey
Development of Hypothesis
Hypothesis Testing

Research Proposal
Need for research proposal:
This stage is vital for any organized research for
- Seeking funds from a sponsoring agency
- Getting approval from the peers like the research
supervisor and / or doctoral scrutiny committee in the
University
- Planning probable topic, specific domain of literature
survey, for assessment of preparation of technical and
academic background, planning the experimental
procedure, equipment, duration of investigation or time
budgeting, funds necessary, financial budgeting etc.
- Organizing the thoughts related to finding the solution of
the problem.

Research Proposal
Cont ents of a research proposal:
Usually the research proposal written for seeking sponsorship i.e. funding is given
in more details focusing on the research outcome, funds needed, manpower
needed, funds distribution, expertise available, and time frame. For the academic
purposes it is focused mainly on the feasibility and likely outcome of the research
along with the benefits derived by the funding agency. Contents of a research
proposal are given below.
- A brief but clear statement about the objective of the research
- Well defined problem along with its constraints. A brief review of the state-ofthe-art of the studies on the problem is also to be stated.
- Methodology to be adopted for solving the problem to be spelt out
- Techniques for validation of the findings of the research i.e. experimental or
software based approaches
- Means to be adopted for acquisition of data for hypothesis testing
- Data analysis method is to be planned
- Results for any pilot test conducted to be stated. This may contain any laboratory
testing or publication in the related area.
- A few references in support of the academic strength of the problem selected

Research Proposal
Selection of Topic:
- Area selection needs cautious steps. Well developed area might be
more difficult for achieving any break through in the finding. Topics
from least developed or controversial areas might be difficult to
proceed with.
- Attractive areas (where prospect of success within the stipulated
time is bright) are based on issues which are (a) contemporary (ex.
Alternative energy sources) ,(b) hi-tech (ex. Biotechnology) , (c)
Interdisciplinary (ex. Robotics) (d)directions of research available (ex.
Extension of work conducted under supervision of the research
supervisor), and (e) where expertise of the researcher is already
available.
- A well defined topic is preferred. Similarly a broader topic rather
than narrower and pin pointed topic is desirable. Title (which is
subject to rephrasing) reflects the scope of the work.

Research Proposal
Development of Hypothesis
Hypothesis is the first step towards finding a solution of the problem. It is
often predictive in nature. It is temporarily accepted to be true as long as it
is not tested conclusively. Till then it becomes the basis for further
investigation. According to Lungberg
A hypothesis is a tentative generalization the validity of which remains to
be tested. In its most elementary stage the hypothesis may be hunch,
guess, imaginative idea which becomes the basis for further investigation
Ex. For the same power and voltage rating higher the frequency smaller is
the size of the electrical equipment. (Topic may be: to study the effect of
frequency on the features of an electrical equipment).
- Literature Survey is a part of the background preparation, information
about the state-of-the-art of the area of research and also formulation of
the hypothesis. Sources are published books, transaction journals and
conference proceedings, published theses, authenticated internet
publications, research reports, authentic communication with experts.

Research Proposal
- A hypothesis should have some scientific base or else it is likely to result
in futile investigation. A properly formulated hypothesis has the following
merits
(a) Guidance to the correct direction eliminating stray activities like
irrelevant literature survey
(b) Better understanding of the problem and its convergence.
(c) Location of sources of data and data collection methodology
(d) Guidance to experimentation - set up, measurement variables,
measurement level, etc.
(e) Helps drawing conclusions and also scope for further research.
(f) A hypothesis may lead to multitude of hypotheses
(g) Hypothesis can be in a question form, declaration form, directional or
null directional form.
Hypothesis testing.
A hypothesis is either accepted or rejected. Testing is done under
conditions of the research problem formulated.

Tools and Techniques of Research

Data Collection
Sampling
Data Analysis
Interpretation of Data
Conclusions

Tools of Research
A hypothesis in a research project serves as the starting point for certain
research processes, especially for a scientific research. It, like a theory,
provides the framework for the research procedure or methodology.
Verification of hypothesis (acceptance or rejection) is done through collection
of data.
Data Collection
Method of data collection depends on types of research, namely,
- Scientific: experimental research (application oriented)
- Normative survey research (establishes a norm in some process that is going
on) (ex. Tobaco causes cancer)
- Historical research (for producing a faithful record of what has happened
factual in nature) (ex. Sir J C Bose was the pioneer in microwave
communication.
- Complex casual research (conceptual in nature. Ex. Origin of the Universe)
Types of data:
- Primary data
- Secondary data.

Tools of Research
Primary data:
Collected afresh and for the first time. Experiments are the only
means for collection of primary data in an experimental research.
This needs designing of a suitable experimental set up and the
experimental procedure. However, for a descriptive type research
work like social studies, different methods adopted are
- Observation (Ex. Studies related to behavioural science)
- Interview (Ex. Research based on public opinion)
- Questionnaire (Ex. Research on consumer products)
- Miscellaneous methods like customer survey.
Secondary data
These are the data already available. Ex. IEEE data. However, before
using them a few points are to be kept in mind about these data,
e.g. suitability, reliability, adequacy.

Tools of Research
Sampling
Objective of research is to arrive at generalization about a population from
specific information. Ideally if all the members of the population are surveyed,
the most accurate relationship can be established. This is done in a population
census. Selective use of data from a large quantity is needed for
- Economic reason time, energy and funds
- To enable more accurate measurement because of the smaller size
- In destructive testing.
- Indispensible for behavioural research
- Speed for generalization
- Good sampling represents the characteristics under study truthfully,
completely and accurately. It is unbiased, objective, easily approachable and
more practicable.
-- Sampling error depends on nature of the universe, the more
homogeneous it is the less is the error. It is inversely related to the size of the
sample.

Tools of Research
Types of sampling
Random sampling (ex. Tossing a coin, throwing a dice, lottery, blind
folded, using random table) free from subjectivity and personal
error, appropriate, minimum knowledge about population required
but accuracy depends on size of sample)
Systematic sampling (simple, low cost, statistical inference possible,
may be representative)
Stratified sampling data are grouped according to certain
characteristics necessary for research. (objective method but
difficult, costly, and time consuming) (ex. grouping gender or age
wise, grouping laboratory and ancillary equipment wise)
Multiple or Double or Repetitive sampling used for cross checking
the sampling result, such as, second sampling is based on results of
first sampling (reliable sampling, less error, not suitable for large
sampling and more complicated).

Tools of Research
Types of sampling
Multi-stage sampling after stratification individuals are selected
from this type of sampling (objective procedure but difficult and
complex).
Cluster sampling sample units contain groups of elements
(clusters) and then sampled. (ex. For study of energy efficiency all
low power factor equipment clustered and then sampled. Easy,
economical, practicable).
Non-probability sampling used for definite purpose.
Sample size and sampling error
Sample error = ( / (N)1/2 ), where 2 = variance or standard
deviation of the population, N = size of the sample.
Sample size depends on acceptable error. Thus for 3 % acceptable
sampling error

1.96 (sampling error) = 1.96 ( / (N)1/2 ) = 3