1.

PROBLEM STATEMENT

The growth in civilization and industrial activities has caused a number of environmental
problems. For decades, large quantities of pollutants have been discharged into the environment
irresponsibly. Hexavalent chromium is of particular environmental concern due to its toxicity
and mobility and is challenging to remove from industrial wastewater. It is a strong oxidizing
agent that is carcinogenic and mutagenic and diffuses quickly through soil and aquatic
environments. It does not form insoluble compounds in aqueous solutions, so separation by
precipitation is not feasible. Moreover, High strength wastewater can be successfully treated by
using membrane bioreactor (MBR) in different conditions according to the types and
characteristics of wastewater and also MBR parameters operational control. High strength
wastewater contains fats, oil and grease or other organic or inorganic compounds in great amount
according to the types of sources that take part. Several factors need to be taken into
consideration during the operation such as hydraulic retention time (HRT), solid retention time
(SRT), mix liquor suspended solid (MLSS), food to microorganism (F/M), transmembrane
pressure (TMP) and flux. Fouling factors need to be taken seriously because they are the major
problems affecting the performance of the MBR and quality of the effluent. To control
eutrophication in receiving water bodies, biological nutrient removal (BNR) of nitrogen and
phosphorus has been widely used in wastewater treatment practice, both for the upgrade of
existing wastewater treatment facilities and the design of new facilities. However,
implementation of BNR activated sludge AS systems presents challenges attributable to the
technical complexity of balancing influent chemical oxygen demand (COD) for both biological
phosphorus (P) and nitrogen (N) removal. Sludge age and aerated/unaerated mass fractions are
identified as key parameters for process optimization. Emerging concerns about process
sustainability and the reduction of carbon footprint are introducing additional challenges in that
influent COD, N, and P are increasingly being seen as resources that should be recovered, not
simply removed. Energy recovery through sludge digestion is one way of recovering energy
from influent wastewater but which presents a specific challenge for BNR: generation of
sidestreams with high nutrient and low COD loads.

1.2

PROCESS AND TECHNOLOGY

1.2.1

Physical

1.2.1.2 Screening

Wastewater from all different sewers is collected and brought to the treatment plant. The
wastewater is passed through multiple screenings to remove large debris such as glass, rags, and
stones. Screening protects the downstream units of the treatment plant from obstructions caused
by the larger debris and improves the efficiency of the operations in the later stages. The
screening chamber consists of vertical stainless steel screens at an angle (usually 30 degrees) to
the horizontal. Stainless steel is used to prevent the screens from corrosion. They have uniform
openings to retain large solids. The spacing of the screens determines the size of the particles
removed (Metcalf & Eddy, American Sewerage Practice, 1935).

The screening procedure can be manual or automated. However, automation is preferred

if the screens will be exposed to high flow rates or if the water has large amounts of solid debris.
With the help of mechanical rakes, the screens are constantly scrapped off to remove material
deposited into the powers, which is then dumped into a shaft. The solids are separated by a screw
in the shaft. (Al-Layla, Ahmad, & Middlebrooks, 1980). The most common type of screens has
a mechanical device to scrape off the deposited materials. In order to maintain a minimum
velocity of 0.6m/s to prevent clogging, the dimensions of the channels near the screens are
increased (Al-Layla, Ahmad, & Middlebrooks, 1980). A typical mechanically cleaned bar screen
is shown in the figure 1 below:

Figure 1: Mechanically Scraped Bar Screen

1.2.2 CHEMICAL

1.2.2.1 Electrochemical Methods

The use of electrochemical methods represents an interesting option as many

electrochemical and chemical reactions occur simultaneously when they are applied.
Electrochemical treatment techniques have attracted a great deal of attention because of their
versatility and environmental compatibility, which makes the treatments of liquids, gases, and
solids possible. In fact, the main reagent is the electron, which is a clean reagent

1.2.2.2 Electrocoagulation

Electrocoagulation is the electrochemical production of destabilization agents that

neutralize the electric charge of the pollutants present in solution. An electrocoagulation reactor
consists of a reservoir in which the solution is contained and two electrodes: a cathode and an
anode (Carlos E et al., 2012).

1.2.2.3 Iron Electrodes

The electrocoagulation process using iron electrodes involves the liberation of Fe (II)
ions into the solution due to the anodic polarization of a plain carbon steel electrode [22]. When
the pH of the solution is between 6 and 8 Fe (II) ions form insoluble species onto which Cr (VI)
ions are adsorbed and removed from the solution. Iron systems show a high efficiency (>90%)
and studies evaluate mainly the interactions of pH, applied electric current, and application time
on the Cr(VI) removal. The removal of hexavalent chromium by electrocoagulation involves two
stages: the reduction of Cr(VI) to Cr(III) at the cathode or by the Fe2+ ions generated from the
oxidation of the iron anode and the subsequent co-precipitation of the Fe3+/Cr3+ hydroxides. At
low pH values, the reduction of Cr(VI) to Cr(III) by Fe2+ ions is favored, but under these pH
conditions there is no precipitation of Fe(III)/Cr(III) hydroxides. The precipitation of Fe3+/Cr3+
hydroxides takes place at pH higher than 3 due the solubility of metal hydroxide species (both
chromic and iron hydroxides) at the low pH (Carlos E et al., 2012).

1.2.2.4 Aluminium Electrodes

Aluminum anodes are used to produce aluminum cations which form hydroxylated
species. The pollutants present in aqueous solution are destabilized and then adsorbed on the
Al(OH)3(s) produced.

1.2.2.5 Cr (VI) photocatalytic reduction

Photocatalysis on semiconductors involves three main steps:

(i) Absorption of photons with higher energies than the semiconductor band gap, leading to the
generation of electron (e)hole (h+) pairs in the semiconductor;

(ii) Charge separation followed by migration of these photo-generated carriers in the

semiconductor;

(iii) Surface chemical reactions between these carriers with various compounds; electrons and
holes may also recombine with each other without participating in any chemical reactions.

Another class of non-oxide semiconductor photocatalyst is homogeneous sensitizer

molecules, such as organic dyes and metal complexes. A strategy for achieving effective visible
light harvesting is spectral sensitization of wide bandgap semiconductors (e.g., TiO2) using
sensitizer molecules (Carlos E et al., 2012).

1.2.2.6 Organic matter for Cr (VI) reduction

Environmentally ubiquitous, naturally occurring reductants (quinones, organo-sulfur

compounds and amorphous dissolved organic matter (DOM)) exhibit very slow-yet-measurable
Cr(VI) reduction kinetics under predominantly acidic conditions. In contrast to these organic
reductants, zerovalent iron, aqueous Fe (II), Fe (II) hydroxides, adsorbed Fe (II), and Fe (II)chelates have been shown to reduce Cr (VI) very rapidly. Coupling humic acid (HA) and iron

nanoparticles for Cr(VI) reduction has both synergistic and antagonistic effects. HA can act as an
adsorbent competing for reactive sites on the surface of the Fe(0) nanoparticles, leading to a
decreased Cr(VI) reduction rate. However, the quinone compounds in HA act as electron shuttles
promoting electron transfer, which would have a positive enhancement on the reduction of
Cr(VI) by Fe(0) nanoparticles. HA also stabilizes the nanoparticles preventing agglomeration
which enhances the reactivity and counteracts the inhibitory effect. (Carlos E et al., 2012).

1.2.2.7 Fe(III) photocatalytic reduction of Cr(VI) by organic acids

Recent efforts have focused on the photocatalytic impact of Fe(III) on the reduction of
Cr(VI) by organic acids. The rate of Cr(VI) photoreduction in sunlit natural waters is related to
the amount of Fe(III) present and the nature of the dissolved organic matter substrate and the
organic acid type (classified as low Fe(III) photoreductivity acetate and succinate, and high
Fe(III) photoreductivity citrate and tartrate). The fast reaction between Cr (VI) and organic acids
in the presence of Fe(III) is mainly due to the photoreaction products generated when solution is
exposed to sunlight. (Carlos E et al., 2012).

The reduction of Cr (VI) by organic acids in soils is coupled with apparent adsorption of
Cr (III) by the soil, both of which are influenced by the types of soils, their composition, and
their physical characteristics. The presence of soils significantly accelerates photochemical
reduction of Cr (VI) only at low soil loading. Higher soil loading is not beneficial to the
improvement of Cr (VI) reduction due to the decreased light penetration into the dissolved phase
(Carlos E et al., 2012).

1.2.2.8 TiO2 photocatalytic reduction of Cr(VI) by organic acids

The photocatalytic reduction of Cr (VI) by TiO2 at pH 3 in both the absence and presence
of organic compounds has been extensively investigated for its application to the oxidation of
organic compounds and the reduction of metal ions. The mechanism involves the charge
trasnsfer complex (CTC) formed between TiO2 and small molecular weigth organic acids
(SOA). The mechanism of photocatalysis on titanium dioxide particles involves generated

electron/hole pairs that must be trapped in order to avoid recombination. In this context TiO2
nanoparticles and nanofibers resulted in an enhanced catalytic activity for photocatalytic Cr(VI)
reduction where the hidrotermal postreatment exhibited the highest catalytic activity among
TiO2 nanoparticles. (Carlos E et al., 2012).

1.2.2.9 Cr (VI) reducing bacteria

Microbial chromium (VI) removal from solutions typically involves the following stages:

(a) The binding of chromium to the cell surface,

(b) Translocation of chromium into the cell, and
(c) Reduction of chromium (VI) to chromium (III).

1.2.2.10 Aerobic Cr (VI) reducing bacteria

The process produces a reactive oxygen species (ROS) that easily combines with DNA
protein complexes. Nevertheless, it is presently unclear whether the reduction of Cr (V) to Cr
(IV) and Cr (IV) to Cr (III) is spontaneous or enzyme mediated.

Two processes are responsible for the reduction of Cr (VI) when aerobic heterotrophic
cells, non-growing cells, growing cells with chromate reductase activity, and growing cells that
have lost the chromate reductase activity where used. The first one is the reduction of Cr (VI)
coupled with growth and the second process is coupled with the endogenous decay of the
biomass [74]. Among the different electron donors, glucose provided the highest Cr (VI)
reduction compared to other electron donors. (Carlos E et al., 2012).

1.2.2.11 Anaerobic Cr (VI) reducing bacteria

In the absence of oxygen, Cr (VI) can serve as a terminal electron acceptor in the
respiratory chain for a large array of electron donors, including carbohydrates, proteins, fats,
hydrogen, NAD(P)H and endogenous electron reserves. Compared to free cells, P. phragmitetus

cells coated with polyethylenimine-functionalized magnetic nanoparticles, not only had the same
Cr(VI)-reduction activity but could also be easily separated from reaction mixtures by magnetic
force. In addition, the magnetically immobilized cells retained high specific Cr(VI)-reduction
activity over six batch cycles. The results suggest that the magnetic cell separation technology
has potential application for Cr(VI) detoxification in alkaline wastewater. (Carlos E et al., 2012).

1.2.3 Biological

1.2.3.1 A typical MBR processes configuration

In CAS treatment, large clarifying basins are needed to make sure the flocs are
completely settled but by using membranes, there are no more settling processes needed and the
area used for clarifier can be eliminated besides acting as a separator . Figure 2 shows the basic
schematic diagram of MBR configuration. Figure. 2 a shows an immersed membrane bioreactor
(iMBR) or submerged membrane bioreactor (sMBR) module. Figure 2b shows a side-stream or
external membrane module while. For sMBR system, the feed wastewater is directly in contact
with biomass. Then, both wastewater and biomass are pumped through the recirculation loop
consisting of membranes. The concentrated sludge is recycled back to the reactor while the water
effluent is discharged. The purpose of separating the membrane and bioreactor is actually to
reduce the power used by the air diffuser. (Noor Sabrina et al., 2012)

Figure 2: Schematic Diagram for MBR configuration

1.2.3.2 Membrane Characteristics

The ability of the membrane depends on the size of pores, types of materials, types of
wastewater to be treated, solubility and retention time. Membrane structure plays an important
role in transporting mechanism whether the structure is parallel or in series. Diffusion and
solubility of the component are related to the kinetic ability of the mass transport for membrane.
The solution dissolves into the membrane and separates between retentate and permeates. For the
membrane itself, pore-size membrane participates in kinetic mass transport. The types of
membranes used are different depending on the size of contaminants contacting during the
treatment process. Basically, contaminants with the size of a particle from 1001000 nm use
microfiltration (MF) for removing suspended particles; ultrafiltration (UF) for particle size 5
100 nm, for instance bacteria and virus; and nanofitration (NF) for particles with size 15 nm for
dissolved particles. Two types of materials that are commonly used to construct the membranes
are polymeric and ceramic. (Noor Sabrina et al., 2012)

1.2.3.3 Biomass characteristic

Biomass in activated sludge from industries is heterogenous. Basic nutrients of biomass

are glucose, nitrogen and phosphorus with ratio 100:5:1 in weight. The domination of biomass
can occur through the acclimation process and this depends on the major constituent of feed
wastewater. Microbes take a long time to biodegrade the matters and need high concentration of
biomass (MLSS) to make sure all the organics be totally biodegradable. In anaerobic membrane
bioreactor, HRT and SRT are independent and also produce methane as a side product and odor
whereas they do not use any aeration process and energy saving. Besides that, methane can be
collected as energy generation (Noor Sabrina et al., 2012)

1.2.3.4 BNR Processes

Biological nutrient removal activated sludge (BNRAS) system has become an established
technology in wastewater treatment practice to control eutrophication, and this development has

been facilitated by an improved understanding of nitrification, denitrification and excess

biological phosphorus (P) removal (EBPR) (Ekama and Wentzel 1999).

1.2.3.5 Conventional BNRAS

These technologies are operated with an anaerobic selector upstream in the process in
which influent rbCOD can ferment and fermentation products can be sequestered by
polyphosphateaccumulating organisms (PAOs). The anaerobic selector in these processes
typically represents 10% of overall tankage volume or less, and additional anoxic zones may be
included based on the requirements to remove nitrogen. One important limitation of these
processes is that, because the retention time of anaerobic selector is relatively small, slowly
biodegradable COD from the influent is not considered to be available for PAOs. As such,
biological phosphorus removal in conventional BNRAS is considered to be dependent on the
availability of influent rbCOD. (Zhirong hu et al., 2012)

1.2.3.6 External Nitrification BNRAS Process

The BNRAS system can be intensified by separating nitrification from the main BNRAS
system. In the former, nitrification takes place in the fixed media external to the suspended
activated sludge. In the latter, nitrification takes place in the fixed media that are placed in the
aerobic reactor (see Integrated Fixed-Film Activated Sludge Process). The underflow sludge
from the internal settling tank bypasses the EN system and is discharged to the beginning of the
anoxic zone, and the overflow supernatant from the internal settling tank is passed on to the EN
systems for nitrification. The nitrified EN effluent is then discharged to the anoxic zone for
denitrification. From the anoxic reactor, the mixed liquor passes to the last reactor, which is
aerobic for stripping nitrogen gas, oxidizing the residual COD and completing the P uptake
process. (Zhirong hu et al., 2012)

Figure 3: Integration of trickling filters with biological nutrient removal activated sludge systems

1.2.3.7 Integrated Fixed-Film Activated Sludge Process

A widely used approach for upgrading existing activated sludge plants for nitrification, or
simply increasing treatment capacity, has been to convert conventional activated sludge tanks to
integrated fixed-film activated sludge (IFAS) tanks. The IFAS process is well suited for the
upgrade of existing wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) where space or financing is not
available to build additional tanks to meet nitrification requirements. (Zhirong hu et al., 2012)

1.3

COST

1.3.1 Physical

The screening that been used in wastewater treatment process was high cost. This is
because, the cost to maintaining the screening for any substances in water should be always
observed so that the flow of the water always fluent.

1.3.2 Chemical

One of the main problems using this technique is that large amounts of residual sludge
are generated. The sludge presents difficulties in managing, transporting and final disposal issues
as well as the associated cost. Thus, new technologies are being developed to address these
problems. The copper electroreduction of Cr (VI) to Cr (III) was done in a parallel-plate reactor
and the chemical reduction was done with Na2S2O5. It was determined that the cost of the direct
electroreduction process is about 7 times higher than the chemical method, if carried out at
optimum operating conditions at pH 1.5. The costs of the two processes are closer when the
electrochemical method is carried out at pH 2, but operating time is increased threefold, thereby
increasing the cost.

1.3.3 Biological

Bioreactor acts as a biological treatment processor and the membrane is used as a filter in
the filtration process. Despite its reputation of being a reliable treatment process, the interest in
MBR has slowed down for the past three decades mainly due to the high cost of membrane and
membrane maintenance. The cost of the membrane has inclined together with the growth of
membrane technology and the MBR technology is becoming more acceptable for industrial
applications. In 1990s, submerged MBR was commercialized and it was found that this system
had low operational cost than any other types of MBR. Generally, the biological process shows a
greater performance than the filtration process. The membrane plays a role in separating solid
and liquid whereby the biological process by activated sludge converts the particle waste into

flocs before it is separated by the membrane. The membrane fouling becomes a major factor
since membrane is used and it is still under research to reduce the problem caused. Apart from
that, high cost maintenance and operation are needed to maintain the performance of MBR and
most of the treatment plants avoid using MBR because of this problem. The operational cost of
iMBR system is less because there is no recirculation loop compared with the sMBR system.
Judd (2006) stated that cost is a major constraint to MBR technology in 1990s because of high
cost of membrane which leads to the increase of maintenance and operational costs. Membrane
cost covers on replacing the severe membrane fouling or corrupted membrane and membrane
cleaning process during maintenance (Noor Sabrina et al., 2012).

1.4

EFFECTIVENESS

1.4.1 Physical

The quantity of screenings depends on the length and slope of the collection system and
the presence of pumping stations. When the collection system is long and steep or when pumping
stations exist, fewer screenings are produced because of disintegration of solids. Other factors
that affect screening quantities are related to flow, as quantities generally increase greatly during
storm flows. Peak daily removals may vary by a 20:1 ratio on an hourly basis from average flow
conditions. Combined collection systems may produce several times the coarse screenings
produced by separate collection systems (Reynolds and Richards, 1996)

1.4.2 Chemical

Electrocoagulation between iron electrodes and aluminium electrodes Iron systems show
a high efficiency (>90%) and studies evaluate mainly the interactions of pH, applied electric
current, and application time on the Cr(VI) removal. The removal of hexavalent chromium by
electrocoagulation involves two stages: the reduction of Cr (VI) to Cr(III) at the cathode or by
the Fe2+ ions generated from the oxidation of the iron anode and the subsequent co-precipitation
of the Fe3+/Cr3+ hydroxides. At low pH values, the reduction of Cr(VI) to Cr(III) by Fe2+ ions
is favored, but under these pH conditions there is no precipitation of Fe(III)/Cr(III) hydroxides.
The precipitation of Fe3+/Cr3+ hydroxides takes place at pH higher than 3 due the solubility of
metal hydroxide species (both chromic and iron hydroxides) at the low pH.

1.4.2.1 Cr(VI) photocatalytic reduction

TiO2 nanoparticles obtained by hydrothermal post-treatment showed the best

sedimentation efficiency, highlighting its prominent potential as a readily separable and
recoverable photocatalyst. Also, TiO2 nanoparticles (Degussa P25) modified with fullerene
derivative C60(CHCOOH)2 display a higher photocatalytic activity with 97% reduction
efficiency on Cr(VI) ions. In this system the enhanced photocatalytic activity of TiO2

nanoparticles may be ascribed to the enhancement of the photogenerated electron/hole pair

separation because of the modification of the C60 derivative [60]. La2Ti2O7 is a highly active
photocatalyst for reduction

1.4.3 Biological

1.4.3.1 Biomass characteristics

This system does not consider the flocs growth but still maintains the minimum sludge
production with low F/M ratio (less substrate is presented per unit of biomass) and retaining the
biomass in the reactor and sludge age. Besides that, the formation of flocs makes it easier to
filter. However, if F/M is too low, the biomass in the activated sludge could not grow well , or
else if MBR has very high MLSS it will lead to clogging, low efficiency of aeration and it needs
a large bioreactor (increasing the initial capital cost) . HRT with low level will increase organic
loading rate (OLR) which will end up with reactor volume reduction and reduce the performance
of MBR; whereas if the HRT is high, MBR has a good performance (Noor Sabrina et al., 2012)

1.4.3.2 Sludge Treatment Efficiency

To enhance the efficiency of anaerobic digestion for more biogas production, various
sludge pretreatment processes (solids conditioning) have been advanced in recent years to
improve these rate-limiting processes, including, e.g., mechanical means, thermal hydrolysis,
alkaline hydrolysis, and ultrasonic treatment. To reduce operating costs while increasing the
quality of the stabilized sludge, process modeling of anaerobic digestion has become an
important tool. (Noor Sabrina et al., 2012).

1.5

LAW/LEGAL ISSUES
Effluent guidelines are one component of the nations clean water program, established

by the 1972 Clean Water Act. The CWA requires EPA to promulgate effluent guidelines for new
categories of dischargers under certain circumstances. See CWA section 304(m)(1)(B) and (C).
In addition, the Clean Water Act requires that EPA periodically review existing effluent
guidelines, pretreatment standards, and standards of performance for new sources and to revise
them "if appropriate" or, in the case of new source performance standards, "as technology and
alternatives change". See CWA sections 301(d), 304(b), 304(g)(1), 306(b)(1)(B). In addition,
sections 304(e), 308(a), 402(a), and 501(a) of the CWA authorize the Administrator to prescribe
BMPs as part of effluent limitations guidelines and standards or as part of a permit.
The national clean water industrial regulatory program is authorized under sections 301, 304,
306 and 307 of the CWA and reflects seven core concepts.

1. Effluent guidelines are designed to address specific industrial categories. To date, we

have promulgated effluent guidelines that address 56 categoriesranging from
manufacturing industries such as petroleum refining to service industries such as
centralized waste treatment. These regulations apply to between 35,000 and 45,000
facilities that discharge directly to the Nation's waters, as well as another 12,000
facilities that discharge into wastewater treatment plants or publicly owned treatment
works (POTWs).

2. National effluent guidelines typically specify the maximum allowable levels of

pollutants that may be discharged by facilities within an industrial category or
subcategory. While the limits are based on the performance of specific technologies,
they do not generally require the industry to use these technologies, but rather allow
the industry to use any effective alternatives to meet the numerical pollutant limits.

3. Each facility within an industrial category or subcategory must generally comply with
the applicable discharge limits regardless of its location within the country or on a
particular water body. See CWA section 307(b) and (c); and CWA section 402(a)(1).

The regulations, therefore, constitute a single, standard, pollution control obligation for
all facilities within an industrial category or subcategory.

4. In establishing national effluent guidelines for pollutants, EPA conducts an assessment

of (1) the performance of the best pollution control technologies or pollution
prevention practices that are available for an industrial category or subcategory as a
whole; and (2) the economic achievability of that technology, which can include
consideration of costs, benefits, and affordability of achieving the reduction in
pollutant discharge.

5. National regulations apply to three types of facilities within an industrial category:

i)

Existing facilities that discharge directly to surface waters (i.e., direct

discharges) are governed by best practicable technology (BPT), best available

technology (BAT), or best conventional pollutant control technology (BCT);
ii)

Existing facilities that discharge to POTWs (indirect dischargers) are

governed by pretreatment standards for existing sources (PSES); and

iii)

Newly constructed facilities (new sources) that discharge to surface waters

either directly or indirectly are governed by new source performance standards

(NSPS) and pretreatment standards for new sources (PSNS).

6. The use of BMPs, either as an alternative to or to reduce the sampling and analysis to
demonstrate compliance with numeric limitations and standards of the final rule, are
directed, among other things, at preventing or otherwise controlling leaks, spills, and
discharges of toxic and hazardous pollutants.

7. Finally, the CWA requires an annual review of existing effluent guidelines and, if
appropriate, revision of these regulations to reflect changes in the industry and/or
changes in available pollution control technologies.

1.6

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

1.6.1 Physical

1.6.1.1 Advantages of screening process

Manually cleaned screens require little or no equipment maintenance and provide a good
alternative for smaller plants with few screenings. Mechanically cleaned screens tend to have
lower labor costs than manually cleaned screens and offer the advantages of improved flow
conditions and screening capture over manually cleaned screens. (Crites R and G.
tchobanoglous, 1998)

1.6.1.2 Disadvantages of screening process

Manually cleaned screens require frequent raking to avoid clogging and high backwater
levels that cause buildup of a solids mat on the screen. The increased raking frequency increases
labor costs. Removal of this mat during cleaning may also cause flow surges that can reduce the
solids-capture efficiency of downstream units. Mechanically cleaned screens are not subject to
this problem, but they have high equipment maintenance costs. (Qasim S, 1994)

1.6.2 Chemical

1.6.2.1 Disadvantages using Aluminium electrodes

Higher aluminum coagulant dosing leads to higher Cr(VI) removal but it adversely
affects the treatment efficiency as more aluminum coagulant is required per unit of pollutant
removal [29]. A comparison of aluminum electrodes with the popular iron electrodes for Cr(VI)
electrocoagulation, indicate that iron electrodes are better than aluminum ones. aluminum
electrodes were unsatisfactory for Cr(VI) removal and proposed that at nearly neutral pH both
electrochemical reduction (Cr(VI) to Cr(III)) at the cathode surface and adsorption on Al(OH)3
floc mechanisms were responsible for Cr(VI) exhaustion.

1.6.2.2 Disadvantages of Fe(III) photocatalytic reduction of Cr(VI) by organic acids

Higher soil loading is not beneficial to the improvement of Cr(VI) reduction due to the
decreased light penetration into the dissolved phase [52]. Fe(III) in soil particles reacts with citric
acid and tartaric acid to form a photochemically active complex, which can be transformed to
stronger reductants than the organic acids through a pathway of metalligandelectron transfer.
Consequently, the reduction of Cr(VI) is significantly accelerated.

1.6.3 Biological

1.6.3.1 Advantages using BNR process.

The objectives of side stream treatment are to use biological processes for removing
ammonia from recycle reject water to reduce the nitrogen load that must be handled in the
activated sludge process. A range of benefits have been identified for the different side stream
treatment systems, for example:
Seeding the activated sludge train with ammonia oxidizing bacteria (AOBs) and nitrite
oxidizing bacteria (NOBs) grown in the side-stream stage, allowing shorter SRTs
(bioaugmentation).
Less carbon substrate is required to denitrify nitrite rather than nitrate compared with
denitrification of a fully nitrified stream.
Less aeration and alkalinity are required to convert ammonia to nitrite rather than nitrate.
The significant benefit of the ANAMMOX process over conventional denitrification systems is
that no organic carbon is added for denitrification, and so there is no increased biosolids
production or emission of CO2. (Noor Sabrina et al., 2012)

1.6.3.2 The disadvantages of conventional BNRAS

One important limitation of these processes is that, because the retention time of
anaerobic selector is relatively small, slowly biodegradable COD from the influent is not
considered to be available for PAOs. As such, biological phosphorus removal in conventional
BNRAS is considered to be dependent on the availability of influent rbCOD. Another important
disadvantage of conventional BNRAS processes is that, overall, conventional BNRAS processes
require greater tank volumes with associated capital costs, particularly in cold climates where
reliability of nitrification is a concern. This is explained in terms of the growth rate of obligate
aerobic nitrifiers . (Zhirong hu et al., 2012)

1.6.3.3 The disadvantages of integrated fixed-film Activated Sludge Process

The primary disadvantage for this process, however, is that nitrification takes place
within a biofilm, which must have a sufficient degree of oxygen penetration to be reliable.
Because of biofilm thickness and the existence of a boundary layer, there can be significant
resistance to dissolved oxygen penetration into biofilms and, as a result, IFAS processes
typically require dissolved oxygen (DO) setpoints in the bulk liquid on the order of 4 to 6
mgO2=L as opposed to the 2 mgO2=L for conventional, suspended growth processes. (Zhirong
hu et al., 2012).

1.7

REFERENCES

Al-Layla, M. A., Ahmad, S., & Middlebrooks, E. J. (1980). Handbook of Waste Water
Collection and Treatment. (G. l. culp, Ed.) Garland STPM Press.

Metcalf, L., & Eddy, H. P. (1935). American Sewerage Practice. New York: McGraw-Hill Book
Company

Crites, R. and G. Tchobanoglous, 1998. Small and Decentralized Wastewater Management

Systems. The McGraw-Hill Companies. Boston, Massachusetts.

Qasim, S., 1994. Wastewater Treatment Plants: Planning, Design and Operation. Technomic
Publishing Co., Lancaster, Pennsylvania.

Reynolds, T. and P. Richards, 1996. Unit Operations and Processes in Environmental

Engineering. PWS Publishing Company. Boston, Massachusetts.
Ekama, G. A., andWentzel, M. C. (1999). Difficulties and development in biological nutrient
removal technology and modeling. Water Sci. Technol., 39(6), 111.

Carlos E. Barera-Diaz, Violeta Lugo-Lugo & Bryan Bilyeu , 2012. A Review of Chemical,
Electrochemical and Biological Methods for aqueous Cr (VI) Reduction. Journal of Hazordous
Material 223 224.

Noor Sabrina Ahmad Mutamin, Zainura Zainon Noor, Mohd Ariffin Abu Hassan & Gustaf
Olsson, 2012. Application of Membrane Bioreactor Technology in Treating High Strength
Industrial Wastewater. Desalination 1-11.

Zhirong Hu, Dwight Houweling & Peter Dold, 2012. Biological Nutrient Removal in Municipal
Wastewater Treatment: New direction in Sustainbility. American Society of Civil Engineers.