Subject 11: Outline

Rectification in pn Junctions
* The rectifier equation
* Electron and hole currents
* R-G currents

Spring 2014

EE 430/530: Fundamentals of Solid-State Devices

Subject 11, Slide 1/16

The Rectifier Equation

Today we develop a QUANTITATIVE analysis that allows us to compute the CURRENT that
flows through a pn junction in response to the application of an EXTERNAL voltage (Va)
* We begin by noting that a pn junction may be broken up into two QUASI-NEUTRAL
regions that surround the DEPLETION region
For the sake of the analysis here we will assume that the ELECTRIC FIELD in
these quasi-neutral regions is exactly equal to ZERO

!"
!"
!"
!"
!"

!"
!"
!"
!"
!"

!"
!"
!"
!"
!"

QUASI-NEUTRAL
REGION

!"
!"
!"
!"
!"

!"
!"
!"
!"
!"

x!=!#xp

!"
!"
!"
!"
!"
x!=!0

+"

+"

+"

+"

+"

+"

+"

+"

+"

+"

+"

+"

+"

+"

+"

+"

+"

+"

+"

+"

+"

+"

+"

+"

+"

+"

+"

+"

+"

+"

x!=!+xn

QUASI-NEUTRAL
REGION

E(x)

(x)

+qND

-xp
qNA
Spring 2014

+xn

EE 430/530: Fundamentals of Solid-State Devices

x
Subject 11, Slide 2/16

The Rectifier Equation

Since the electric field is equal to zero the electron and hole DRIFT currents that flow in
the quasi-neutral regions must ALSO be equal to zero

dn p
J N = J N drift + J N diffusion = qDn
dx

J P = J P drift + J P diffusion = qD p

dpn
dx

(11.1)

(11.2)

* Previously we obtained expressions for the MINORITY-CARRIER concentrations

under the influence of an external bias

Spring 2014

" x%
" qVa % %
ni2 "
pn (x) =
$exp $
' 1' exp $ ' , L p = D p
ND #
k
T
# B & &
# Lp &

(10.9)

" qVa % %
" x%
ni2 "
n p (x) =
$exp $
' 1' exp $ ' , Ln = D n
NA #
# kBT & &
# Ln &

(10.8)

EE 430/530: Fundamentals of Solid-State Devices

Subject 11, Slide 3/16

The Rectifier Equation

By combining Eqs. 10.9, 10.10, 11.1, and 11.2 we thus obtain expressions for the
electron and hole CURRENT DENSITIES in the junction

# qVa & &

# x&
dn p
Dn ni2 #
J N = qDn
=q
%exp %
( 1( exp % (
dx
Ln N A $
$ kBT ' '
$ Ln '

(11.3)

# x&
# qVa & &
D p ni2 #
dpn
J P = qD p
=q
%exp %
( 1( exp % (
dx
Lp N D $
k
T
$ B ' '
$ Lp '

(11.4)

* Note the DIFFERENT way in which the direction x is defined in these two equations
Eq. 11.4

!"
!"
!"
!"
!"
x

!"
!"
!"
!"
!"

!" !"
!" !"
!" !"
!" !"
!" !"

!" !"
!" !"
!" !"
!" !"
!" !"

!" !"
!" !"
!" !"
!" !"
!" !"

x!=!#xp
x = 0

Eq. 11.3

!" !"
!" !"
!" !"
!" !"
!" !"

!"
+" !"
+" !"
+" !"
+" !"
+"

+" +" +" +" +" +" +" +"

+"

+"

+" +" +" +" +" +" +" +"

+"

+"

+" +" +" +" +" +" +" +"

+"

+"

+" +" +" +" +" +" +" +"

+"

+"

+" +" +" +" +" +" +" +"

+"

+"

x!=!#xp x!=!+x
x!=!0
x!=!0
n

x!=!+xn

EE 430/530: Fundamentals of Solid-State Devices

-xp

x = 0

(x)

(x)
Spring 2014

!"
+" !"
+" !"
+" !"
+" !"
+"

-xp

+qND

Subject 11, Slide 4/16

+qND

The Rectifier Equation

By SUMMING the electron and hole currents we obtain the TOTAL junction current
* Due to Kirchhoff's law we need only perform this sum at a SINGLE point within the
junction and we do this here by summing the currents at x = 0 (justified later!)

! D n2 Dp n2 $
! ! qV $ $
a
n
i
i
I = A(J N + J P ) = I o #exp #
+
&
& 1& , I o = qA #
" " kBT % %
" Ln N A L p N D %

(11.5)

where have have taken the junction to have cross-sectional area A

1. WE EVALUATE JN HERE

!"
!"
!"
!"
!"
x

!"
!"
!"
!"
!"

!" !"
!" !"
!" !"
!" !"
!" !"

2. AND ADD TO THE

VALUE OF JP HERE

!" !"
!" !"
!" !"
!" !"
!" !"

!" !"
!" !"
!" !"
!" !"
!" !"

x!=!#xp
x = 0

!" !"
!" !"
!" !"
!" !"
!" !"

!"
+" !"
+" !"
+" !"
+" !"
+"

+" +" +" +" +" +" +" +"

+"

+"

+" +" +" +" +" +" +" +"

+"

+"

+" +" +" +" +" +" +" +"

+"

+"

+" +" +" +" +" +" +" +"

+"

+"

+" +" +" +" +" +" +" +"

+"

+"

x!=!#xp x!=!+x
x!=!0
x!=!0
n

x!=!+xn
x = 0

+qND

EE 430/530: Fundamentals of Solid-State Devices

-xp

(x)

(x)
Spring 2014

!"
+" !"
+" !"
+" !"
+" !"
+"

-xp

+x

+x

+qND

Subject 11, Slide 5/16

The Rectifier Equation

The IDEAL-DIODE equation (Eq. 11.5) predicts a forward-bias current that grows
dramatically once Va > kBT/q

! D n2 Dp n2 $
! ! qV $ $
a
n
i
i
I = A(J N + J P ) = I o #exp #
+
&
& 1& , I o = qA #
k
T
L
N
L
N
" " B % %
" n A
p
D%

(11.5)

* Under REVERSE bias the current is expected to be roughly CONSTANT and equal to
the REVERSE SATURATION CURRENT (Io) whose value is NEGLIGIBLY small in the
range of pA

I (mA)

Dn ni2
I o = qA
, N D >> N A
Ln N A

I (mA)

-5

-5

-4

-4

-3

-3

-2

-2

-1

-1

Spring 2014

1
-2

REVERSE BIAS:
NEGLIGIBLE
CURRENT

FORWARD
CONDUCTION

-2

D p ni2
I o = qA
, N A >> N D
Lp N D

V (V)

IN A JUNCTION WITH HEAVY DOPING ON

ONE SIDE Io IS DETERMINED BY THE DOPING
DENSITY ON THE LIGHTLY-DOPED SIDE

EE 430/530: Fundamentals of Solid-State Devices

Subject 11, Slide 6/16

Electron and Hole Currents

The rectifier equation gives the TOTAL current that flows through the junction under the
influence of an externally applied voltage
* This total current is INDEPENDENT of position within the pn junction as required by
Kirchoffs current law
* The INDIVIDUAL electron and hole currents are generally NOT independent of
position however
In the QUASI-NEUTRAL regions Equations 11.3 & 11.4 show that the MINORITY
carrier currents DECAY exponentially with distance due to recombination

Spring 2014

# qVa & &

# x&
dn p
Dn ni2 #
J N = qDn
=q
%exp %
( 1( exp % (
dx
Ln N A $
$ kBT ' '
$ Ln '

(11.3)

# x&
# qVa & &
D p ni2 #
dpn
J P = qD p
=q
%exp %
( 1( exp % (
dx
Lp N D $
k
T
$ B ' '
$ Lp '

(11.4)

EE 430/530: Fundamentals of Solid-State Devices

Subject 11, Slide 7/16

Electron and Hole Currents

INSIDE the depletion regions the electric field is NOT equal to zero and we must use the
continuity equations to compute the electron and hole currents
* If we consider a diode under STEADY-STATE conditions then the continuity
equations (Eqs. 7.4 & 7.5) inside the depletion region become

n 1
n
n
= JN +
+
t q
t thermal t Other

(7.4)

RG

p
1
p
p
= JP +
+
t
q
t thermal t Other

(7.5)

RG

* In the IDEAL-DIODE APPROXIMATION we assumed NO R-G processes within the

depletion region which requires in turn that the electron and hole currents in this
region must be INDEPENDENT of position

n
1 dJ N n
=0=
+
t
q dx t Thermal

(11.6)

RG

p
1 dJ P p
=0=
+
t
q dx t Thermal
RG

NO R-G PROCESSES!

Spring 2014

(11.7)

EE 430/530: Fundamentals of Solid-State Devices

NO R-G PROCESSES!

Subject 11, Slide 8/16

Electron and Hole Currents

With these considerations in mind the electron and hole currents inside a pn junction
may be sketched as shown below
* The minority-carrier currents decay exponentially away from the edges of the
depletion region
The majority-carrier currents counteract this variation in a manner that keeps
the TOTAL current CONSTANT at any particular point
* Inside the depletion region the electron and hole currents are CONSTANT

JN,P
JN,P

JP
2. MAJORITY CURRENT
COMPENSATES FOR CHANGE
OF MINORITY CURRENT

JN
JP

JN

1. DECAY ON A FEW
MINORITY-CARRIER
DIFFUSION LENGTHS, Ln

1. DECAY ON A FEW
MINORITY-CARRIER
DIFFUSION LENGTH, Lp

-xp

-xp

Spring 2014

2. MAJORITY CURRENT
COMPENSATES FOR CHANGE
OF MINORITY CURRENT

xn

xn

EE 430/530: Fundamentals of Solid-State Devices

Subject 11, Slide 9/16

Electron and Hole Currents

We have seen that in FORWARD bias the minority-carrier concentrations are INCREASED
around the depletion region
* In REVERSE bias these concentrations are SUPPRESSED due to the associated
suppression of carrier diffusion across the junction
The depletion region essentially acts as a SINK for minority carriers
* Reverse-bias voltages of only a few kBT/q reduce the minority concentrations to
ZERO at the edge of the depletion region

n
LAW OF THE JUNCTION (Eq. 10.5):

MINORITY
CONCENTRATIONS
SUPPRESSED NEAR
DEPLETION
REGION DUE TO
INCREASED
BARRIER FOR
DIFFUSION

! qVa $
np = n exp #
&
k
T
" B %
2
i

Va < 0
ni2/ND

ni2/ND

ni2/NA

ni2/NA

-xp

-xp

xn

xn

SUPPRESSED MINORITY-CARRIER CONCENTRATIONS IN A pn JUNCTION UNDER REVERSE BIAS

Spring 2014

EE 430/530: Fundamentals of Solid-State Devices

Subject 11, Slide 10/16

R-G Currents

In deriving the rectifier equation it was assumed that NO R-G processes occur within the
depletion region
* In real junctions typically those fabricated in Si and GaAs it is found that in
reverse bias or with a small forward bias the current can noticeably EXCEED Io
This is due to ADDITIONAL current that is generated by R-G processes taking
place within the depletion region itself
* In REVERSE bias mode GENERATION of electron holes pairs in the depletion region
enhances the DRIFT current above its expected value

ELECTRON
DRIFT
R-G ELECTRON
DRIFT

qVeff

e-h PAIR
GENERATION

Ec
EF

R-G HOLE
DRIFT
HOLE
DRIFT

Spring 2014

SCHEMATIC ILLUSTRATION OF R-G CURRENTS

IN A REVERSE-BIASED pn JUNCTION
ELECTRONS AND HOLES CREATED IN THE
DEPLETION REGION ARE RAPIDLY SWEPT AWAY
BY THE HIGH ELECTRIC FIELD IN THIS REGION
IN THIS CASE IT CAN BE SEEN THAT R-G
PROCESSES ENHANCE THE DRIFT CURRENT IN
THE JUNCTION WHICH THEREFORE EXCEEDS THE
EXPECTED REVERSE SATURATION CURRENT Io

Ev

EE 430/530: Fundamentals of Solid-State Devices

Subject 11, Slide 11/16

R-G Currents

In FORWARD bias mode the main effect of R-G processes is to cause an ENHANCEMENT
of the RECOMBINATION rate
* Remember that forward biasing basically INCREASES the carrier concentrations in
the depletion regions above their equilibrium values
* This in turn gives rise to an enhanced recombination rate within the depletion region
that effectively corresponds to an ENHANCEMENT of the DIFFUSION current

ELECTRON
DRIFT

ELECTRON
DIFFUSION
RECOMBINATION OF ELECTRONS AND HOLES
INSIDE THE DEPLETION REGION IN A FORWARD
BIASED pn JUNCTION

Ec
EF

A LARGE DIFFUSION CURRENT IS CARRIED BY

THOSE ELECTRONS AND HOLES (THICK ARROWS)
IN THE DEPLETION REGION WITH SUFFICIENT
ENERGY TO OVERCOME THE BARRIER THAT
EXISTS TO THE DIFFUSION OF CURRENT
THE DIFFUSION CURRENTS ARE MUCH LARGER
THAN THE CORRESPONDING ELECTRON AND HOLE
DRIFT CURRENTS (SMALLER ARROWS)

qVeff
Ev

HOLE
DIFFUSION
Spring 2014

THE DIFFUSION CURRENTS ARE EFFECTIVELY

ENHANCED WHEN CARRIERS WITH INSUFFICIENT
ENERGY TO OVERCOME THE DIFFUSION BARRIER
RECOMBINE (BLACK ARROWS) AND ARE THUS
EFFECTIVELY ELIMINATED

HOLE
DRIFT
EE 430/530: Fundamentals of Solid-State Devices

Subject 11, Slide 12/16

R-G Currents

To compute the current due to R-G processes in the depletion region we note that for
every electron-hole PAIR created or destroyed per unit time in the depletion region ONE
electron per unit time flows into or out of the diode contacts
* SUMMING over either the electrons or holes created within the depletion region per
unit time should therefore give the additional current due to R-G processes
xn =0

%
%
%

I RG = qA

xp

n
dx
t thermal

(11.8)

RG

Note here that the minus sign accounts for the POLARITY of the current
* Previously (see Subjects 5 & 6) we have been able to express the rate of change of
carrier concentrations due to R-G processes using expressions of the form

n
n
=
t thermal
n

(11.9)

RG

This approach CANNOT be used here however since the R-G processes taking
place in the depletion region do NOT correspond to low-level injection

Spring 2014

EE 430/530: Fundamentals of Solid-State Devices

Subject 11, Slide 13/16

R-G Currents

IR-G must be calculated by properly solving for STEADY-STATE conditions under R-G
processes with the depletion region an analysis that is BEYOND the scope of our present
discussion
* In REVERSE bias it may be shown that the additional drift current due to electronhole pair creation may be written as

I RG =

qAni
W
2 o

(11.10)

Where o is a LIFETIME associated with R-G center generation and depends on

the ENERGY of the R-G centers
* In Si and GaAs diodes at room temperature IR-G in Eq. 11.10 is much GREATER
than the ideal-diode current expected at reverse bias and small forward bias
In Ge however the larger value of ni makes Io much larger than IR-G

! D n2 Dp n2 $
i
I o = qA # n i +
& > I RG
L
N
L
N
" n A
p
D%

Spring 2014

EE 430/530: Fundamentals of Solid-State Devices

(11.11)

Subject 11, Slide 14/16

R-G Currents

While the ideal-diode equation predicts a CONSTANT current (-Io) for a wide range of
reverse bias the R-G current GROWS with increasing |Va|

I RG =

qAni
W
2 o

(11.10)

* The growth of the R-G current follows from the increase in the WIDTH of the
depletion region under reverse biasing
As the width of the depletion region grows the volume involved in the creation
of electron-hole pairs INCREASES leading to a larger R-G current
REVERSE BIAS, Va (V)
-40

-40

-30

-30

REVERSE BIAS, Va (V)

-20

-20

-10

-10

Spring 2014

-200
Si pn JUNCTION
300 K
-300

-200

REVERSE CURRENT (pA)

-100 -100

REVERSE-BIAS
R-G CURRENT
GROWS WITH
INCREASING
BIASING

REVERSE-BIAS
BREAKDOWN
DIFFERENT IN
ORIGIN TO R-G
CURRENT

REVERSE CURRENT (pA)

NOTE UNITS!

-300

EE 430/530: Fundamentals of Solid-State Devices

Subject 11, Slide 15/16

R-G Currents

For small FORWARD bias it is found that the R-G current typically varies with voltage as

$ qVa '
k BT
I RG exp &
,
V
>
)
a
q
% k BT (

(13.5)

* In this expression the parameter is an empirical IDEALITY FACTOR whose value

depends on the relative magnitude of the R-G and forward-bias diffusion currents
When IDEAL diffusion dominates = 1 but when R-G processes dominate = 2

FORWARD CURRENT (A)

10-1

= 1

10-3

Si
GaAs

10-5

= 1

= 2
= 2

10-7

300 K
10-9

0.4

0.8

1.2

FORWARD BIAS, Va (V)

Spring 2014

EE 430/530: Fundamentals of Solid-State Devices

Subject 11, Slide 16/16