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abstract
This paper presents a brief review of activities in laminar ow control being performed at the Central
Aerohydrodynamic Institute named after Prof. N.E. Zhukovsky (TsAGI). These efforts are focused on the
improvement of the existing laminar ow control methods and on the development of new ones. The
investigations have demonstrated the effectiveness of aircraft surface laminarization applications with
the aim of friction drag reduction. The opportunity of considerable delaying of laminarturbulent
transition due to special wing prole geometry and using boundary layer suction and surface cooling has
been veried at sub- and supersonic speeds through various wind tunnel testing at TsAGI and during
ying laboratory experiments at the Flight Research Institute (LII). The investigations on using hybrid
laminar ow control systems for friction drag reduction were also carried out. New techniques of laminar
ow control were proposed, in particular, the method of local heating of the wing leading edge, boundary
layer laminarization by means of receptivity control, and electrohydrodynamic methods of boundary
layer stability control.
& 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Laminarturbulent transition
Laminar ow control
Friction drag reduction
Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Natural laminar ow concept investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Investigations of boundary layer suction systems use for laminar ow control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Laminarturbulent transition delay by local surface heating in the nose part of the body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Boundary layer development control by excitation of articial turbulent spots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Laminar ow control (LFC) in 3D boundary layer by receptivity control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Laminar ow control (LFC) in high-speed boundary layer with the help of passive porous coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Electrogasdynamic methods of LFC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.
Increase of boundary layer stability on a at plate owing to streamwise impact of direct current corona discharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.
Increase of boundary layer stability on a at plate owing to transverse volumetric force impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3.
Attenuation of cross-ow-type instability in 3D compressible boundary layer by electrogasdynamic impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Concluding remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Introduction
Investigations on the development of energy-saving and environmentally appropriate technologies in aviation are being actively
performed in many countries. Friction drag reduction is one of the
main pursuits to achieve fuel economy, decrease in harmful
emission of airplane engines, and, if possible, in sonic boom levels
(for supersonic aircraft). Numerous previous investigations have
Corresponding author. Tel.: + 7 495 556 4172; fax: + 7 495 777 6332.
E-mail address: a-ph-kiselev@ya.ru (A.Ph. Kiselev).
0376-0421/$ - see front matter & 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.paerosci.2010.11.001
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184
170
Fig. 1. The results of investigations of the surface cooling inuence on the laminarturbulent transition at the supersonic ow velocities in the TsAGI T-116 wind tunnel:
(a) straight wingtransition onset: 1M 3.0, 2M 3.5, 3M 4.0; end of transition zone: 4M 3.0, 5M 3.5, 6M 4.0; (b) body of revolutionM 4.0
(transition onset).
Latest research on laminar ow control at TsAGI were concentrated on perfecting known passive and semi-active methods and
on the development of novel methods of laminarturbulent
transition delay of all three mentioned types. Particularly, these
researches included:
171
Fig. 3. The computed N-factor (1) versus Reynolds number Rex and the correlation
between N-factor and the estimations of transition location calculated with the use
of simple empirical criteriaSchlichtingGranville (SG) and Brown (2), SG and
BarinovLutovinov (3), SG and Arnal C1 (4) at typical Z 5.9 m section on the upper
surface of the wing.
172
Fig. 4. Integral skin friction drag coefcient CF versus unit Reynolds number Re1 in
X-direction at typical Z 5.9 m section on the upper surface of the wing at transition
location estimated by various criteriaSchlichtingGranville (SG) and Brown (1),
SG and BarinovLutovinov (2), SG and Arnal C1 (3); (4)fully laminar ow,
(5)fully turbulent ow.
Fig. 6. The correlation of N-factor distribution calculated at the middle-span section
on the upper surface of the LV6 swept wing model with the measured transition
locations at various experimental conditions.
173
Fig. 7. The results of the transition visualization on the model using the China-clay method at UN 60 m/s, w 401, initial turbulence level of ow is 0.030.04%. awithout
suction, Reynolds number of transition Retr 1.8 106; bwith air suction through two perforated strips; total coefcient of the suction mass ow rate Cq 7 10 5;
Retr 3 106.
Fig. 8. Inuence of suction ow rate on the variation of the relative drag coefcient
of the swept wing middle section for various free stream Mach and Reynolds
numbers.
method with the help of total pressure rake which was mounted in
the wing wake.
During the experiment air suction was carried out under various
laws through 2, 3 and 5 strips of perforation near the leading edge
on a small region (less than 10% of a chord). The maximum drag
reduction of a cross-section of a swept wing achieving 14% at
M0.3 was reached at suction of small intensity (total coefcient of
the suction mass ow rate Cq Cq opt r11 10 5) (see Fig. 8).
The main purpose of these tests was to nd the optimum
parameters of the suction system. It is evident from the diagrams in
Fig. 8 that minimum drag is obtained at the optimal suction
intensity and then begins to increase as the mass ow rate
continues to rise. The reason for decrease in efciency of suction
with increased Cq is an excess of the allowable level of the
disturbances brought in a ow by orices of perforation that
results in ow turbulization.
Thus, to achieve maximum effect from the application of a
suction system we must dene optimum or critical parameters
of ow in strips of perforation orices, providing the maximal
laminarization effect. Critical values of the perforation orices
Reynolds numbers Red as well as critical values of the EllisePoll
parameter [20] were obtained in these experiments (see Fig. 9).
These parameters are introduced as Red rhVhd/mh and EllisePoll
parameter is generalized here as PV rhVhd2/(reVedn2), where d is
the orice diameter, r, m, V are the density, dynamic viscosity
and velocity, dn is the integral boundary layer thickness, indexes
h and e refer to the parameters in the hole and in the
external ow.
Comparison of results of calculations of characteristics of
hydrodynamic stability with the data of the experimental research
of laminarturbulent transition described above without and
174
Fig. 9. Critical values of the perforation orices Reynolds numbers Red and generalized EllisePoll parameter PV (Cqisuction mass ow rate through ith perforated band).
Fig. 10. Dependences of the hydraulic resistance coefcient z from f parameter: 1for slots f d/(Rett), z 1.62 + 24f; 2for orices f d/(Redd), z 2.16+ 64f; dslot or
orice depth, tslot width; dorice hydraulic diameter.
175
Fig. 12. Relative displacement of transition location by the model nose heating vs.
Reynolds number.
Fig. 14. Output ripple of the hot-wire anemometer at the natural (a) and controlled
(b) boundary layer development, frequency f 21 Hz.
176
Fig. 15. Passage of TollmienSchlichting wave above the site of a surface containing
system of active control.
Fig. 16. Effectiveness of the active control system vs. disturbance frequency.
177
Fig. 17. Streamwise distribution of surface temperature increase (left) and passage of incoming disturbance over heated site of a wall (right).
Fig. 19. Relative difference between amplitude of disturbances in case of rigid and
porous surface of a cone depending on longitudinal dimensionless coordinate:
1experiment; 2numerical simulation.
wave number b 0.8. Fig. 17 demonstrates the process of cancellation of cross-ow instability vortices by selective heating. The
distribution of controlling increase of the wall temperature is
shown on the left part of Fig. 17. The form of the disturbance is
shown on the right part by the solid line (Real A) for the spanwise
coordinate z0 and by the dashed line (Im A) for z p/(2b). In the
upstream region the disturbance is given by the incoming system of
natural cross-ow instability vortices A(x) exp(iax) with wave
number a 0.496i0.023. The most intensive oscillations take
place over the middle of the controlling temperature irregularity. In
the downstream region the disturbance takes the form of quickly
relaxing mode of wave number a 0.392+ i0.059.
Comparison of three semi-active methods of suppression of crossow-type instability was executed. Fig. 18 shows the behavior of the
amplitude of disturbance 9A9 in the cases of spanwise-periodic
roughness, suction-blowing, and heating (curves 2 4). The amplitude of incoming disturbance equals 9A91 in the point x 0 in
absence of any impact (curve 1). The coefcients of preliminary
amplication dened as 9A9 at x0 are equal to 28, 16, and 9 for
roughness, suction-blowing, and heating, respectively. This comparison reveals the advantage of selective heating of a wing surface
because this method permits the prevention of laminarturbulent
transition of the by-pass type directly above the control site at
sufciently large initial amplitude of suppressed vortices.
178
Fig. 20. Proles of the relative induced velocity at distances 20 mm (a) and 30 mm (b) from the ionic source (anode): 1experiment and 2numerical simulation.
179
Fig. 21. Curves of neutral stability in cross-sections of boundary layer x xa 1, 2, 3, and 4 cm (curves (14)) for V 20 kV, I 0.05 mA/m (a) and 0.1 mA/m (b), for V 30 kV and
I 0.1 mA/m (c). Neutral curve for Blasius ow (curves 5).
Fig. 23. Proles of the second derivative of longitudinal velocity in Blasius variables
in cross-section x xa 1 cm, notations (1)(3) as in Fig. 6, the second derivative of
velocity in Blasius ow (curve 4).
180
Fig. 25. Dependences of increments oi on Reynolds number Rex for a 0.07, 0.05,
0.025 (curves 13). Solid curveswith force, dashed curveswithout it.
181
in its decline. One can see in Fig. 27a, that this attenuation of crossow velocity due to EGD-impact becomes more signicant as the
angle g between the external streamline and the x-axis decreases
[60]. Because increments of stationary vortices of the cross-owtype instability are approximately proportional to maximum
values of the cross-ow velocity [61], the mentioned attenuation
of cross-ow will lead to a decrease of these increments.
The dielectric barrier discharge seems to be more suitable for
practical realization of the proposed method because of its ability
to operate over wide ranges of gas pressure and geometric scales,
simplicity and reliability of conguration, and a possibility to
control its characteristics over a wide range. Both experimental and
theoretical investigations of DBD-actuators are being carried out at
TsAGI [6264]. However, the numerical solution of three-dimensional non-stationary problems describing the dielectric barrier
discharge in a 3D boundary layer on a swept wing is very much of a
challenge. Therefore, to do an estimation of effects of discharge
inuence on gas ows most researchers apply the simplied
approach by introducing into the NavierStokes equations some
terms modeling volumetric forces and heat release generated by
DBD [6569].
The above mentioned approach was used at TsAGI for theoretical estimations of the possibility of attenuation of cross-ow-type
instability in a laminar boundary layer on a swept wing owing to
boundary layer acceleration along a wing leading edge with the
help of DBD-actuators. It is shown in [67] that the velocity
pulsations caused by non-stationary volumetric force sources in
a compressible laminar boundary layer poorly depend on ow
velocity but are considerably weakened with an increase in
frequency and relative duration of sources. Therefore, boundary
layer ow can be considered as quasi-stationary at a high enough
frequency of DBD. Time averaged spatial distributions of
Fig. 26. Schematic pattern of LFC method with the use of plasma actuators.
Fig. 27. Decomposition of velocity vector in 3D boundary layer (a), distribution of intensity of volumetric force source used in calculations (b).
182
viscosity mN 1.5 kg/(ms). The three-dimensional spanwiseperiodical boundary layer is simulated in the vicinity of the
leading edge of an innite span swept wing with the sweep
angle w 251. The characteristic length of the problem is
taken as l VN(due/dx) 1 0.05 m, where (due/dx) is the external
velocity gradient along the x-axis. Calculations were executed for
due/dxconst to obtain the estimation of the method effectiveness
at maximal cross-ow. The boundary layer thickness on a critical
line at given parameters is evaluated as d E0.4 mm and remains
almost constant downstream because of intense external ow
acceleration.
Note that the value of the volumetric force used, /F1S0.02 N/m,
is remarkably smaller than the maximum force generated by a single
DBD-actuator measured in the experiments [69]. A very important
point for practical application characteristic of a DBD-actuator is the
coefcient of energy efciency dened as E/F1S//Q1S [70]. In the
case of the considered LFC method, this characteristic determines not
only the required power consumption but the working capacity of
the method too, as it is shown below. According to experiments [71],
the coefcient energy efciency of a DBD-actuator can vary in the
range 17 10 4 s/m depending on, for example, the form and size
of the exposed electrode. Therefore, this coefcient may be
considered in theoretical considerations as a variable parameter
at a given volumetric force /F1S.
Calculations were executed for the following four values of
the efciency coefcient: EN, 10 3, 5 10 4, 2.5 10 4 s/m.
It corresponds to the power consumption per unit of a wing surface
/QS0, 2, 4, 8 kW/m2 at given values /F1S 0.02 N/m and
NS 100 m 1. Periodical localized impact of force and heat sources
results in signicant spanwise nonuniformity of boundary layer
ow. Fig. 28 shows distributions of the maximum cross-ow
velocity referred to the free-stream velocity VN along the x-axis
for two values of the efciency coefcient. These distributions
represent the extent of the mentioned nonuniformity. Volumetric
force impact without heat release (EN, Fig. 28a) results in crossow attenuation on the whole. But volumetric heat release results
in cross-ow amplication over the major part of the interval
between adjacent sources. As a consequence, the maximum crossvelocity averaged along this interval slightly increases as compared
to the cross-ow without impact (Fig. 28b).
Thus, a negative inuence of gas heating inside a boundary layer
on its stability appears through cross-ow intensication. This
effect results from the momentum equation ru du/dx E dp/dx.
Gas heating at a given static pressure is accompanied by density
decrease. Since the streamwise pressure gradient dp/dx is determined by an external inviscid ow, a decrease of gas density r
results in an increase of the product u du/dx and, hence, the velocity
Fig. 29. Proles of span-averaged dimensionless cross-ow velocity in the crosssection x/l 1 without impact (curve 1), with impact for E N, 10 3, 5 10 4,
2.5 10 4 s/m (curves 25).
183
9. Concluding remarks
In spite of 10 years of investigations and remarkable efforts of
many groups of researchers in various countries, the problem of
laminar ow control still remains very urgent from both theoretical
184
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