Introduction Part I

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY ENGINEERING

AND HEALTH MANAGEMENT
Safety and the Field of Safety Engineering

Risk and Life are Inseparable

Definition establishes foundation of any

concept, field of studies and professions. One of the
marks of the profession is the existence of a unique
terminology that has specific meanings. Safety
engineering has extensive terminology, with welldefined meanings. But the basic word safety is often
poorly defined and poorly understood because of lack of
insight and, given the insight, lack of consistency
(JAMES COVAN).

In order to survive, man has acquired instinctive

habits and reflexes to protect him from more common
hazards. As it is impossible to eliminate hazard since it is
inevitable in mans daily activity, therefore safety is not
absolute. The definition above is the general perception
of safety. Yet in the engineering side, safety is not
absolute. The American Society of Safety Engineers
(ASSE) prefers to use for a safety definition is the more
practical connotation of relative safety. Technically,
SAFETY defines as relative matter of freedom or
protection from risk or dangers. It is a degree of freedom
from risks or hazards in any environment- home, office,
factory, mine, schools, construction sites, supermarket,
malls, or their environs. Some risks are more easily
reduced or eliminate than others. Now, how safe is
safe? as others usually ask. Safe is relative nothing is
100% safe under all conditions (GLOSS AND WARDLE;

This introductory chapter is intended to provide

explicit definition of safe or safety as a concept and
principle. It caters the very simple definition up to the
technical one as applied in professional practice. As well
as the OSHS of the Philippines concept of safety is
presented in this section. There might be other definition
which not sighted in this part but the author believes that
what presented here is accepted by most of all safety
professionals and practitioner in the country and abroad.
These definitions were source out from different widely
used references on occupational safety and health
management. These terms were also verified from the
conceptual description of the International Labour
Organization (ILO) on its published encyclopaedia on
Occupational Safety and Health.

EMPHASIES ADDED).

This part will also discuss safety engineering as a

profession- its description, goals, functions and roles in
the industry. The present status of the profession and its
future is presented here as well. This is intended to
provide appropriate level of importance to safety
profession and its significance today particularly in the
Philippine Economy and Industry.

As example, there is always some case in which

a relatively safe material, building structure or piece of
equipment becomes hazardous. This happens due to
different factors and conditions where this material or
machine is subjected. These are verified by our topics in
Strength of Materials and Material Science. For example,
eating food usually considered safe so as drinking water.
But these cam become hazardous if one takes too much,
since these can cause stomach and kidney failure. We
can never achieve absolute safety. What we can is to
maintain certain level or relative safety condition, which
is subjected to different situations. Therefore readiness is
indispensable in the management of safety in any
industry.

WHAT IS SAFETY?

Safety in the Philippine Context

Safety in a broad sense commonly referred as

freedom from hazards or accident. This means
keeping ones self away from dangers, injuries or
damages. In a simple definition, it is the opposite of
danger. Dictionaries defined safety as the quality or
state of not presenting risk. Or the condition from
being safe: freedom from being threatened by danger or
injury. Danger states the degree of exposure to a
hazard, while hazard is defined as the condition with
potential of causing injury or damages. In the industry,
safety is applied not only to human, but as well to
property and other vital resources.

In the Philippines, the Occupational Safety and

Health Standards (OSH) defines safe or safety as
condition or state on which compliance to the provisions
of the said standards is being maintained. The OSH is
promulgated by the Department of Labour and
Employment (DOLE) through its Bureau f Working
Conditions (BWC). Its interpretation on the level of
safety condition is dependent on the implementation and
adherence of the prescribed standard provided by the
law- OSHS and the Labour Code of the Philippines.
Deviation from the said standards means putting the
workers or any individual and the resources into risk,
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hazard or danger which potentially causes accident or

damage.

BASIC FUNCTIONS AND DUTIES OS A

SAFETY ENGINEER

SAFETY ENGINEERING AND ITS GOALS

The Safety Engineer is a professional

committed to making the work environment as safe as
possible by focusing on any or all of the following jobs;
accident prevention; human factors; the interface
between the workplace and the environments; design of
layout and equipment; management and supervision of
safety trainings; and being safety consultant to the
foreman, supervisors and management.

In its old original technical definition, safety

engineering means improving or redesigning of
machinery, equipment, and processes, so that hazards are
not merely covered up by eliminated and at the same
time efficiency and production are increased. For social
and professional view, safety engineering is the
discipline that attempts to reduce the risks by eliminating
hazards. It is the planning and executing for the
safeguarding of workers from personal injuries and
industrial property from damages arising out of accident.
Occupational Safety Engineering trains student
and technical people for professional engineering
services in the field of safety at work, to develop
accident- preventive measures, to calculate safety levels,
and to direct accident prevention programs at or
eliminate work.
The main goal of safety engineering is to reduce
accidents and control or eliminate hazards in the
workplace. Ideally, if accidents could be entirely
eliminated, there would be no need for fire or casualty
insurance, workers compensation insurance claim would
be a thing of the past, and safety engineers would be
standing in the unemployment line (GLOSS AND
WARDLE). But this is not the case of any industry today.
A big amount in the annual budget of most companies
goes to compensating employees who suffered from
unwanted accident. The most recent reports from the
BWC of DOLE show that millions of persons are
considered to be national losses due to accident.

Out of his principal function is to act as the

employers principal assistant and consultant in the
application of programs to remove the hazards in the
workplace and correct unsafe work practices (RULE 1047
OSHS, PHILIPPINES). He is identified as the safety man
of the organization. Therefore the task of assuring the
conservation of valuable manpower resources and the
prevention of loss or damages to lives and properties lies
on his shoulders. He has to observe the prevention of
every working man against the dangers of injury,
occupational deceases or death through safe and
healthful condition in the areas of his responsibility.
Since the function of safety engineer matters life
and death as well as the protection of organizations
resources, therefore this only means that mediocrity on
his part must have no room. His many and varied duties
will keep him busy at all times.
Provide here are the 10 duties of a safety
engineer. Maybe this list is incomplete as compare to
others but sufficient enough to substantiate the foregoing
statement.
1.

For the present, however it is more realistic to

aim for annual reductions in the number of accidents and
in the number of workers compensation insurance
claims. These can be measured and quantified through
accident frequency rate and severity rate.
The goals of safety engineering can be
accomplished only with the support of top management
through its leadership. A safe and healthful working
environment, and with the cooperation of workers who
have been well trained in safety is another important
factor in achieving its goals (T.J. ANTON). Productivity
is the industrys term in quantifying the contribution of
safety profession in the overall performance of any
enterprise. Preventing accident to happen or controlling
its effect by minimizing damages to human and property
means cost saving measures and not just additional fixed
cost in the manufacturing/service operation. Definitely,
through cost- benefit analysis, it will show that safety
increases productivity.

He Must Plan the Safety Program

Accident prevention is a planned activity,

requiring forethought (BERNAL). Planning is the first
and fundamental function of management. All starts from
it. The safety program which developed by the safety
engineer together with his co- workers will serves as
guidelines and plays an important role in the
implementation of strategies in order to meet the goals
and objectives of the organization. There must be a
black-and-white basis for the safety engineers
undertaking. The output of the collective planning is a
Safety Program, which is intended to be implemented
within the organization.
2.

He Must Implement and Supervise the Safety

Program

There is no other person in the organization that

will implement the safety program other than the safety
engineer himself. It is the next concern- to execute his
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plan. Bernal states on his book that a program of

accident prevention is never self-sufficient. It may be
conceived by the insight of a master safety mind, but it
will never become self- propelled. Like other work it
must be carefully implemented and supervised. The level
of satisfying the program is also depending on the level
of supervision a safety engineer provides.
3.

He Must Coordinate the Safety Program

Any program in the organization needs to be

coordinated with other functions. Since all organization
is a complex mixture of systems, coordination is a must.
This will allow smooth implementation and minimizes
conflict arising from miscommunication and overlapping
of activities. The safety engineer must coordinate all his
efforts and plans to all concerned managers that will be
involved in the implementation of the safety program.
Their support and active participation are essentials in
the success of the program.
4.

He Must Investigate Accidents

Information and facts are very vital in decisionmaking. Decisions like what to be dine, who will be
trained and how things to be done require data to support
a proposition. A safety engineer must be prepared and
skilful in generating information and facts relating to an
accident through direct investigation. This will enable
him to explore new ways and means to prevent and
minimize a recurrence of an accident.
6.

7.

He Must Advertise Safety

Safety is everybodys business. No

undertaking intended to maintain safety would be
successful without the participation of everyone in the
organization. Therefore all members must be
knowledgeable of the safety drive initiated by the safety
engineer. This necessitates promotion of the safety
program. It will also start from massive companywide
information drive up to the trainings and educational
activities that increases the awareness of all concerns.
Activities that will that will motivate and steer up the
enthusiasm of the employees will do help, such as
recognition, awards and incentives to deserving
individuals or groups in the organization.
8.

He Must Be Informed on the Accident

Experience of Others

He Must Conduct Plant Inspections

A prominent management philosophy says all

problems result from changes. People, material,
equipment and the environment are constantly changing.
As engineers, we already took lessons from our Material
Science and Strength of Materials subject about these
factors of change. Some changes remove previous
hazards others create new ones. This is one inspection is
one of the major duties of a safety engineer. His
inspection focuses on these changes and helps identify
and solve the problems. There must be a systematic
plant inspection program for a particular purpose under
his safety program.
5.

well manages without the help of proper data recording

and statistical analysis.

He Must Obtain Accident Records and

Statistics

Every data and information is needed to be

stored. It must be well- kept for further evaluation or
future utilization. These data relating to accidents and
safety must be statistically treated to draw conclusion for
decision- making. These can also serve as tool or
instrument for evaluating the safety performance of a
unit in the organization or as a whole. No program of
management like quality, productivity or safety can be

Theres a saying that history repeats itself.

Anyone who doesnt learn its lesson is destined to be a
victim of its repetition therefore; it is a must for every
safety engineer to be informed and aware of whats
happening around him. Others experiences related to
accident and safety can be a good supplement in
evaluating hazards and other possible causes of accidents
within your area of responsibility. In the Philippines, the
Ozone Disco Tragedy, Cherry Hills Subdivision in
Antipolo, and the Payatas Dumpsite Landslide are
unwanted events that we have to consider in managing
safety and health issues in the industry.
9.

He Must Participate in Community Safety

The Cannons of Ethics for Engineers mandated

every engineering professional to ensure safety, health
and welfare to the public. His talent and skills as the
knowledgeable person relating to safety must not only be
disposed for the benefit of his/her employers alone.
In the Philippines, number of cases and conflict
arising between the public and the industry are being
experienced, most often in the installation of
developmental projects like power generation facilities
and large scale industrial projects. This is because the
community that will be affected fear their lives against
the danger that will bring up by the industrial facilities.
However, the conflict can be attributed to lack of
communication between the industry professionals and
the public community. In this regard, massive public
information and community information and community
relation should be established by the safety man in order
for the public to realize the companys concern is not
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only profit, but also concerned with the welfare and

safety of the community affected by their operations.

e.

Engineers should seek opportunities to be of

constructive service in civic affairs and work for
the advancement of the safety, health and wellbeing of their communities, and the protection of
the environment through the practice of sustainable
development.

Laws and standards are one of the foundations of

safety engineering practice. These safety and health
standards are prescribed by legislations and implemented
by government agencies and regulating units. It is a must
for every safety engineer to know this body of
legislations. Precise interpretation to its provisions is also
necessary.

f.

Engineers should be committed to improving the

environment by adherence to the principles of
sustainable development so as to enhance the
quality of life to the general public.

But his work and duties does not end in knowing

these standards. He must carefully observe it and
implement it to his area of responsibility.

a.

Engineers shall undertake to perform engineering

assignments only when qualified by education or
experience in the technical field of engineering
involved.

b.

Engineers may accept an assignment requiring

education or experience outside of their own fields
of competence, provided their services are restricted
to those phases of the project in which they are
qualified. All other phases of such project shall be
performed by qualified associates, consultants, or
employees.

c.

Engineers shall not affix their signatures or seals in

any engineering plan or document dealing with
subject matter in which they lack competence by
virtue of education or experience or to any such
plan or document not reviewed or prepared under
their supervisory control.

10.

He Must Be Knowledgeable of All Safety

Laws, Codes, Standards, and Ordinances
Relating to His/ Her Practice

Guidelines to Practice under the

Fundamental Canons of Ethics for Engineers

CANON 2. Engineers shall perform services only in

areas of their competence.

(Promulgated by the International Engineering Associations

Worldwide in All Field of Engineering Practice)

CANON 1. Engineers should hold paramount the

safety, health and welfare of the public and shall strive
to comply with the principles of sustainable development
in the performance of their professional duties.
a.

Engineers shall recognize that the lives, safety,

health and welfare of the general public which are
dependent upon engineering judgements, decisions
and practices incorporated into structures, machines,
products, processes and devices.

b.

Engineers shall approve or seal only those design

documents, reviewed or prepared by them, which
are determined to be safe for public health and
welfare in conformity with accepted engineering
standards.

c.

d.

Engineers whose professional judgement is

overruled under circumstances where the safety,
health and welfare of the public are endangered, or
the principles of sustainable development ignored
shall inform their clients or employers of the
possible consequences.
Engineers who have knowledge or reason to believe
that another person or firm may be in violation of
any of the provisions of Canon1 shall present such
information to the proper authority in furnishing
such further information or assistance as may be
required.

CANON 3. Engineers shall issue public statements

only in an objective and truthful manner.
a.

Engineers should endeavour to extend the public

knowledge of engineering and sustainable
development, and shall not participate in the
dissemination of untrue, unfair or exaggerated
statements regarding engineering.

b.

Engineers shall be objective and truthful in

professional reports, statements or testimony. They
shall include all relevant and pertinent information
in such reports, statements, or testimony.

c.

Engineers, when serving as expert witnesses, shall

express an engineering opinion only when it is
founded upon adequate knowledge of the facts,
upon the background of technical competence, and
upon honest conviction.

d.

e.

Engineers shall issue no statements, criticisms or

arguments on engineering matters which are
inspired or paid by interested parties, unless they
indicate on whose behalf the statements are made.

CANON 5. Engineers shall build their professional

reputation on the merit of their services and shall not
compete unfairly with others.
a.

Engineers shall not give, solicit, or receive either

directly or indirectly, any political contribution,
gratuity or unlawful consideration in order to secure
work, exclusive of securing salaried positions
through employment agencies.

b.

Engineers shall negotiate contracts for professional

services fairly and on the basis of demonstrated
competence and qualifications for the type of
professional services required.

c.

Engineers may request, propose or accept

professional commissions on a contingent basis
only under circumstances in which their
professional
judgements
would
not
be
compromised.

d.

Engineers
shall
not
falsify
or
permit
misrepresentation of their academic or professional
qualifications or experience.

e.

Engineers shall give proper credit for engineering

work to those whom credit is due, and shall
recognize the proprietary interests of others.
Whenever possible, they shall name the person or
persons who may be responsible for designs,
inventions, writings or other accomplishments.

f.

Engineers may advertise professional services in a

way that does not contain misleading language or is
in any other manner derogatory to the dignity of the
profession. Examples of permissible advertising are
as follows:
o Professional cards in recognized, dignified
publications, in listings in rosters or directories
published by responsible organizations, provided
that the cards or listings are consistent in size
and content are in a section of the publication
regularly devoted to such professional cards.

Engineers shall be dignified and modest in

explaining their work and merit, and will avoid any
act tending to promote their own interests at the
expense of integrity, honour and dignity of the
profession.

CANON 4. Engineers shall act in professional matters

for each employer or client as faithful agents or trustees,
and shall avoid conflicts of interests.
a.

Engineers shall avoid all known or potential

conflicts of interest with their employees or clients
and shall promptly inform their employers or clients
of any business association, interests or
circumstances which could influence their
judgement of the quality of their services.

b.

Engineers shall not accept compensation from more

than one party for services of same project, or for
services pertaining to the same project, unless the
circumstances are fully disclosed to and agreed to,
by all interested parties.

c.

Engineers shall not solicit or accept gratitude,

directly or indirectly, from contractors, their agents,
or other parties dealing with their clients or
employers in connection with work which they are
responsible.

d.

Engineers in public service as members, advisors, or

employees of a governmental body or department
shall not participate in considerations or actions
with respect to services solicited or provided by
them or their organization in private or public
engineering practice.

e.

Engineers shall advise their employers or clients

when, as a result of their studies, they believe their
project will not be successful.

f.

Engineers shall not use confidential information

coming to them in the course of their assignments as
a means of making personal profit if such action is
adverse to the interests of their clients, employers or
the public.

g.

Engineers shall not accept professional employment

outside of their regular work or interest without the
knowledge of their employers.

Brochures which factually describe experience,

facilities, personnel and capacity to render
service, providing they are not misleading with
respect to the engineers extent of participation
in projects described.

Display advertising in recognized dignified

business in professional publications, provided it
is factual and is not misleading with respect to
the engineers extent of participation in projects
described.
5

A statement of the engineers name or the name

of the firm and the statement of the type of
service posted on projects for which they render
services.

Preparation for authorization of descriptive

articles for the lay or technical press, which are
factual and dignified. Such articles shall not
imply anything more than direct participation in
the project described.

Permission by engineers for their names to be

used in commercial advertisements, such as may
be published by contractors, material suppliers,
etc., only by means of a modest, dignified
notation
acknowledging
the
engineers
participation in the project described. Such
permission shall not include public endorsement
of proprietary products.

g.

Engineers shall not maliciously or falsely,

directly or indirectly, injure the professional
reputation, prospects, practice or employment of
another engineer or indiscriminately criticize
others work.

h.

Engineers shall not use equipment, supplies, and

laboratory or office facilities to their employers
to carry on outside private practice without the
consent of their employers.

c.

Engineers
shall
encourage
engineering
employees to attend and present papers at
professional and technical society meetings.

d.

Engineers shall uphold the principle of mutually

satisfying relationships between employers and
employees with respect to terms of employment
including professional grade descriptions, salary
ranges, and fringe benefits.

CANON 6. Engineers shall act in such a manner

which will be derogatory to the honour, integrity or
dignity of the engineering profession.
a.

Engineers shall not knowingly act in a manner

which will be derogatory, to the honour,
integrity, or dignity of the engineering profession
or knowingly engage in business or professional
practices of a fraudulent, dishonest, or unethical
nature.

CANON 7. Engineers shall continue their professional

development throughout their careers, and shall provide
opportunities for the professional development of those
engineers under their supervision.
a.

b.

Engineers should keep current in their specialty

fields by engaging in professional practice,
participating in continuing education courses,
reading in the technical literature, and attending
professional meetings and seminars.
Engineers should encourage their engineering
employees to become registered at the earliest
possible date.
6

Introduction Part 2

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH IN THE PHILIPINES

By: Celerina Novida- Castro
Training and Public Information division, Occupational Safety and Health Centre
Consistent with national development goals and
with the states commitment for the total development of
a worker as a complete human being, OSH primarily
aims to protect every workingman against the dangers of
injury, sickness or death through safe and healthful
working conditions. Thus, the conservation of valuable
manpower resources and the prevention of loss or
damage to lives and properties are being assured.
Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) in the
Philippine context is defined as a multi- disciplinary field
that is concerned with a) identifying the workplace
hazards on a systematic process; b) determining the
nature and effects; c) forming appropriate measures for
controlling such hazards.
Technically, three subjects involve OSH namely:
Occupational Safety, Occupational Health, and
Occupational Environment.
Occupational Safety is the discipline that deals
with the prevention of workplace accidents. Among
others Safety Control Measure include: Housekeeping,
Materials Handling and Storage, Fire Safety, Electrical
Safety, Machine Safety, Personal Protective Equipment,
Safety Inspection, and Accident Investigation.
Occupational Health is concerned with the health
or workers in relation to his job. It intends to keep the
worker healthy by limiting exposure to health hazards to
levels, which are as low as possible.
By the definition set by the Joint Committee of
the World Health Organization (WHO) and the
International Labour Organization (ILO) in 1950,
Occupational Health should aim at:

The promotion and maintenance in the highest

degree of physical, mental, and social well- being of
workers in all occupations;
The prevention among workers of departures from
health caused by their working condition;
The protection of workers in their employment from
risk resulting from factors adverse to health;
The placing and maintenance of a worker in an
occupational environment to his physiological and
psychological capacity; and
To summarize, the adaptation of work to man and
each man to his job.

Occupational Environment is practically defined

as the place where we work. It has two main concerns,
namely: Industrial Hygiene deals with the recognition,
evaluation and control of workplace hazards and Work
Environment Measurement that deals with the actual
measurement of the workplace hazards.
Controlling hazards at the workplace is one of
the most critical concerns on OHH because this spells
prevention of accidents. The control methods, which may
be used to reduce exposure of workers to hazards, are as
follows:
1. Engineering Controls serves to engineer out the
hazard in the workplace. It makes use of the
ventilation; isolation or enclosure of a process; and
substitution of a toxic substance with less toxic one,
among others, in order to keep the level of the hazard
to acceptable levels. Generally, this is the most
effective control measure.
2. Administrative Control is the form of
administrative rules and policies to decrease the
exposure of the workers to hazard. Job rotation,
reduced hours of work in hazardous workplaces,
prohibition of eating, drinking or smoking in the
workplace is examples of these controls.
3. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) is any
device worn by workers that adequately serves as a
barrier between the hazard and him. PPEs are
considered as the last resort in hazard control
because they do not decrease the level of hazard in
the workplace.
On the other hand, actual measurement of the
extreme temperature, illumination, noise, air velocity,
vibration, dust, gases and chemical substances is being
conducted mainly to determine the magnitude of harmful
environmental agents.
OSH MS as prescribed by the ILO Guidelines is
a way to work systematically with OSH. This means that
there are sets of interrelated or inter- acting elements to
establish OSH policies and objectives, and to achieve
those objectives. To be systematic, the OSH MS in the
organization should contain the main elements of policy,
organizing, planning and implementation, evaluation and
action for improvement with continual improvement in
every phase.

In the Philippines, long before the ILO

Guidelines on OSH MS has been drafted, National
guidelines on OSH already exists. As mandate by
Presidential Decree on Labour Code of the Philippines
Chapter II Article 162 states that The Secretary of
Labour and Employment (DOLE) shall, by appropriate
orders, set and enforce mandatory occupational safety
and health standards to eliminate or reduce occupational
safety and health hazards in all workplaces and institutes
new, and update existing programs to ensure safe and
healthful working conditions in all phases of
employment
This article of the Labour Code prompted the
development of the Philippines OSH Standards. Adapted
thru the tested democratic machinery of tripartism, the
1978 OSH Standards is considered as a landmark of the
Philippines Labour and Social Legislation.
The OSH standards are tailored guidelines on
OSH for companies and organizations to follow and
comply with. It is formulated in compliance with the
constitutional mandate to safeguard the workers social
and economic well- being as well as his physical safety
and health. In effect, companies are guided accordingly
on what to do and how to do OSH in their respective
place of work.
Rule 1040 of the Philippine OSH Standards
requires every place of employment to organize a Safety
and Health Committee. Consequently, every employer
should adapt a written administrative policy on OSHstating their commitment and full support to all OSH
related matters.
The Safety and Heaths main task are to develop
policies, plan and implement programs and projects
pertaining to OSH. Generally, the committee members
are Supervisors/ Foreman/ Department Head, the medical
team (company physician/ nurses), and the workers/
union representatives, with the Safety Officer of the
Secretary. It is to be chaired by the highest- ranking
official of the company. The number of membership on
the committee varies depending on the number of
workforce in the company.
Article 163 on research states that it shall be the
responsibility of the DOLE to conduct studies and
research to develop innovative methods, techniques and
approaches for dealing with the occupational safety and
health problems.
Article 164 on the Training Programs
specifically states that the DOLE shall implement
training programs to increase the number and
competence of personnel in the field of occupational
safety and industrial health.

Article 165 on the Administration of Safety and

Health Laws the DOLE shall be solely responsible for
administration and enforcement of occupational safety
and health laws, regulation and standards in all
establishments and workplaces wherever they may be
located.
The last three aforesaid provisions of the
Philippine Labour Code lead to the creation of DOLEs
different department bureaus such as the Bureau of
Working Conditions (BWC), Bureau of Labour and
Employment Statistics (BLES) and attached agencies
namely: the Employees Compensation Commission
(ECC) and the Occupational Safety and Health Centre
(OSHC) of which their functions are directly related to
OSH.
The BWC is responsible in policy making and
administration and administration of enforcement of all
OSH laws, rules and regulations within the DOLEs
different regional offices.
The BLES compliments the function of the
BWC. They are fully in- charge of the Labour Statistics
including statistics on illnesses and accidents, focusing
on its frequency and severity.
The ECC implements programs for the
compensative and rehabilitee aspects of workers
protection. Its primary aim is to help workers and their
dependents in the event of work related injury, sickness,
disability or death- promptly receive meaningful and
adequate income benefits, medical or related services,
the rehabilitation services.
The OSH and the DOLEs research, training and
information arm on OSH. It undertakes studies; research
training serves as clearing house on OSH information
and provides technical advice on occupational safety and
health.
Basically, on the company level, the Philippines
are implementing the five main elements of OSH MS as
prescribed by the ILO Guidelines but not in a systematic
approach. The OSH issues and concerns are talked on a
case- to- case basis depending on the need of the
organization.
However, no matter how unsystematic the
approach is (based on ILO Guidelines) the government is
continually initiating and sponsoring programs and
projects on OSH to maintain and sustain awareness on
OSH all over the country.
The Zero Accident Program or ZAP is one of
the flagships of the DOLE spearheaded by the OSHC.

The ZAP is a national program envisioned as a

long- term strategy to promote safety and health of
Filipino workers through multi- sectorial collaboration
among governmental organizations, the academe and
professional groups. It integrates the following
components: advocacy, capability building, institutional
networking and productivity link- ups. It aims to increase
awareness and commitment of OSH practitioners and the
general public on the work safety and health and to
encourage the private sector on voluntary compliance on
OSH standards.
The advocacy component of ZAP seeks to raise
awareness and commitment of government, labour,
employer sector on safety and health through
participation in the information campaigns, nationwide/
regional launchings of safety awards. The government
will recognize companies and individuals with
outstanding achievements in working safety and health
through
the
GAWAD
KALIGTASAN
AT
KALUSUGAN or GKK (safety and health award).
Companies interested to join the GKK are
required to register their Safety and Health Committee
and submit their safety and health programs to the OSHC
or Regional Office of DOLE. Individuals may be
nominated by their companies, unions or co- workers.
What at stake are the Presidential Award and DOLE
Award for Institutional and Individual Categories,
trophies and cash prizes.
Upon generating the interests of many sectors,
the second component of ZAP aims to encourage
voluntary compliance on OSH. The program itself has
been given the name VOLUNTARY PROTECTION
PROGRAM (VPP). Under the VPP, specialist of DOLE,
management and employees cooperate not only to
achieve full compliance with OSH standards but also to
implement OSH programs of excellence.
The Philippines Safety and Health Month are
celebrated during the month of October. The celebration
is highlighted by conducting training programs for free,
disseminating of information and educational materials

and distributing of promotional materials like shirts, cap,

fan, and others. Tri- media advertisements are also being
tapped to heighten OSH consciousness among Filipino
especially the workers.
All year round, different OSH Training Courses
are being offered from basic to specialized courses. To
name a few, the Basic Occupational Safety and Health,
ZAP Training, Work Environment Measurement
Training, seminar on the safe use of chemicals, training
for Industrial Ventilation for Supervisors, Construction
Safety Training, Fire Safety Training, and a host of other
trainings and seminar/ workshop.
The increasing membership of ZAP, GKK and
VPP applicants and the increasing demands for technical
service of OSH are empirical evidences that OSH in the
Philippines, though not strictly following ILO
Guidelines, draws attention and is currently gaining
recognition among Filipinos. Moreover, if ILO
Guidelines on OSH MS will be practiced in the
Philippines, then doing OSH would mean a dynamic,
progressive and productive Philippines. (Seminar
materials provided by the author/ speaker to PUP IE
students last February 2003 at OSHC Audio Visual
Room)

Instructors Note:
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO
OSH STANDARDS OF THE PHILIPPINES
(BASED ON THE DOLE OSH STANDARDS PRIMER)
covered by the standards. Safety in transportation
and mines are other agencies of the government.

Notes from the Author

In part 2 of the introduction Celerina Castro
already discussed the story behind the creation and
promulgation of this standard. This standard is partly
similar of the Occupational Safety and Health Act of the
US (OSHA), which is internationally accepted and
adapted by many different nations pertaining to safety
and health at the workplace. There is a usual
misconception between the two that mistakenly
identified as one but they are different. Though different,
the principle and purpose are the same.
Before we discuss other topics under Safety
Engineering and Health Management in the workplace, it
is important for us to be acquainted with the laws and
standards that govern this profession and practice.
The OSHS of the Philippines:
RULE 1000- General Provisions
RULE 1010- Other Safety Rules
1. WHAT IS THE OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY
AND HEALTH STANDARDS (OSHS)?
The OSH standards are mandatory rules on
occupational safety and health promulgated pursuant
to article 162, book IV of the Labour Code of the
Philippines, P.D. 442. The Bureau of Working
Condition (BWC) of the Department of Labour and
Employment (DOLE) implements it. With the help
of the Occupational Safety and Health Centre of the
Philippines, the standards are promoted and
disseminated throughout the country.
2. WHAT IS THE OBJECTIVE OF THE OSH
STANDARDS?
To protect every working man against the
dangers of injury, sickness or death through safe and
healthful working conditions.

However, Rule 1960 of the Standards on Occupational

Health Services applies to all establishments.
4. WHAT ARE THE DUTIES OF THE
EMPLOYERS UNDER THE STANDARDS?
a. Furnish his workers a place of employment free
from hazardous conditions that are causing or are
likely to cause death, illness or physical harm to
his workers.
b. Give complete job safety instructions to all his
workers, especially to those entering the job for
the first time including those relating to the
familiarization with their work environment
hazards to which the workers are exposed and
steps to take in case of emergency.
c. Comply with the requirements of the standards.
d. Use only approved devices or equipment in the
workplace.
5. WHAT ARE THE DUTIES OF WORKERS?
a. Cooperate in with the employer in carrying out
the provisions of the standards.
b. Report to his supervisor any work hazard that
may be discovered in his workplace.
c. Make proper use of their safeguards and safety
devices furnished for his protection and that of
others.
6. WHO ENFORCES THE OSH STANDARDS?
The standards are enforced by the DOLE
Regional Offices and their distinct offices in
different parts of the country.
7. WHAT
ARE
WORKPLACES?

THE

HAZARDOUS

Hazardous workplaces are the following:

3. WHAT
IS
STANDARDS?

THE

SCOOPEOF

THE

The standards apply to all places of employment

except land, air and sea transportation. Their garages,
dry locks, port hangars and repair shops however, are
covered by the standards. Safety in mines is also not

a. Where all nature of work exposes the workers to

dangerous environmental elements, contaminants
or work conditions including ionizing, radiation,
chemical, fire, flammable substances, noxious
components and the like;
10

b. Where the workers are engaged in construction

work, logging, fire- fighting, mining, quarrying,
blasting, stevedoring, dock work, deep sea
fishing and mechanized farming.
c. Where the workers are engaged in the
manufacture or handling of explosives and other
pyrotechnic products; and
d. Where the workers use or are exposed to
biological agents such as bacteria, fungi, viruses,
protozoa, nematodes and other parasites.

1. WHO ARE REQUIRED

TRAINING ON OSH?

TO

UNDERGO

a. The training course prescribed by the bureau

shall be a requisite for the appointment of safety
man in place employment.
b. The following are the required number of
supervisors or technical persons to be trained and
appointed safety man, full time or part time,
depending on the number of employees
employed and the type of workplace.

RULE 1020- Registration

Hazardous workplace:
1. WHAT
IS
THE
REGISTRATION?

PURPOSE

OF

The purpose of registration is to provide the

department with information as guide in its
enforcement activities. Registration is once in the
lifetime in the establishment except there is 1)
change in name; 2) change in location; 3) change in
ownership; 4) reopening after previous closing.
2. WHAT ARE THE REQUIREMENTS FOR
REGISTRATION?
a. Registration should include a layout plan of the
workplace in the scale of 1:100 metres showing
all the physical features of the workplace
including storage, exits, aisles, machinery, clinic,
emergency devices and location.
b. Registration shall be made in form
DOLE/BWC/IP-3 in three (3) copies and
submitted to the Regional Labour Office or
authorized representatives.
RULE 1030- Training of Personnel in
Occupational Safety and Health
This rule mandates the bureau either directly or
through accredited organizations to conduct safety
programs on occupational safety and health to increase
the competence of safety and health personnel to help
management in carrying out the provisions of the
standards.
Instructors Note:
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________

Number of workers
200 and below

Over 200- 1000

For every 1000

Non- hazardous workplace:

Less than 1000
For every 1000

one (1) part time

safety man
one (1) full time
safety man
one (1) full time
safety man

one (1) part time

safety man
one (1) full time
safety man

2. WHAT ARE THE DUTIES OF THE SAFETY

MAN?
a. Advises employers, supervisors and workers on
matters of safety for their guidance.
b. Investigates accidents as Safety Committee
member.
c. Coordinates safety training programs for
employees and employers.
d. Make safety inspections of the plant.
e. Maintains or help maintain an accident record
system.
f. Acts as the Secretary of the Safety Committee.
g. Provides assistance to government inspectors in
the conduct of safety and health inspections.
A part time safety man shall be allotted at least four
(4) hours per week to perform the duties as safety
man.
3. PROHIBITION IN THE PRACTICE OF
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH
No person or organization may be allowed, hire
or otherwise employed in the practice of
occupational safety and health unless the
requirements of this rule are complied with.

11

RULE 1040- Health and Safety Committee

1. WHAT IS A
COMMIITEE?

HEALTH

AND

SAFETY
Chairman - the chairman of an establishment
committee

Health and Safety Committee is a group of

employees and management that plans and makes
policies in all matters pertaining to safety and health
in the workplace.
2. HOW A HEALTH AND SAFETY COMMITTEE
SHALL BE ORGANIZED?
Health and Safety Committee shall be organized
according to the number of workers in a workplace.
a. Type A: (More than 400 workers)
Chairman

Manager or his authorized

representative who must be a top
operating official.

Member - Two (2) department heads, four (4)

workers (must be union members, if
organized) and the company physician.
Secretary- The safety man
b. Type B: (Over 200- 400 workers)
Chairman

Manager or his authorized

representative who must be a top
operating official.

Members One supervisor; three (3) workers (must

be union members, if organized); the
company physician or the company
nurse.
Secretary The safety man
c. Type C: (100- 200 workers)
Chairman

e. Type E: (Joint Committee)- Two or more

establishments housed under one building:

Manager or
representative.

his

authorized

Members One (1) foreman; three (3) workers

(must be union members, if
organized); the nurse.
Secretary The part time safety man.
d. Type D: (less than 100 workers)
Chairman - Manager
Members - One (1) foreman; three (3) workers
(must be union members, if
organized); Nurse/ First Aider.

Members - Two (2) supervisors from two different

establishments, Two (2) workers from
different establishments (must be a union
member if organized)
Secretary - Appointed by the chairman (in high rise
buildings, the secretary shall be the
building administrator).
Required for Health and Safety Organization
Report is the DOLE/BWC/IP-5 to be submitted in two
(2) copies to concerned Regional Labour Office, a copy
furnished the BWC-DOLE within one (1) month after
the organization?
3. WHAT ARE THE DUTIES OF SAFETY AND
HEALTH COMMITTEE?
a. Plans and develops accident prevention programs
in the workplace.
b. Inspect workplace to detect unsafe conditions.
c. Reviews results of accident investigations and
implementation of accident prevention.
d. Conducts safety meeting at least once a month.
e. Provides necessary assistance to government
inspecting authorities in the proper conduct of
activities relating to enforcement of the
provisions of the standards.
f. Trains workers in safe work habits and
procedures.
g. Develops and maintains a disaster contingency
plan and organizes such emergency service units
as may be necessary to handle disaster situations
pursuant to the Emergency Preparedness Manual
for Establishments of the Office of Civil Defense
4. WHAT ARE
EMPLOYER?

THE

DUTIES

OF

THE

a. Adopts the administrative policies of safety in

accordance to the provisions of the standards.
b. Reports to the enforcing authority the policies
adopted and the safety organizations established.
c. Submits report to the enforcing authority once in
every three months on the safety performance,
safety
committee
meetings
and
its
recommendations taken to implement the
recommendation.
d. Act on the recommendations of the safety
committee.
12

5. WHAT ARE
WORKERS?

THE

DUTIES

OF

THE

2. WHAT ARE THE NECESSARY DATA IN THE

ACCIDENT/ ILLNESS RECORDS?

a. Follow safety policies

b. Report unsafe conditions and practices to the
supervisor.
c. Serve as members of the Safety and Health
Committee
d. Cooperate with the Safety and Health Committee
e. Assist the government agencies in the conduct of
health and safety inspection

a. Name of injured of ill employee, sex and age;

b. Occupation of injured or ill employee at the time
of accident or illness;
c. Assigned causes of accident or illness;
d. Extend and nature of disability;
e. Period of disability (actual and/ or charged);
f. Whether accident involved damage to materials,
equipment or machinery, kind and extent of
damage, including estimated or actual cost; and
g. Record of initial notice and/ or report to the
Regional Office or authorized representative.

RULE 1050 - Notification and Keeping of

Records of Accidents and/ or Occupational
Illnesses
Records of accidents and occupational diseases
are necessary to furnish information on the performance
of accident and illness prevention duties and activities of
the employer. Records should be submitted to the BWC,
copy furnished to the Regional Labour Office.
1. WHAT ARE THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE
REPORTS?
a. All work accidents or occupational illnesses in places
of employment, resulting in disabling condition or
dangerous occurrences shall be reported by the
employer to the Regional Labour Office or duly
authorized representative in duplicate and a copy
furnished
the
BWC,
using
form
DOLE/BWC/OSHD-IP-6. The investigation report
shall be submitted to the employer on or before the
20th day of the month following the date of
occurrence of the accident of when the illness is
established, and a formal report in the prescribed
form shall be submitted to the Regional Office or
duly authorized representative on or before the 30th
day of the same month.

3. ANNUAL WORK
DATA REPORTS

ACCIDENT

EXPOSURE

The employer shall accomplish an Annual Work

Accident/ Illness Exposure Data Report in duplicate
(form DOLE/BWC/OSHD-IP-6b) to be submitted to
the Bureau of Working Conditions and the Regional
Labour Office on or before the 30th day of the month
following the end of each calendar year.
RULE 1960- Occupational Health Services
Every employer is required to provide in his
workplace medical and dental services, emergency
medicines and dental facilities.
1. WHAT ARE THE NECESSARY HEALTH
PERSONNEL TO BE EMPLOYED BY THE
EMPLOYER?
The health personnel to be employed depends upon
the number of workers and the type of industry
whether hazardous or non- hazardous.
2. WHAT ARE THE QUALIFICATIONS
HEALTH PERSONNEL?

OF

b. When the accident or illness results in death or

permanent disability, the employer, in addition to the
written report required under sub- paragraph above,
shall initially notify the Regional Labour Office or
duly authorized representative within twenty four
(24) hours after occurrence using the fastest available
means of communication.

a. First Aider
Knows how to read and write
Graduate of the course First- Aid" conducted by
the Philippine National Red Cross or any
organization accredited by the PNRC.

c. All deaths and permanent disabilities shall be

investigated by the Regional Office or duly
authorized representative within forty eight (48)
hours after receive of the initial report of the
employer, prepared in duplicate using the prescribed
form DOLE/BWC/OSHD-IP6a.

b. Nurse
Passed the examination given by the Board of
Examinees for Nurses, and
Duly licensed to practice nursing in the
Philippines with at least 50 hours of training in
occupational nursing conducted by the
Department of Health, the Institute of Public
13

Health of the University of the Philippines or by

any organization accredited by the DOH.
c. Physician
Passed the examination given by the Board of
Examiners for Physician
Licensed to practice medicine in the Philippines
Graduate of a training course in Occupational
Medicine given by the BWC, College of Public
Health or any accredited organization.
Additional qualification for a physician engaged by
the employer of a hazardous establishment employing
more than 2000 workers:

Must have a diploma or masters degree in

occupational health or its equivalent or completed
a residency training program in occupational
medicine, must be duly certified by the Bureau of
Working Conditions- DOLE.
Must have registered to the Regional labour
Office.

3. WHAT ARE THE

PERSONNEL?

DUTIES

OF

HEALTH

a. First Aider
Give immediate and temporary treatment in case
of sudden injury or illness and refer the injured to
the physician or dentist if necessary.
Maintain medical and dental services and
facilities.
b. Nurse
Provide nursing care to the ill and injured.
Perform health examination, which are within the
scope of nursing profession, and refer the same to
the physician if more intensive examination is
needed.
Maintain health records and submit annual
medical report.
Give suggestions to improve conditions that affect
workers health.
c. Physician
Organize,
administer
and
maintain
occupational services program
Conduct studies on occupational health.
Prevent disease or injury in the workplace.
Conserve the health of the workers.

an

Provide medical and surgical care.

Maintain and analyse records of all medical cases.
Continually monitor the work environment for
health hazards.
Act as adviser to management and labour on
health matters.
Report directly to the top management.

d. Dentist
The duties of the dentist employed in a workplace
shall be in accordance with the standards
prescribed by the Bureau of Dental Health
Services, Department of Health.
4. WHAT
ARE
THE
OBJECTIVES
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH PROGRAM?

OF

a. To evaluate the workers physical, emotional and

psychological assets and liabilities.
b. To protect employees against health hazards.
c. To provide first aid and emergency treatment.
d. To ensure adequate medical care of ill and
injured workers.
e. To encourage personal health maintenance,
physical fitness and proper nutrition practices.
f. To provide guidance, information and services
for family planning programs.
5. WHAT ARE THE ACTIVITIES OF THE
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH PROGRAM?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

Maintenance of a healthful work environment.

Health examination.
Diagnosis and treatment of all injuries.
Immunization program.
Accurate and complete medical record of each
worker.
f. Health education and counselling.
g. Nutrition program.
Notes from the author: Some of the contents were not
presented in this part. It is advice that the students must
refer to the complete primer of the Occupational Safety
and Health Standards itself. Copies are available at the
OSH Centre of the Philippines at North Ave., cor.
Science Road Diliman, Quezon City, Metro Manila

14

CHAPTER 2
SAFETY PROGRAM
AND MANAGEMENT RESPONSIBILITIES
(ORGANIZING THE COMPANY FOR SAFETY)
INTRODUCTION
There must be a method that employs by the
management in order and assign responsibility for
accident prevention and to ensure performance under that
responsibility. This is known to be as Safety Program. It
is not only a document, but also a must do organized plan
for implementation which deliver results that can
contribute productivity. The program is not something
imposed; safety itself must be built into every process or
product design into every operation. It must be an
integral part of every operations and systems.
The prevention of accidents and injuries is basically
achieved through control of the working mechanism
(machine, equipment, materials and tools), working
environment (plant, facilities and work centres) and
control of peoples actions (the men at work). Only
people in the management can implement such control.
A company that has an effective safety program will
have a working environment in which operations can be
conducted economically, efficiently and safety. This will
result contribution to the total productivity output of the
organization.
At the end, it is expected that each one must be able
to develop and implement safety program.
BASIC ELEMENTS OF A SAFETY PROGRAM
An analysis of safety program in plants with outstanding
safety records shows that invariably the programs are
built around the eight basic elements. These elements or
principles of accident prevention are the same in any
industry and in any organization, large or small. Thus,
although there is a wide variations in the methods used in
individual organizations, each incorporates most if not all
of the eight basic elements as shown below:
1. MANAGEMENT LEADERSHIP & PRINCIPLE
(Declaration of policy, safety philosophy, mission and
vision- assumption of responsibility)
2. ASSIGNMENT OF RESPONSIBILITY & ROLES
(Top operating officials- safety directors- supervisorsemployees; task and roles)
3. ESTABLISHMENT OF SAFETY PRACTICES,
PROCEDURES AND STANDARDS
(Safety codes- standard safety procedures- dos and
donts- housekeeping program- violation guidelines)

4. MAINTENANCE
OF
SAFE
WORKING
CONDITION
AND
ENVIRONMENT
(Inspections- engineering revisions and designspurchasing- supervisors)
5. DEVELOPMENT OF SAFETY EDUCATION
TRAINING AND PROMOTION
(For management staff- for supervisors- for workerssafety activities- reward system)
6. AN ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION, RECORDS
AND ANALYSIS SYSTEM
(Accident analysis- reports on injuries- measurement
of results- files and recording procedures)
7. MEDICAL AND FIRST AID SERVICES
(Placement examinations- treatment of injuries- first
aid services- periodic health examinations)
8. ACCEPTANCE
OF
PERSONAL
RESPONSIBILITY BY EMPLOYEES
(Training- maintenance of interest- safety enthusiasm)
DECLARATION OF CORPORATE POLICY
Any enterprise that attempt to stop accidents without a
definite guiding policy- one which is planned,
publicized, and promoted will find itself continuously
fighting fires. Management, if it wants acceptable
safety performance, must first write a safety policy. It
POLICY STATEMENT
The leadership of the MIRACLE ENTERPRISE
Inc. is committed to provide safe and healthful
environment in the workplace. It is therefore a matter of
strict policy that each one is enjoined to observe and
adhere to this policy while a member of this organization.
All company personnel are directly responsible for
employees safety and property protection. Safety and
Loss Prevention Program are as much a measure of
efficient operations as reaching production and sales
goals, quality standards or cost reduction.
The Safety and Health Department is responsible
for assisting management in the development and
implementation of safety programs, safely education and
training for all employees.
CARL S. MOOTH
President
Figure 2.1

15

should be brief, to the point, and definite management

commitment to safety. An example of a policy statement
is shown in Figure 2.1
SAFETY PHILOSOPHY
The MIRACLE ENTERPRISE Inc. believes that
employee is the greatest asset of the company.
Therefore it also invests its greatest resources to
protect and ensure the safety and progress of every
member of the company.
SAFETY VISION
It is the vision of MIRACLE ENTERPRISE to be a
leading company in the protection of peoples lives
and improvement of working environment. MIRACLE
envisions a safe and healthy environment for its
workers and community surrounding it.
Note: Other company also state a Safety
Goals and Objectives for a measurable and doable
application.
Figure 2.2

In other cases, as company differs one to another in

expressing their policy and commitment to safety, others
express it thru PHILOSOPHY, MISSION AND VISION
statements.
Writing a safety policy is a lot like writing a speech.
Basic to a policy declaration are these statements:
1. That the safety of the employees, the public and the
company operations are paramount; (canons)
2. That safety will take precedence over expediency or
short cuts;
3. That every attempt will be made to reduce the
possibility of accident occurrence; and
4. That the company intends to comply with OSH
standards and all safety laws.
Reasons for having a good policy are:
1. A good policy makes it easier to enforce safe
practices and conditions. (readable and transferable)
2. It makes it easier for supervisors to implement
company policies.
3. It also makes it easier for employees to follow safety
rules and instructions.
4. It makes it easier to obtain good preventive
maintenance of equipment or selection of proper
equipment when purchased.

SAFETY POLICY IMPLEMENTATION

Once a policy statement is established, it should be
publicized so that every employee becomes familiar with
it, particularly those aspects which apply to him. It
should be posted in all management offices to remind
them of their obligation in this important aspect of
company operations. The effectiveness of any safety
policy and program varies directly with the active
support given to it by management.
MANAGEMENT INTEREST:
Expressions of management interest include:
1. Enforcement of policy and program;
2. Recognition of good safety records;
3. Review of safety reports; and
4. Participation in meetings, safety banquets and
other events to show their support for company
safety efforts.
MANAGEMENT LEADERSHIP:
It must take the lead in keeping interest alive by:
1. Emphasizing that production and safety go together
for an efficient operation.
2. Setting a good example. For instance, if plant rules
require employees to wear safety glasses in certain
areas, management should observe these regulations
when visiting these areas.
3. Attending safety meetings.
4. Reviewing and acting upon accident reports.
5. Reviewing department safety records through group
conferences with department heads.
6. Motivating interest in safety through general letters,
bulletin board announcements, and discussing the
accident record in the plant.
DELEGATION OF RESPONSIBILITIES
While management leadership has the ultimate
responsibility for safety, it delegates authority for safe
operation all the way down through all management
levels up to the least member of the organization. The
supervisor is the key man in a safety program
implementation because he is in contact with his people.
The safety engineer acts in a staff capacity to help
administer the policy, to provide technical information,
to help train and to supply program materials. (The
following are in accordance with the OSHS)
1. Top Management. It is a basic responsibility of all
executives to make the safety human beings, a part
of their daily, hourly concern. This responsibility
must be accepted by everyone no matter what
management capacity he may function. Other
functions are:
16

a. Has full responsibility for safety.

b. Holds executive responsibility for safety of all
employees.
c. Authorizes necessary expenditures for safety.
d. Passes on safety policies as formulated by safety
departments and others.
e. Participates in the safety program as
recommended by safety department.
2. Supervisors and Foremen
a. Inspect for compliance with safe work practices
and safety rules.
b. Train his men to work safely.
c. Responsible for safety to their crew.
d. Responsible for a safe workplace, housekeeping,
proper light ventilation, safe piling, handling and
storage.
e. Enforce wearing of protective clothing and
equipment.
f. Responsible for obtaining prompt first aid to the
injured.
g. Report and investigate all accidents and correct
causes.
h. Serve on safety committee.
i. Hold crew safety meeting.
j. Discuss safety with individual employees.
3. Safety Professional (Safety Engineer)
a. Coordinates safety activities.
b. Keep and analyses accident records.
c. Conducts educational activities for supervisors
and all levels.
d. Conduct activities for stimulating and maintaining
interest of employees.
e. Develop employees safety education program.
f. Serves on safety committee, usually as secretary.
g. Supervises and appraises accident investigations.
h. Plans and directs a regular program for safety
inspections.
i. Checks for compliance with applicable safety
laws and codes.
j. Issues regular reports showing safety performance
and accident trends.
4. Employees and Workers
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.

Works in accordance with accepted safe practices.

Reports unsafe rules and regulations.
Observe safety rules and regulations.
Membership in safety committees.
Making safety suggestions.
Not to undertake jobs he does not understand.

g. Reporting of any injury no matter how small it

may be.
h. Proper use of personal protective equipment
provided by the company.
i. Understanding the companys safety policy and
appreciate their individual responsibility towards
safety, for themselves, for their co- workers and
the company.
SAFETY EDUCATION AND TRAINING
Education and training is one of the most important
responsibilities and management and accordingly, there
should be a continuing effort to help its supervisory
personnel in carrying out their management function. An
effective accident prevention and health hazard control
program is based on proper job performance (a
proactive approach). When people are trained to do
their jobs properly, they will do them safely. This in turn
means that the supervisors must; 1) know how to train an
employee in the safe and proper way of doing a job; and
2) know how to supervise.
1. Supervisory Safety Management Trainings
The front line supervisor is the most responsible on
preventing accidents in the workplace. With this, it is
important that the supervisor be given as much education
and training assistance on the fundamental concepts of
accident prevention. The objectives of the supervisory
training are:
a. To emphasize the importance of the supervisor
as the key man in the accident prevention
program.
b. To familiarize them with safety policy of the
company and its program.
c. To provide supervisors with the knowledge and
information regarding accident causes and
methods of prevention.
Other areas in safety that the supervisor should be
familiar with are:
a. Job safety instruction, human factors/ ego
b. Accident investigation and reporting
c. Personal protective equipment (PPE), its use,
care and maintenance.
2. Employees Education and Training
While the daily contact with the workers or
laborers is regarded as the most effective way of training
an employee, pre-deployment indoctrination, safety
meeting and pre-job safety instructions are among the
many effective means that can be employed in training
an employee/ worker on safety. The following important
items must be emphasized:
17

a.
b.
c.
d.

Company safety program

Individual responsibilities towards safety
General safety rules and regulations
Companys interest in safety

The employees; first day on the job whether he is a

transferee or newly hired is required to attend a safety
orientation to be conducted by the safety engineer and
the workers immediate supervisor. The following topics
to be discussed are:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

Existing job condition and environments

Common hazards, accident and injuries
Safety rules and practices
Plant safety records
Other applicable instructions

3. Specialized Safety Training

In line with its continuing education program, the
safety and health department will hold training agencies/
specialists for members of supervision where the
following courses are offered:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.

Occupational Safety and Health

Supervisors Safety Development Program
Industrial Fire Brigade Training
Defensive Driving Course
First Aid/ CPR
Tag and Lock Out Procedures
Hot Work Permits
Personal Protective Equipment
Other safety training applicable to job

Instructors Note:
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
_________________________________________

PROVISION AND MAINTENANCE OF SAFE

WORKING CONDITION AND ENVIRONMENT
A safety program is not something that is imposed.
Safety must be built into every process or product design
and into every operation (we call it Built- In Safety
System). It must be an integral part of the operations. The
prevention of accidents and injuries is achieved through
control of the working environment and control of
peoples actions.

Instructors Note:
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
1. Safety Rules, Regulation and Penalties. Upon
employment, the new employment, the new
employee shall be issued a copy of the companys
general safety rules, regulation and practices. The
supervisor should explain the contents to the new
worker and impress upon him to consult his
supervisor whenever he is in doubt about any of its
provision or about any practice cot covered by the
guide.
2. Pre- Deployment Orientation. All personnel
including visitors will be briefed/ oriented by the
safety engineer as to the existing safety requirements
and current safety status before they are deployed or
allowed to engage in any activity. Among the items
to be stressed are:
a. anticipated nature of work
b. Works associated potential hazards and their
essential precautionary measures.
c. PPEs Personal Protective Equipment, its use
and maintenance
d. Plant existing policy concerning safety and
health
3. First Aid Facilities and Services. A first aid clinic
and an ambulance will be provided to treat injuries
and to transport patient to the nearest hospital for
treatment. A qualified first aiders and a nurse will
man the clinic.
4. Fire Prevention and Protection. Firefighting
equipment will be installed at strategic locations. All
personnel will be oriented/ familiarized on the use of
fire extinguishers. Weekly inspection of fire
protection equipment shall be conducted and any
deficiency shall be corrected immediately. Fire
protection include but not limited to the following:
18

a. Proper
handling,
storage,
disposal
of
combustible materials, liquids and wastes.
b. Work operations which can create fire hazards
c. Access to firefighting equipment
d. Type, size, number and location of fire
extinguishers and other firefighting equipment
e. Inspection and maintenance records on
extinguishers and other firefighting equipment
f. Type, number, location of trash containers
g. General housekeeping
5. Clean- up and Sanitation (the 5s culture). All
work areas shall be kept in a neat, clean and safe
condition. Waste materials shall be removed from
work areas on a continuing basis and transported to
the designated area. Upon completion of any
segment of work, materials not to be used at or near
the same location during stages of work shall be
removed. Adequate trash bins and waste disposal
means will be provided on site.
6. Safety Publicity. In order to promote and maintain
safety consciousness among employees, safety signs,
bulletin board, posters, accident statistics, etc. shall
be conspicuously posted within the plant.
7. Safety Committee. In accordance with the
provisions of the Occupational Safety and Health
Standards, a safety committee shall be organized in
the company to promote safety education and
awaken safety consciousness among all employees.
(Rule 1040 OSHS, Phil.) The safety committee shall be
composed of the representatives from the
management and the workers. Normally it shall be
manned as follows:
Chairman CEO or authorized representative
Members Department Heads
President and Secretary of the union
(if organized)
Secretary the safety engineer

ACCIDENT RECORDS AND REPORTS

It is recognized that statistics prepared in analytical
form are of fundamental importance in directing an
efficient safety campaign. They indicate information
regarding WHERE, WHEN, HOW and to WHOM
injuries are occurring. It is therefore a matter of
procedure that every supervisor should investigate all
accidents as they occur in his area of responsibility.
Injuries are warning signs. They are indications that
something is wrong with men, machine, materials or
methods. This could be a direct result of defective

equipment, unsafe work methods, inexperience, unsafe

work habits or lack of proper instruction and supervision.
MEDICAL AND DENTAL SERVICES
Rule 1960 of the Occupational Safety and Health
Standards requires that every establishment has to
provide a medical clinic and employ the services of a full
time physician, nurse and a dentist. It shall also provide
one (1) bed within the clinic for emergency purposes. In
order to maintain a healthy and stable workplace, it shall
endeavor to undertake:
1) Pre- employment medical examination;
2) Annual executive check (exempt) and
3) Annual physical examination (non- exempt)

Instructors Note:

____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
MAINTAINING ENTHUSIASM AND INTEREST
INS SAFETY
The company, in its effort to maximize utilization of
manpower resources feels that somehow, it is indebted to
its employees for maintaining accident free operations. In
this respect, it is but fitting the proper that due
recognition is accorded to its employees and units who in
the course of its operation exhibited an unparalleled
support to the realization of the companys safety goals
and objectives. For this reason, the management may
award the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Model Safe Employee of the Year

Model Safe Supervisor of the Year
Model Safe Department of the Year
Model Safe Fire Fighter of the Year
Model First- Aider of the Year

In addition, management can also run contest on

various areas to stir creativity in the field of safety. Some
of these are:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Safety Posters Contest

Housekeeping Contest
Safety Slogan Contest
Accident Records/ Statistics Contest (by department)

19

EXERCISE NO. 2
Name: ___________________________________________ Yr. & Sec.: _______________
Schedule & Room: _________________________________ Date Performed: ___________

Rating

TEST YOURSELF: Answer the following questions. Use extra paper if needed.
1. Discuss the purpose and objectives of Safety Program.
2. What are the different elements and parts of a safety program?
3. Who are the members of the Safety Committee? Discuss briefly the role of each member.
4. What are the responsibilities of management and workers in the implementation of safety program?
5. What should be the focus of safety program?
6. How important Education and Training in the program?

LEARNING ACTIVITY: Perform the following procedural activities.

Title: Safety

Program Part 1: Management Level

Objectives:
After the activity, you should be able to:
1. Identify the importance of Management Safety Program.
2. Develop an effective Safety Principles that will guide the company, and
3. Prepare a safety program content and outline

Procedure and Task:

1. Make a group compose of 3-4 members.
2. Create a dummy company for your group stating the nature of the company.
3. Together with the group, develop a management guiding principle containing the safety philosophy,
mission and vision of the company.

Resource Materials: Occupational Safety and Health Center (OSHC) of the Philippines, Safety Manual
20

CHAPTER 3
THEORIES OF ACCIDENT, HAZARD AND INJURIES
PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS
INTRODUCTION
Before we can establish an effective program of
action to institute safety in the plant, we must initially
take the basic knowledge on the fundamentals of hazards
recognition and identification; principles of accident
prevention; and controls in the extent of injuries, losses
and damages/
A hazard must first be discovered and recognized
before it can be controlled. Monitoring is an effective
means of acquiring hazard information and monitoring
can be defines as a set of observation and data collection
methods used to detect and measure deviations from
plans and procedures in current operations. Through
monitoring, it can be ascertained that controls are
functioning as intended; that workplace modifications
have not altered conditions so that controls no longer
function effectively; and that new problems have not
crept into the workplace since the most recent controls
were introduced.
Monitoring can involve four functions: 1) hazard
identification; 2) analysis of factors; 3) inspection; and
4) accident investigation. All four factors mean that
monitoring is performed before the operation begins,
during the life cycle of the operation and after the system
has broken down. (Safety Management Training, Safety House Inc.)

5. Risk is a probability, chance or potential problem

that exists when persons or properties are exposed to
hazards. Measure in terms of probability or likely
that one thing or event can happen.
6. Chance or Circumstance is a factor that determines
whether or not an existing incident results to damage
and to what degree or extent. Only after the incident
is in existence does chance or circumstance come
into play.
7. Probability refers to the likelihood of occurrence of
particular event. Its mathematical limit is from zero
(0) representing impossibility to one (1) representing
certainty.
8. Accident is an incident which resulted in harm to
person or damage to property. Anything that happens
unexpectedly arising from an unsafe act or condition
culminating injury. Any occurrence that interrupts an
on-going orderly progress of activity.
9. Near- miss is an event or situation which almost
resulted in an accident (no injury or property
damage), perhaps a difference of a few seconds or a
few inches only. This is very important in hazard
analysis and should be consider seriously just like
accident.

DEFINITION OF TERMS
1. Danger states the degree of exposure to a hazard. By
appropriate precaution, the danger or degree of
exposure to a given hazard is minimized.

10. Damage is a result or outcome arising from an

accident that resulted to economic losses. It could be
in the form of bodily injury, property or material
damage, losses in production, losses in man- hourswork, others.

2. Hazard is a physical situation or condition with a

potential cause of human injury, damage to property,
to the environment or a combination thereof. Or it
can be an accident without any or inadequate
controls applied.

11. Injury is the result of hazardous material or accident

toward the human body cause harm and inability to
function normally. This varies in the extent of harm.

3. Hazard assessment is a systematic approach to

identify hazards in order to analyse and evaluate their
overall effect on people, property and the
environment.
4. Incident is any deviation from an established,
acceptable standard or specification. It could be an
event or unwanted practice/ application of a
procedure or existing system. An undesired event
that could (or does) result in a loss.

12. Severity the extent or the seriousness of harm to a

person brought by the accident.
13. Frequency and Severity Rate is a mathematical
instrument use to measure the safety performance of
certain establishment comparing it to other
establishment of the other industry. Significance of
accident analysis can only be determined when we
apply this formula and assess its safety performance.

21

ACCIDENT PREVENTION: Primary Goal of Safety

and Health Management
Since the primary goal and purpose of all endeavours
related to safety profession is the prevention of accident,
therefore its only proper to start our long journey in
studying accident itself, its causes and possible effects to
our organization.

ACCIDENTS AND ITS CAUSES

Accidents are defines as unplanned occurrences which
results in injuries, fatalities, loss of production or damage
to property and assets. Preventing accident is difficult in
the absence of an understanding of the causes of
accidents.
THEORY OF ACCIDENT CAUSES

Accidents vary as to type or class, as in the following

examples taken from the book Industrial Safety by
Emmanuel Nino:
Worker A notices a banana peeling. Steps over it
carefully, maintain his pace so as not to collide with
other workers.
Worker B steps on the banana peeling, slips but
recovers his balance and proceeds without collision,
injury or damage.
Worker C who was carrying a bottle of varnish, steps
on the banana peeling, slips, dropped the bottle
which breaks, but recovers his balance, walks on
uninjured.
Worker D steps on the banana peeling, slips and falls,
cutting his hands slightly.
Worker E steps on the banana peeling, slips and falls,
breaking the bottle and his wrist and further tearing
his shirt.
Although worker A to E was involved on an
accident, which is slipping on a banana peeling, these
accidents vary in types which were carefully
investigated.

Worker A - was not involved in an accident but

experiences a near miss.
Worker B - no injury, no damage accident
Worker C - no injury with material damage accident
Worker D - minor injury accident with no material
damage
Worker E - major (disabling) injury accident with
material damage
ACCIDENT
RULES

1
W/ PROPERTY
DAMAGE

A W/ INJURY

B NO INJURY

A1 TYPE

B1 TYPE

with injury
and with
property
damage

With
property
damage and
no injury

A2 TYPE
2
NO
PROPERTY
DAMAGE

With injury
and no
property
damage

B2 TYPE
No property
damage and
no injury

Many attempts had been made to develop a prediction

theory of accident causation, but so far none has been
universally accepted. Researchers from different fields of
science and engineering have been trying to develop a
theory of accident causation which will help to identify,
isolate and ultimately remove the factors that contribute
to or cause accidents. In this part, a brief outline of
various accident causation theories is presented, followed
by a structure of accidents.
The domino theory
There is a belief in accident prevention that all
accidents have causes and that majority of it not all is
preventable. Around 99% of possible accidents can be
prevented when they are recognized and identified by a
responsible safety engineer. Since the cause of accident
itself must have its own cause, they are usually classified
as direct or proximate causes or contributory causes.
This results in an analysis and study of accident that can
be represented as a Domino Effect.
H. W. Heinrich (1931), a famous researcher in the
accident prevention movement, proposed a five domino
model. According to him, accidents happen by chain
reactions of phenomena or events. Accidents can be
prevented when one of the dominos is removed.
Multiple causation theory
Multiple causation theory is an outgrowth of the
domino theory, but it postulates that for every single
accident, there may be many contributory factors, causes
and sub- causes and that certain combination of these
give rise to accidents. According to this theory, the
contributory factors can be grouped into the following
categories:
Behavioural. This category includes factors pertaining
to the workers, such as improper attitude, lack of
knowledge, lack of skills and inadequate physical and
mental conditions.
Environmental. This category includes improper
guarding of other hazardous work elements and
degradation of equipment through use and unsafe
procedures.

Table 3.1 Types of Accidents According to Results

22

The major contribution of this theory is to bring out

the fact that rarely, if ever, is an accident the result of a
single cause or act.
The pure chance theory
According to the pure chance theory, every one of the
given set of workers has an equal chance of being
involved in an accident. In this theory, all accidents are
treated as corresponding to Heinrichs acts of God, and it
is held that there exists no intervention to prevent them.

Biased liability theory

The path of energy transfer can be modified by:

Enclosure of the path

Installation of barriers
Installation of absorbers
Positioning of isolators

The receiver of energy transfer can be assisted by

adopting the following measures:

Limitation of exposure
Use of personal protective equipment

The symptoms versus causes theory

Biased liability theory is based on the view that once a

worker is involved in an accident, the chance of same
worker becoming involved in future accidents are either
decreased or increased as compared to the rest of the
workers, this theory contributes very little, if anything at
all, towards developing preventive actions for avoiding
accidents.

The symptoms versus causes theory is not so much

a theory as an admonition to be heeded if accident
causation is to be understood. Usually, when
investigating accidents, we tend to fasten upon the
obvious causes of the accident to the neglect of the root
causes. Unsafe acts and unsafe conditions are the
symptoms- the proximate causes- and not the root causes
of the accident.

Accident proneness theory

Failure in the Working Environment Standards

Accident proneness theory maintains that within a

given set of workers, there exists a subset of workers
who are more liable to be involved in accidents.
Researchers have not been able to prove this theory
conclusively because most of the research work has been
poorly conducted and most of the findings are
contradictory and inconclusive. This theory is not
generally accepted. It is felt that if indeed this theory is
supported by any empirical evidence at all, it only
accounts for only a very low proportion of accidents
without any statistical significance.

The failure of providing standard working

environment from the very start of the company will
result to automatic presence of HAZARDS in the
workplace. That is why careful adherence to standard
provisions in relation to the industry where each belong
must be seriously considered. (OSHS definition of safety)

The energy transfer theory

INDUSTRIAL AN WORK HAZARDS

Those who accept the energy transfer theory put

forward the claim that a worker incurs injury or
equipment suffers damage through a chance of energy,
and that for every change of energy, there is a source, a
path and a receiver. This theory is useful in determining
injury causation and evaluating energy hazards and
control methodology. Strategies can be developed which
are preventive, limiting or ameliorating with respect to
the energy transfer.

From the first part, we define hazard as a physical

situation or condition with a potential cause of human
injury, damage to property, to the environment or a
combination thereof. A careful study about hazard is
required in order for the safety man to be able to impose
proper control on any possible accident. A hazard
classification system helps safety professional set
priorities for actions to control all identified hazards.
According to safety management manual of Safety
House Inc., they are classified as follows:

Control of energy transfer at the source can be

achieved by the following means:

Elimination of the source

Changes made to the design or specification of
elements of the work station
Preventive maintenance

Let us take a careful comprehensive discussion about

hazards, its nature, classification and methods of
controlling it. Then we will talk about the rest of the
domino factors as we go on.

1. Class A- a condition or practice likely to cause

permanent disability, loss of life or body part, and/ or
extensive loss of structure, equipment or material.
Example:
Defective barrier guards in a press cutter machine.
23

2. Class B- a condition or practice likely to cause

serious illness/ injury resulting in temporary
disability or property damage that is disruptive but
less severe than Class A.
Example:
Slippery condition observed in main aisle way.
3. Class C- a condition or practice likely to cause minor
(non- disabling) injury/ illness and/ or non- disruptive
property damage.
Example:
Carpenter observed handling rough lumber without
gloves.
HAZARD RATIONALIZATION
Traditionally, hazards are considered to be a prime
factor in accident occurrence. Below is the rational
proportion in which researchers associated records of
accident data from the past decade.
CLASSIFICATION
CONDITIONS

OF

HAZARDOUS

1. Bio- physical hazards

a. Poor housekeeping
b. Noise
c. Poor lighting
d. Special hazards (radiation and extreme radiation)
2. Mechanical Hazards
a. Points of operation
b. Power transmission points
c. In- running nip point
d. Shear points
e. Other moving parts
3. Electrical Hazards
a. Wiring
b. Grounding
c. Power panel
d. Outlets and switches
4. Chemical hazards
a. Human contact (injury, illness)
b. Property damage (fire, explosion)
c. Environmental contamination (air, ground or
water)
HAZARD RECOGNITION
Since the first and foremost way of dealing with
hazard is to recognize them, it is important for us to
acquire skills and knowledge about the method of
recognizing it. From the book Industrial Safety, there are
two approaches to hazard recognition, they are:

1. Fundamental Approach- it consist of the study of all

possible hazards that could exist. It is both
qualitatively and quantitatively. First, ensuring that
all are recognized then calculating the probability
contributed by each then getting the overall potential
occurrence. This is being done to newly introduced
products or project that might affect the consuming
public. Like airplanes, ships and others.
2. Technical or Loss Control Approach- it involves
the thorough recording and study of as many
accidents as possible to identify and eliminate the
hazards that caused them. This must be carried out in
a methodical way in each operation or part of the
system where losses have been experience.
A sample of this approach is discussed in the
following topics. The analysis and assessment of hazard
is extensively presented. The formal method of hazard
analysis both inductive and deductive shows a technical
and loss control approach. The analytical fault tree
analysis is a good example of another approach.
ANALYSIS AND ASSESSMENT OF HAZARD
Our records of data from hazard analysis can be
considered as a possible baseline for future monitoring
activities. Before the workplace can be inspected to
ensure that environmental and physical factors fall within
safe ranges, the hazards inherent in the system must be
discovered. Hazard analysis has proven itself as an
excellent tool to identify and evaluate hazards. Good
workers and their supervisors are always- though
sometimes unconsciously, making assessment that guides
their actions. Written documents of hazard analysis can
carry the process one step further. They will serve as
important inputs of data for further study.
HAZARD ASSESSMENT PHILOSOPHY
Document of analyses can form the basis for thorough
inspections. They can communicate data about hazards
and risk potential to those in charge of the positions.
They can provide recognition of important factors and
educate those in the line and staff organizations who
must know the consequences of hazards existing within
their operations. As well as the purpose and logic behind
established control measures. Management can require
formal, written analysis for each critical operation. By
doing so, it not only gathers information for immediate
use, but it also reaps benefits over the long run. Once
important hazard data are committed to paper, they
become part of the technical information base on the
organization. These documents show the employers
concern for locating hazards and establishing corrective
measures before the occurrence of an accident.
24

According to traditional practice, when systems had

been analysed to determine failures that detracted from
their effectiveness, they were analysed during their
operational phase. Hazard analytical techniques applied
during this phase of a systems life cycle returned
substantial dividends by reducing both accident and
overall system losses. Due to advancement, recently a
shift has taken place. Hazard control specialists no longer
concentrate solely on operations. Instead they are looking
at the conceptual and design stages of the systems which
they are responsible. They are using analytical methods
and techniques before a process or product is built to
identify and judge the nature and effects of hazards
associated with their system. This widened assessment,
in many instances has significantly altered the direction
of hazard control efforts. When potential failures can be
located prior to the production or on- stream process
stage of a systems life cycle, specialists can cut costs
and avoid damage, injuries and death. Systems
engineering were was initially concerned with increasing
effectiveness, not profits (productivity). If properly
applied, however, it can point out profitable solutions to
much management most perplexing operational
problems. This means total productive management in
todays management practice.
WHAT IS HAZARD ANALYSIS ASSESSMENT?
Hazard analysis is an organized and orderly process
used to acquire specific information pertinent to a given
work system. A popular saying holds that most things
work out right for the wrong reasons. In management
decisions, hazard analysis as information help things
work out right for the right reasons. The method forces
those conducting the analysis to ask the right questions,
and it also help to answer those questions. By locating
those hazards that are the most probable and/ or have the
severest consequences, hazard analysis produce
information essential in establishing effective control
measures.
Rational and analytic techniques assist the
investigator in deciding what facts to seek, determining
probable and contributing factors and arranging results
so they are orderly and clear. When facts and data are
arranged in an orderly manner, it will be easy to make
interpretation. A sound and helpful conclusion can be
expected when we are employing a strategy in dealing
with hazards.
PURPOSE OF HAZARD ANALYSIS
1. It can uncover hazards that have been overlooked in
the original design, mock- up, or set up of a
particular process, operation or task.
2. It can locate hazards developed after a particular
process, operation or task instituted.

3. It can determine the essential factors in requirements

for specific job processes, operations and tasks. It
can indicate what qualifications are pre- requisites to
safe and productive work performance.
4. It can indicate need for modifying processes,
operations and tasks.
5. It can identify situational hazards in facilities,
equipment, tools, materials and operational events
(for example: unsafe conditions).
6. It can identify human factors responsible for accident
situations (for example: deviations from standard
procedures).
7. It can identify exposure factors that contribute to
injury and illness (such as contact with hazardous
substances, materials or physical agents).
8. It can identify physical factors that contribute to
accident situations (for example: noise, vibration,
insufficient illumination, to name a few).
9. It can determine appropriate monitoring methods and
maintenance standards needed for safety.
FORMAL METHODS OF HAZARD ANALYSIS
In safety management training manual provided by
different local organization as well as the OSH Centre,
they provide patterns as method of hazard analysis.
Formal hazard analytical methods as provided by the
training of the Safety House Inc. can be divided into two
broad categories: inductive and deductive.
1. Inductive Method
The inductive analytical method uses observable
data to predict what can happen. It postulates how
the component parts of a system will contribute to the
success or failure of the system as a whole. Inductive
analysis considers a systems operation from the
standpoint of its components, their failure in a particular
operating condition and the effect of that failure to the
system.
The inductive method forms the basis for such
analysis as failure mode and effect analysis (FMEA)
and operations hazard analysis (OHA)
In failure mode and effect analysis, the failure or
malfunction of each component is considered, including
the mode of failure. The effects of the hazards that led to
the failure are traced through the system and the ultimate
effect on the task performance is evaluated. However,
because only one failure is considered at a time, some
possibilities may be overlooked.
2. Deductive Method
If inductive analysis tells us what can happen,
deductive analysis tells us how. It postulates failure of
entire system and then identifies how the component
25

could contribute to the failure. Deductive methods use a

combined event analysis often in the form of tree. The
positive tree calls for stating the requirement for
success. Positive trees are less commonly used than
fault tree because they can easily become a list of
you should and sound moralizing. Fault trees are
reverse images of positive trees and show ways trouble
can occur. An undesired event is selected. All the
possible happening that can contribute to the events is
diagrammed in the form of tree. The branches of the tree
are continued until independent events are reached.
Probabilities are determined for the independent events.
The fault tree requires rigorous, thorough analysis. All
known sources of failure must be listed. The fault tree is
a graphic model of the various parallel and sequential
combinations of system component faults that can result
in a single selected system fault.
Analytical Trees Have Three Advantages
a. They accomplish rigorous, thorough analysis without
wordiness. Using known data, the analyst can
identify the single and multiple causes capable of
inducing the desired event.
b. They make the analytical process visible, allowing for
the rapid transfer of hazard data from person to
person, group to group, with few possibilities for
miscommunication during transfer.
c. They can be used as investigative tools. By reasoning
backwards from the accident (the undesired event),
the investigator is also able to reconstruct the system
and pinpoint those elements responsible for the
undesired event.
There are other approaches in managing and
evaluating hazards. Each one is advice to take further
research and acquire techniques, which is more
applicable in your place of work. What might be good in
other company is not suitable for you due to many
factors influencing our work environment considering
your man, machine, materials and method differences.
PERSONAL DEFECTS OR JOB FACTORS
In todays industrial management practice, greater
attention is focused on workers and employees attitude,
motives, mental conflicts and physical and emotional
factors including frustrations. These physiological and
emotional factors are being related to workers
performance and associated even to occurrence of
accidents. Management Science introduces a discipline
that deals on some of these areas known as Ergonomics
or Human Factors Engineering.
Ergonomics might not cover all the areas of concern
but major aspects are directly addressed by it. The

workers personal physical defects such as height, size,

etc. is in relation to job factors such as nature of task,
tools, machines and working environment. Here, human
factors are being studied and related to machine,
materials, tools and methods whereby its goals are the
harmonious interrelation of all involved in the working
system. Its purpose is that the working man achieves its
highest potential.
Since a great proportion of industrial accidents are
linked to human error, it is naturally expected that human
factors and personality profiles have a large influence on
the frequency of industrial accidents. Therefore, careful
selection and rigid training is done in the industry. Proper
placement of the worker to job he is best fitted directly
reduces such accidents.
Accident proneness was once a fad. Some
management attribute it to mental attitude manifested by
(a) insubordination (b) tempera mentality, and (c)
excitability. A cycle of accident proneness includes poor
vision, unpopularity, and manic depression personalities.
Researcher Tiffin and McCormick published in their
work in industrial psychology correlated spatial
perception and muscular activity to accident rate. Their
study shows that individuals with levels of muscular
activity higher than their spatial perception tend to have
higher than average accident rates.
Human Factors in Accident
In the study of human factors in accident, several
distinctions must be made as to the following:
(a) Between inherent factors and temporary factors
resulting from stresses, training, etc.,
(b) Between physical and mental or psychological, and
(c) Between factors of age and sex, we can also include(d) Learning curves or the rate and ability to learn.
In UK, a comprehensive research involving more than
2000 accidents during over a year period in three
different factories indicated revealing findings, the
following are:
1. Men below 5 ft. 9 inches tall, in a dispatch department
handling large packages, had significantly higher
accident rate.
2. Older workers in a machine shop had lower accident
rates than younger workers.
3. Talkative people have higher accident rates than the
less talkative ones.
4. Extroverts showed a higher accident frequency rates
than introverts in most situations.
5. Employees with longer service in a shop had fewer
accidents than those with shorter service.
26

6. Boredom and monotony in repetitive tasks which

were thought to influence accident frequency were
not firmly established.
Effects of Stress
Several researchers have studied the effects of stress
on work performance and productivity. From these
studies, it is fair to conclude in many circumstances that
the accidents caused attributed to personal failure was
directly brought by over stress. However, many
employers, supervisors and sometimes safety engineers
dont fully recognize these findings.
Ergonomics Workplace Description
The work setting is characterized by an interaction
between the following parameters:
1. A worker with attribute of size, strength, range of
motion, intellect, education, expectations, and other
physical/ mental capacities.
2. A worker setting comprised of parts, tools, furniture,
control/ display panels and other physical objectives.
3. A work environment created by climate, lighting,
noise, vibration and other atmospheric qualities.
The interaction of these parameters determines the
manner by which a task is performed and the physical
demands of the task. For example, a 5 10, 160 pound
male worker lifts a 35 pound cabinet from the floor by
generating 600 pounds of force from the low back
muscles.
As the physical demands of task increase, the risk of
injury increases. When the physical demands of a task
exceed the physiological capabilities of a worker, an
injury may likely occur.
Work Risk Factors or Hazard Exposure
Certain characteristics of the work setting have been
associated with injury that results to accidents. These
work characteristics are called risk factors and include:
Task Physical Characteristics
(Primarily interaction between the worker and the work
setting)

Posture
Force
Velocity/ acceleration
Repetition
Duration
Recovery time
Heavy dynamic exertion
Segmental vibration

Environmental Characteristics
(Primarily interaction between the worker and the work
environment)

Heat stress
Cold stress
Whole body vibration
Lighting
Noise

Posture
Posture is the position of the body while performing
work activities. Awkward posture is associated with an
increased risk of injury. It is generally considered that the
more a joint deviates from the neutral (natural) position,
the greater the risk of injury. Posture issues can be
created by work methods (bending and twisting to pick
up a box; bending the wrist to assemble a part) or
workplace dimensions (extend reach to obtain a part
from a bin at a high location; kneeling in the storage bay
of an airplane because of confines space while handling
luggage)
Specific postures have been associated with injury.
For example:
Wrist

Flexion/ extension (bending up and down)

Ulnar/ radial deviation (side bending)

Shoulder

Abduction/ flexion (upper arm positioned out to

the side or above shoulder level)
Hands at or above shoulder height

Low back

Bending at the waist, twisting

Force
Task forces can be viewed as the effect of an exertion
on internal body tissues (e.g. compression on a spinal
disc from lifting, tension within a muscle/ tendon unit
from a pinch grasp), or the physical characteristics
associated with an object(s) external to the body (e.g.
weight of a box, pressure required to activate a tool,
pressure necessary to snap two pieces together).
Generally, the greater the force, the greater the degree of
risk is.
Static Exertion
Although defined in a variety of ways, static exertion
generally means the performance of a task from one
27

postural position for an extended position. The condition

is a combination of force, posture and duration. The
degree of risk is in proportion to the combination of the
magnitude of the external resistance, awkwardness of the
posture and the duration.
Grip
A grip is the conformity is the hand to an object
accompanied by the application of exertion usually to
manipulate the object. Hence, it is the combination of a
force with a posture. Grip is applied to tools, parts, and
other physical objects in the work setting during job
performance.
Contact Trauma
Two types of contact trauma are:
1. Local mechanical stress generated from sustained
contact between the body and an external object such
as the forearm against the edge of a counter.
2. Local mechanical stress generated from shock impact
such as using the hand to strike an object.
Velocity/ Acceleration
Angular velocity/ angular acceleration are the speed
of body part motion and the rate of change of speed of
body part motion respectively.
Repetition
Repetition is the time quantification of a similar
exertion performed during a task. A warehouse worker
may lift and place on the floor three boxes per minute; an
assembly worker may produce 20 units per hour.
Duration
Duration is the time quantification of exposure to a
risk factor. Duration can be viewed as the minutes of
hours per day the worker is exposed to a risk. Duration
also can be viewed as the years of exposure to a risk
factor or a job characterized by a risk factor. In general,
the greater the duration of exposure to a risk factor, the
greater the degree of risk.
Recovery Time
Recovery time is the time quantification of rest,
performance of low stress activity, or performance of an
activity that allows a strained body to rest. Short work
pauses have reduced perceived discomfort and rest
periods between exertions have reduced performance
decrement.

Heavy Dynamic Exertion

The cardiovascular system provides oxygen and
metabolites to muscle tissues. Some tasks require long
term/ repetitive muscle contraction such as walking great
distances, heavy carrying and repeat lifting.
As physical activity increases, muscles demand more
oxygen and metabolites. The body respond by increasing
breathing rate and heart rate.
When muscles demand for metabolites cannot be met
(metabolite energy expenditure rate exceeds the bodys
energy producing and lactic acid removal rate), physical
fatigue occurs.
When this happens in a specific area of the body
(shoulder muscle from repeat or long term shoulder
abduction), it is termed localized fatigue and is
characterized by tired/ sore muscles.
Segmental Vibration (Hand- Arm Vibration)
Vibration applied to the hand can cause a vascular
insufficiency of the hand/ fingers. Also, it can interfere
with sensory receptor feedback leading to increased hand
grip force to hold the tool.
Heat Stress
Heat stress is the total heat load the body must
accommodate. It is generated externally from
environment temperature and internally from human
metabolism.
Excessive heat can cause heat stroke, a condition that
can be life threatening or result in an irreversible
damage. Less serious condition associated with excessive
heat include heat exhaustion, heat cramps, and heat
related disorders (e.g. dehydration, electrolyte imbalance,
loss of physical/ mental work capacity).
Cold Stress
Cold stress is the exposure of the body to cold such
that there is a lowering of the bodys deep core
temperature. Systematic symptoms that a worker can
present when exposed to cold include shivering, clouded
consciousness, extreme pain, dilated pupils, and
ventricular fibrillation.
Cold can also reduce hand grip strength and
coordination. As mentioned earlier in the section of
force, bulky clothes and gloves can be used to protect the
worker from cold exposure can increase the muscle effort
required to perform task.

28

Whole Body Vibration

Exposure of the whole body to vibration (usually
through the feet/ buttocks when riding in a vehicle) has
some support as a risk for injury. It was found in a
research that prevalence of reported back pain to be
approximately 10% higher in tractor drivers than in
workers not exposed to vibration, and the prevalence of
back pain increase with vibration dose.

skills and capabilities of human factor engineer and

ergonomist. A working relationship is essential for
optimum worksite health and safety and in the analysis
and application of Heinrichs Domino Model in our
workplace.
It is also advised that working hours, overtime,
rhythm of rest and activity must also be considered in the
factors that contribute to human failure and personal
defects.

Lighting
With industrialization, the trend regarding the lighting
has been to provide higher lighting level. This is proven
hazardous within certain work settings such as in offices
in which problems in glaze and eye symptoms have been
associated with levels above 1000 lumens. Work that
requires high visual acuity and contrast sensitivity needs
high levels of illumination. Fine and delicate work
should be illuminated 1000 to 10000 lumens. (See
lighting standards provided in other references)

UNSAFE ACT AND UNSAFE CONDITION

It apparent that an accident will occur due to an
inconsistency of conformity between workers who
performs the work under certain circumstances under an
object (environment), which is the part of the
circumstances or an imbalance between them. Unsafe act
is an unsafe act of a person who is a factor of the
accident. Unsafe condition can be considered a
condition ready to cause an accident or a condition which
produces a factor of accident.

Noise
Noise is unwanted sound. In the industrial setting it
may be continuous or intermittent and present in various
ways (bang of a rifle, clatter of a pneumatic wrench,
whirl of an electric motor). Exposure to noise can lead to
temporary and permanent deafness, tinnitus, paracusis, or
speech misperception. The louder the noise and the
greater its duration, the greater the risk to hearing. Also,
noise well below thresholds that cause hearing loss may
interfere with the ability of some people to concentrate.
Other Workplace Risks
The risk factors addressed by industrial ergonomics
are a partial list of hazards present in the work settings.
Others include:

Job stress
Job invariability
Cognitive demands
Work organizations
Workload
Work hours (shift work, overtime)
Displays and control panels
Slips and falls
Fire
Electrical exposures
Chemical exposures
Radiological exposures
Ionizing radiations
Radiofrequency/ microwave radiation

The safety professionals working with other

occupational and industrial specialist must recognize the

Unsafe Personal Act

Behaviour that leads to accidents is identified as an
unsafe personal act. It also defined as defiance of a
commonly accepted safe procedure. Personal acts that
results in accidents are classified under the following:
1. Working unsafely
2. Performing operations for which supervisory
permission has not been granted.
3. Removing safety devises or altering their operations
so that they are ineffective.
4. Operating at unsafe speed
5. Horseplay, teasing, abusing, and so forth
6. Using unsafe or improper equipment
7. Using equipment unsafely
8. Failing to use safe attire or personal protective devices
Unsafe Conditions
The unsafe acts discussed above account for most
industry accidents, but there are cases where unsafe act is
not part. In many other cases, the unsafe acts are
accompanied by unsafe conditions. Below are the general
lists of unsafe conditions:
1. Improperly guarded machines, equipment, etc.
a. No guard provided
b. Inadequate guard provided
c. Lack of or improper shoring in excavation, etc.
2. Defects in machine structures, etc.
a. Low material strength
b. Poorly constructed
c. Inferior composition
d. Rough
29

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

e. Slippery
f. Sharp edged
g. Poorly designed
h. Decayed, aged, worn, frayed, cracked, etc.
Hazardous arrangement, procedures, etc.
a. Misaligning
b. Overloading
c. Unsafe processes
d. Inadequate aisles, space, exits, etc.
e. Unsafely stored or piled tools
f. Unsafe planning and/ or layout of traffic or
processes operation
Improper illumination
a. Insufficient light
b. Glare
c. Unsuitable location or arrangement of lights
producing excessive shadows and contrast
Improper ventilation
a. Insufficient air charge
b. Unsuitable capacity, location, or arrangement of
systems
c. Impure air source
Unsafe dress or apparel
a. Lack of or inadequate eye protection
b. Lack of or inadequate hand protection
c. Lack of or inadequate body protection
d. Lack of or inadequate respiratory protection
e. High heels, loose hair (women)
f. Loose clothing, jewelry
Lack of or inadequate warning systems
a. Warning system inoperative
b. Warning device is obstructed or inaudible
c. Warning labels are not standard visually
deficient
d. Warning and gauges are not calibrated

INCIDENTS AND ACCIDENTS

Earlier, we defined incident as any deviation from an
established, acceptable standard or specification. It could
be an event or unwanted practice/ application of a
procedure or existing systems. An undesired event that
could (or does) result in a loss or damages. In some other
references, incidents are sometimes defined as accident,
however, if take a careful observation, it is better to
categorize the two as different items though they are
closely related and almost the same. Why? This is in
order for practitioners and engineers to have a definite
term for their application.
For our case and in this material, we will define
accidents as an incident which resulted in harm to person
or damage to property. Anything that happens
unexpectedly arising from an unsafe act or condition
culminating in injury. Any occurrence that interrupts an
on- going orderly progress of activity.

H. W. Heinrich once defined accident as an event in

which (a) the contact of a person with an object,
substance or another person, (b) the exposure of a person
to objects, substances, other persons, or conditions, or (c)
the movement of a person that causes personal injury or
suggests the probability of such injury.
Webster defined accident as an event that takes place
without ones foresight or expectation, especially one of
an afflictive or unfortunate character.
In other words, accident is already a past event, an
occurrence. Nobody planned it before it happens. It is
unwanted or improper. This will take our earlier
definition.
Types of Accidents
In the introductory part of this chapter, we discussed
accident presented in accordance to its result with respect
to property damage or human injury. On this part, let me
introduce another way of categorizing accidents, which is
in accordance with its nature. These basic types of
accidents in accordance to nature have been identified
over the years and generally classified into:
1. Being struck by an object or substance, or other
persons
2. Being struck against
3. Being caught in, on or in between
4. Falling to a lower level
5. Falling on the same level (tripping)
6. Over- exertion
7. Exposure to temperature extremes
8. Inhalation, absorption or swallowing of harmful or
toxic substances
9. Contact with electric current
10. Exposure to electric welding flash or other harmful
rays
11. Entry of other foreign bodies in eyes, other loose or
embedded
12. Radiation
Agency of Accidents
In many accidents, the object or substance that is most
closely cause the harm, injury or damage is technically
labelled as agency of accident. In general, these objects
could have been properly guarded or corrected.
Examples of agencies are the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Hand tools
Electrical equipment
Machines
Prime mover
Hoisting equipment
Boiler and pressure vessels
Vehicles
30

8. Animals and insects

9. Transmission equipment
10. Chemicals
11. Hot substances
12. Dust, mist and fumes
13. Radiating substances
14. Working surfaces
Costs of Accidents
A common measure of traditional management
organization is to insure the industrial risk so that they
seldom pay or get away from compensation directly.
However, insurance alone cannot consider as the lone
cost of accident and its control. In fact, many
practitioners believed that insurance must be the last
resort or tool of managing accidents.
In fact, the employer generally incurs the number of
additional expenses incidental to the accident not
covered by insurance. Determination of the appropriate
compensation often suffers from costing difficulties. The
important question everyone should ask is, how can we
value life when death is involved? human life cannot
just be express in financial terms.
One of the effective methods in determining total cost
of accident is to consider the direct and indirect costs of
accident and the cost of preventive measures taken to
prevent them.
Direct Cost of Accident
1. Direct compensation cost, based on existing law (see
reference from Workers Compensation Act of the
Phil.)
2. Hospitalization of the injured worker
3. Cost of damage to property, materials or machines

Accident Prevention Cost

Estimating of the cost of preventing accident has been
grouped into three by some specialists. They are as
follows:
1. Design costs
2. Operating costs
3. Planning and consequence limiting costs
1. Cost of Design
a. Installed control features for safety
b. Installed machine guards and protective devices
c. Added metal thickness or size to provide margin
of safety
d. Anti- toxic and explosive systems
e. Fire prevention and protection like fire escapes,
etc.
f. Cost of layout to improve safety
2. Operational Cost
a. Safety department expenditure
b. Extra administrative and management functions
c. Stricter control of operative relative to
temperature, pressure, speeds, etc.
d. Cost of medical and first aid department
3. Planning and Consequence Limiting Cost
a. Organization of fire brigade
b. Insurance cost
c. Hazard analysis and safety audit
d. Environmental sampling and biological controls
e. Testing for leaks of hazardous materials
f. Electricals safety test
g. Toxicity test on drugs, foods and others
h. Structure load test and pressure vessel test
i. Flammability test of materials
j. Research and development cost

Accident Hidden or Indirect Cost

THE IMPORTANCE OF ACCIDENT COST
1. Cost of lost time of injured employee
2. Cost of time lost by other employee who stop work to
assist the injured out of sympathy, curiosity and
others
3. Cost of lost time by foremen, supervisors and
executives as follows:
a. Assisting injured employee
b. Investigating causes of accident
c. Arrangement for the substitute of the injured
d. Selecting and training of replacement
e. Preparation of accident report and hearings
4. Cost of time by first aiders and clinic staff
5. Cost of production lost, unfilled orders or penalty
payment
6. Cost of full wages of employee on his return before
complete recovery

Why do we need to compute cost of accidents? The

rationale behind the calculation is to optimize between
the accidents costs versus the risk reduction effort. Also
the management of risk level versus preventive cost.
Since resources of the company are being utilized
efficiently, it is a must for the safety analyst to apply the
principle of optimization in employing the funds of the
organization. We cannot simply pay out Php 1 million
for a Php 100 thousand worth of resources or potential
losses.
INJURY AND LOSSES
The last part of the dominos is the consequences of
accidents. Its either injury, property damages which
31

both incurred losses to the organization. We can avoid

this part of the effect if we or one way or the other was
able to eliminate any of the other dominos.

15. Amputation
16. Hernia
RATIONALIZING INJURY

From the start, we define injury as a result of

hazardous material or accident toward the human body
that cause harm and inability to function normally. This
varies in the extent of harm. The OSH standard classifies
injuries or accident harm to human in five groups as
follows:
1. Fatality- it covers all reported deaths resulting from
injuries occurring within the calendar year. It is
chargeable to the date of the accident rather than the
date of death. Death may have occurred after the
close of the year and the time necessary to complete
such records is part responsible for the delay in
publication of the accident and other statistical
records.
2. Permanent Total Disability- this accident class
includes loss of arms, legs or eyesight or other
conditions permanently incapacitating the injured
from performing gainful work.
3. Temporary Total Disability- it covers all injuries
which cause disability to the injured employee for
more than the remainder of the day in which the
accident occurred. This disables the worker to
continue the work in the day.
4. Permanent Partial Disability- an injury other than
death or permanent total disability that resulted in the
loss or loss of use of any part of the body regardless
of pre-existing disability or impaired body function.
5. Medical Treatment Injury- an injury that does not
result in a disability but requires first aid or medical
attention. Also called non- disabling injury and
allows the worker to return to his work after
medication.
TYPES AND NATURE OF INJURIES
The types of injuries commonly encountered in the
industry include:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.

Incisions
Burns or scalds
Abrasions
Puncture
Occupational disease
Contusion
Asphyxia
Strain or sprains
Lacerations
Fractures
Dislocations
Foreign body in eye
Infection
Poisoning

When an accident or illness does occur, it is usually a

good indication that others will occur as well.
Researched revealed that for every industrial accident
that occurs, there are hundreds of near- misses and
mishaps that could easily have resulted in injury or
damage.
One of the most famous studies was conducted by H.
W. Heinrich in 1931. He found out that for every major
injury or fatality, there are a number of minor injurycausing accidents and numerous near- accidents in which
no injury or damage resulted. H. W. Heinrich was one of
the first to point out that concentrating only on accidents
that cause injury means that the vast majority of
accidents and near- misses are being ignored. And he
stressed that whatever act or condition caused a near
miss could easily cause serious injury the next time
around. The point is simply reacting to accidents is not
going to have much of an effect on employee health and
safety. Even reacting to near misses is not enough.
In 1990, a study was made to update Heinrichs
pioneering work to a concept of total accident control:
both personal and property safety. This study included
extensive and diverse industrial activities that were not
available to Heinrich, and took advantage of modern
mass data processing methods. In fact, it encompassed
1,753,498 accidents reported by 297 companies
representing 21 different industrial groups. The study
produced the ratio of serious injury to other accidents
and incidents depicted.
Accidents and near misses must always be
investigated and the causes eliminated. But for every
near- miss that occurs, imagine how many unsafe acts are
occurring that have not yet led to an accident or nearmiss. Some researchers believed that a near- miss
indicates the presence of thousands of an unsafe or
unhealthy behaviour and condition. Eventually, one or a
combination of these will result in an accident or illness.
STRUCTURE OF ACCIDENTS
The beliefs that accidents are caused and can be
prevented make it imperative for us to study those
factors, which are likely to favour the occurrence of
accident. By studying such factors, the root causes of
such accident can be isolated and necessary steps can be
taken to prevent the recurrence of the accidents. These
root causes of accidents can be grouped as immediate
and contributing. The immediate causes are the unsafe
acts of the workers and the unsafe conditions. The
32

contributing causes could be management- related

factors, the environment and the physical and mental
condition of the worker. A combination of causes must
converge on order to result in an accident.
Accident causation is very complex and must be
understood adequately on order to improve accident
prevention. Since safety lacks a theoretical base, it
cannot be regarded as being a science yet. This fact
should not discourage us, as most of the scientific
disciplines- mathematics, statistics, and so on- passed
through a similarly tentative phase at one time or the
other. Accident causation study holds great promise for
those who are interested in developing the pertinent
theory.
At present, theories of accident causation are
conceptual in nature and as such are of limited use in
preventing and controlling accidents. With such a
diversity of theories, it will not be difficult to understand
that there does not exists one single theory that is
considered right or correct and is universally accepted.
These theories are nonetheless necessary, but not
sufficient for developing a frame of reference for
understanding accident occurrences. Heinrich causation
theory was discussed here because of its comprehensive
research in the field of accident and widely acceptance of
his study.

Therefore, it is still advisable that professionals in the

field of safety must develop a built- in safety of
managing hazard in their workplace. The system must be
integrated in all areas and levels of the operations
whereby safety and health of workers and assets must be
considered in the development and implementation of
processes and procedures in the production. It will be
discussed further in the following chapter on how we can
incorporate our effort to prevent accidents in the
operations and activities of the organization.
The following chapter will talk about investigating
accident and incident. Here, we will study a systematic
way of conducting the investigation then the analysis.
We will also follow required investigation form and
report procedures. These forms will be the source of data
in order for us to come up with Accident Frequency Rate
(AFR) and Accident Severity Rate (ASR). These are the
two ways of recording and measuring accident data
statistically. The above topics and theories were
discussed about accident will be the source of the
application for the next chapter.

33

EXERCISE NO. 3
Name: ___________________________________________ Yr. & Sec.: _______________
Schedule & Room: _________________________________ Date Performed: ___________

Rating

TEST YOURSELF: Answer the following questions. Use extra paper if needed.
1. Discuss the economic, legal and moral aspect of accidents prevention.
2. Hazards represent potential for causing injuries or damages. How can it be recognized?
3. What are some human factors relating to accident?
4. Explain the hierarchy of causes of accidents.
5. In what way accident prevention contribute to the economic growth of the country? Explain further
your answer.

LEARNING ACTIVITY: Perform the following procedural activities.

Title: Accidents,

Injury and Hazard

Objectives:
After the activity, you should be able to:
1. Identify accident and injury according to different classification.
2. Perform accident investigation, analysis and reporting, and
3. Conduct hazard evaluation and treatment
Procedure and Task:
1. Prepare and develop an accident investigation report form for company use. According to facts and data
needed as prescribe by the law.
2. Get a news item from leading newspapers, at least 5 accidents having different areas such as Industrial,
Transport, Manufacturing, Residential, Agricultural, Service, Etc. (Clippings)
3. Using the information in your clippings, perform a dummy report using an accident report form and
supplement the data in order to present a well-accepted report.
4. Develop some alternative solutions and recommendation on the following cases.

Resource Materials: Newspapers, OSHS forms, recommended forms from different Safety Books, existing
accident report forms by different companies.
34

CHAPTER 4
BASIC CONCEPTS AND STRATEGIES
OF ACCIDENT PREVENTION
INTRODUCTION
Accident prevention is not just a simple task to
undertake. It is a very serious concern of every
organization because it is directly affecting the overall
productivity. Though we produce and meet the volume
requirements of the production with a high level of
quality, we might get a lower productivity rate at the end
if we will rationalize the production output vis- a- vis the
accidents occurrence, interruptions and damages to the
property that arise out of a manufacturing operations.
In this sense, it is important to aid ourselves by
understanding basic concepts and strategies employed by
most practitioners in the field of safety and health
management. Most researchers formulate the following
concepts and even advance companies are applying it in
their organizations. In these concepts, we can particularly
identify that preventing accidents and controlling losses
can consider a wide range of spectrum factors. It
encompasses the different departments and functions
within the organization and usually focusses on man,
machine, materials, methods and design of work systems.
It is carefully advised that the students and
professionals in the field of safety must first have a clear
understanding on these concepts before taking a
particular application of the other doable task. This is in
order to save time, effort and valuable resources while
producing a great impact within the organization.
FUNDAMENTAL
PREVENTION

CONCEPT

OF

ACCIDENT

Basically, a successful accident prevention program

requires a minimum of three fundamental activities that a
management and workers should adhere and maintain
with commitment. The following are:
A. Education and Training

informed and knowledgeable workers. Ignorance is a

primary cause of accident that is why we have to ensure
that our workers must be educated and motivated to
apply what they learned from our safety and health
activities.
Training of our safety/ health personnel is the
requirement of the Occupational Safety and Health
Standards. The Bureau of Working Conditions (BWC) of
the Department of Labour and Employment (DOLE) or
its accredited organizations conducts occupational safety
and health training programs to increase the supply and
competence of personnel to carry out the provisions of
the standards. Likewise, the company must have an
internal self- education and training program to be
carried by its safety department.
B. Engineering Design Controls
Accident prevention includes a study of all working
areas to detect and eliminate or control physical hazards.
It also includes the study of all operating methods and
practices. It is also believed that first and foremost,
safety must be integrated in the design of plant, facilities
and working systems. The following should be
considered:
1. Proper and standard installation of plant
facilities, safety features in the layout of design
and application of materials must be
implemented.
2. Provision of proper illumination, ventilation and
consideration of standard working environment.
3. Proper guarding of machinery, equipment and
tools
4. U machinery, equipment and tools which are in
good conditions
5. Proper maintenance, correcting of defective
machineries, equipment and tools

Safety education aims to teach workers safe work

methods through some basic principles of learning,
especially the techniques of behaviour modification such
as reinforcement award. Safety education is broader in
scope than safety training, which usually covers a
number of subjects not normally included in a training
program. It also includes safety promotions and
information.

C. Enforcement and Compliance

In this material, a chapter is allotted for safety

education and training. There is no substitute for well-

In turn, the workers should follow the rules and

regulations imposed by the management. Especially

In other references, this also means management or

administrative controls. It is a responsibility of the
management to set up safety and health policies in
conformity with the Occupational Safety and Health
Standards. But first, it is also the accountability of the
management to comply in all the policies and standards
promulgated by the DOLE and its agencies.

35

when the management set an example by following the

provisions of the law pertaining to safety and health in
the workplace, the supervisors and safety man to
maintain healthful conditions should undertake regular
and intermittent inspections. Violation or deviation from
certain rules, such as failures to wear personal protective
equipment should be penalized.
Conclusively, accidents are caused and do not just
happen. It shows defects in a system (the design,
environment and behavior) in making your analysis of
the nature of accidents, dont just focus on the victim and
injuries it acquired but most effort must be concentrated
on the prevention of its repetition.
PRO- ACTIVE APPROACH
As experienced by most practitioners, managing
health, safety and environment protection has a great
deal in common with managing other areas of
management responsibility. However, it differs in a very
important way. What we are trying to manage here is
PREVENTION and that requires a pro- active concept
and perspective.
In many cases, less time effort and money is required
to prevent accidents that are required to react to their
consequences. Too often, supervisors feel they do not
have time to do much more than to handle accidents or
incidents occurrence. Well, this response to a
circumstance is a REACTIVE approach in managing
hazard, risk and accidents. When and accident or injury
does occur, it is usually a sign or indication that others
will occur as well. Research revealed that for every
industrial accidents that occurs, there are hundreds of
near- misses and mishaps that could easily have resulted
in injury or damage.
Remember that accidents and near- misses must
always be investigated and the causes are eliminated. But
for every near- miss that occurs, imagine how many
unsafe acts are occurring that have not yet led to an
accident or near- miss. Some researchers believed that a
near- miss indicates the presence of thousands of an
unsafe or unhealthy behaviour or conditions. Eventually,
one or a combination of these will result in an accident or
illness.
Heinrich found out that for every major injury or
fatality, there are a number of minor injury- causing
accidents and numerous near- accidents in which no
injury or damage resulted. H. W. Heinrich was one of the
first to point out that concentrating only on accidents that
cause injury means that the vast majority of accidents
and near- misses are being ignored. And he stressed that
whatever act or condition caused a near miss could cause
serious injury the next time around.

Instructors Note: ____________________________

__________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
_________________________________________
There are four processes involved in a Pro- Active
safety management approach. The following are as
follows:
1. IDENTIFICATION AND DETECTION
This is the initial part of every active approach. There
must be a system built in the program of safety that
identifies and detect in ahead of time before a potential
accident occurs.
a. Identify Specific and General Hazards
Identification of potential exposure is the
foundation of all preventive efforts. Many
organizations relegate hazard identification to
experts assigned a special support staff called
SAFETY and overlooked many problems
obvious to the line workers. While some
technical expertise, based on the nature of
probable exposures is invaluable to the
identification of specific risks, identification of
exposures in the work process is EVERYONES
job.
b. Hazard Identification must be a Collective
Effort
Inside the plant, we can establish effective
hazard identification by the collective experience
of all individuals involved in the workplace.
c. Apply Multiple Incident Recognition Tools
- Task Exposure Analysis (TEA Method)
- Self- Inspection (personal by the worker)
- Accident Investigations (investigation team)
The TEA Method as used by other training centres
like Safety House, Inc. and OSH Centre will be
discussed on the later part of this chapter. The method is
very effective in hazard identification, Job Safety
Analysis (JSA) and other research undertaking.
2. ASSESSMENTS AND MEASUREMENTS
A systematic way of assessment and measurement
of the gathered facts must be put in place as part of proactiveness. The following means are considerable steps
in applying this part.
36

a. Assess impact of unwanted events

b. Consider experiences in similar
techniques
c. Use accident imaging techniques
d. Use consistent exposure references
e. Determine possible consequences

d. Be truly PRO- ACTIVE. Whenever key safety

process elements aim at these four (4) IAIM
steps to create an accident- free workplace, the
total effect is truly PRO- ACTIVE.

operations/

3. INTERVENTION AND CONTROLS

The key to intervention is the level of control that
can be obtained by particular intervention method
applied, the higher the level of control, and the more
valuable the intervention method. The ideal intervention
would totally eliminate the incident or hazard exposure.
The least desirable intervention is one that continuously
reminds the exposed persons to avoid the potential. It is
also desirable to select an intervention requiring the
exposed person to take it upon themselves to obtain and
use a specific item of Personal Protective Equipment.
a. Engineering Controls
It includes engineering the hazard out of the work
process, if at all feasible through substitution and
process alteration/ changes or workplace re- design.
b. Work Practices and Administrative Controls
It involves activities such as worker education and
training, good housekeeping, labelling, proper
storage and behaviour reinforcement. It also involves
the scheduling of workers to minimize hazard
exposures and the installation of warning and alarm
systems when worker have received a maximum
allowable exposure.
c. Must be used as a LAST resort only
4. MAINTENANCE AND SUSTAINANCE
a. Maintain and continuously improve
b. Develop follow- up criteria scheme. Many
organizations work diligently at identifying and
fixing the basic hazard exposures in their work
areas. When fixed, however, they forgot to
follow through with continued effort. Criteria for
regular follow- up must be developed to prevent
further hazard exposures.
c. Use elimination and multiple levels of control.
Whenever the intervention is a control measure,
such as applying a guard or warning device, as
opposed to elimination measures, such as
substituting a non- toxic chemical for toxic
substance, the first step must be revisited
periodically by way of self- inspection.
Remember that when task functions change, the
general workplace environment must also change
in order to prevent accidents.

PRO- ACTIVE SAFETY PRINCIPLES (PSP)

1. All accidents and injuries can be prevented
2. All levels of management are responsible for
preventing injuries and illnesses.
3. Each employee must accept that he or she is
responsible for working safely.
4. All employees must be trained to do their job safely.
5. All near- accidents are WARNINGS and must be
investigated.
6. All incidents (hazardous conditions and acts) must be
corrected immediately.
7. It is a good business to be PRO- ACTIVE about
safety and prevent ALL injuries and illnesses.
CHARACTERISTICS
SAFETY APPROACH
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

OF

PRO-

ACTIVE

Recognize safety as a performance based process

Understand the natures of accident
Capitalize on the role of human behaviour
Know and follow the applicable standards
Focus on preventive performance hazards
Cultivate and encourage leadership
Integrates safety into process
Involve everyone in the process
Empower with participation
Develop goal- oriented plans

STRUCTURE
APPROACH

REQUIREMENTS

FOR

THIS

1. Position of positive action

a. Know expectations
b. Consider operational and support matters
c. Watch out for ripple effect
d. Be sensitive to blame fixing
e. Re- examine corporate policy
f. Develop explicit position statements
2. Clearly Identify Everyones Role
Executive Management
-

Set policy
Provide finance
Empower managers

Technical Management
-

Apply codes and standards

Plan and design

37

Operating Management

6. Utilize Periodic Objective Assessment

a. Use third party assessment

b. Avoid self- serving interest
c. Recommend periodic independent assessment

Internet policy
Distribute resources
Lead
Direct

The following are recommended:

Supervisory Management
-

Apply capital
Utilize human resource
Lead
Empower

Support Management
-

Apply policy
Manage support group

Operating Employees
-

Operate equipment
Implement processes
Utilize materials

3. Establish Safety Practices Guidelines

a. Provide safety manual
b. Spell out objectives
c. Address four performance standard areas (people,
equipment, materials, work environment)
d. Establish health and safety committee
e. Design controls and ergonomic man- machine
interface
f. Establish material specifications and the safe
handling practices guidelines
g. Establish safer practices guidelines and plans for
hazardous conditions and emergencies.

a. An initial assessment before implementing the proactive safety process

b. A second assessment at the end of one (1) year and a
continuing assessment every two (2) years
7. Establish Safety Practices Guidelines
h. Provide safety practice manual
i. Spell out objectives
j. Address four performance standard areas (people,
equipment, materials, work environment)
k. Establish health and safety committee
l. Design controls and ergonomic man- machine
interface
m. Establish material specifications and the safe
handling practices guidelines
n. Establish safer practices guidelines and plans for
hazardous conditions and emergencies.
SAFETY AS A CONTINUING PROCESS
1. Maintain Quality Management
It would be rare to find workplace management in
our industrialized world. That has not implemented one
or more theories on how to obtain and maintain quality.
Most businesses choose the theory, which closely fits
their own ideal quality.

a. Develop an on- going action plan

b. Strive for total quality improvement as continual
process
c. Insure board- based participation
d. Recognize and reward efforts

Whenever management and the workplace adopt a

quality program, people are required to stop and think
about the work process itself. There is a little question
that the greatest contribution of the recent quality
revolution has been thinking about the process of the
work itself. This has involved designing the nature of
work and pointing out that all work is a process. Just as
importantly, each step of the process has clearly
definable inputs and produces equally definable output.

5. Support the IAIM Foundation

2. Safety- A Process, Not a Program

4. Maintain Safety Process Action Plan

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.

Avoid Fighting Fire mentality

Develop three critical support programs
Avoid making excuses
Watch out for misinformation
Use available safety resources, people and materials
Blend technical expertise and experience
Be organized, systematic and succinct in reporting
analysis

Workplace safety is part of the process. People need

to be re- orient their thinking about safety programs to
thinking about the SAFETY PROCESS. Safety is a
process with no beginning and no end.

38

3. Safety Integrated with Production

A TEA involves:

Many people are frustrated about workplace safety.

Part of the reason is that safety often is not integrated
into the primary purpose of the workplace- production.

Identifying the basic steps of a job and a work process

4. Production Objectives Create Risk Acceptance

This has everything to do with our short term
thinking about production. Our short- term production
focus frustrates safety, cost- efficiently, quality, human
relations and environmental protection. These concerned
suffers because they have simply interfered with the
desire to turn out as much as possible. We have been
willing to accept the risks of poor quality, higher costs
and accidental injuries due to this short- term focus.
Many would point out workers as lazy or uncaring. The
truth however, is just the opposite. Many workers are so
concerned by the drive to produce now that work- related
frustrations and risk- taking are at an all-time high.

Determining any existing or potential hazards associated

with each of the steps; and
Developing recommendations for
controlling each of those hazards

eliminating

or

CRITERIA IN ESTABLISHING TEA PRIORITIES

-

High- Frequency of Accidents or Near- Misses

Jobs with a high frequency of accidents or nearmisses pose a significant threat to health and safety.

History of Serious Accidents or Deaths

Jobs that have already produced fatalities, disabling
injuries, illnesses or environmental harm, regardless
of the frequency should have top priority.

TASK EXPOSURE ANALYSIS

Some jobs involves steps which is performed
incorrectly can cause injury, illness or harm to the
environment. Others require employees to work with or
around hazardous materials, or to work under hazardous
conditions. Supervisors and team leaders need a reliable
and accurate method of identifying and eliminating or
controlling those hazards.

Jobs that have potential for causing serious harm

should be analysed even if they have never caused
any injury or illness.
-

1. Workplace. Made up of the facility, materials and

energy resources. The design of each workplace
makes it unique.
2. Individuals. The individual is comprised of physical
capabilities, physiological make- up, knowledge,
skills, attitude, and behaviour. All these factors
combine to make each individual in the workplace a
unique and distinct person.
3. Systems. It includes policies, procedures,
management structure, work methods, training and
development programs, quality controls, inventory
control, production scheduling, and controls,
maintenance, record keeping and performance which
are imposed on the individual in the workplace, and
are unique in the workplace.
4. Human Relations. Safety is best established through
strong relationship between management and the
workers.

New Jobs
Whenever a new job is introduced in the area, a
thorough TEA should be performed before any
employee is assigned.

PERFORMANCE FACTORS OF THE WORK

PROCESS
There are four (4) performance factors that must be
considered when evaluating the work process. These are:

Potential for Serious Harm

Changes in Procedures or Standards

Priority should also be given to jobs that have
undergone a change in procedure, equipment or
material and jobs whose operation may have been
affected by new standards.

Keep in mind that every job supervised should

eventually undergo a Task Exposure Analysis. Even the
most routine jobs can include unrecognized hazards. By
performing a thorough TEA, you may be able to find a
safer, much healthier way of performing the job.

(Source: WISH concept, Safety House Training Materials)

39

CHAPTER 5
ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION, ANALYSIS,
REPORTING AND STATISTICS
INTRODUCTION
If in case accident still happens despite of a careful
management concern, investigation is a must do task. In
this way, the program of safety and health can be
improved by the findings of the investigation. We
investigate accident not just to meet the requirements of
insurance agencies for compensation but first and
foremost we want to find out why the accident occurs
and try to prevent it from happening again.
The term accident is used to cover occurrence, their
causes, which may led to harm to people, property
damage or both. According to Safety House, Inc. training
manual, a successful accident prevention program
requires a minimum of four fundamental activities:
1. A study of all working areas to detect and eliminate
or control physical or environmental hazards, which
contribute to accidents.
2. A study of all operating methods and practices.
3. Education, instruction, training and discipline to
minimize human factors, which contribute to accidents.
4. For cause analyses, a thorough investigation of at
least every accident which resulted in a disabling injury
should be done to determine contributing circumstances.
Accidents that do not result in personal injury (so called
near- miss accidents) are warnings. They should also
be investigated and should not be ignored.
For purpose of accident prevention, investigation
must be fact- finding; otherwise, they may do more harm
than good. This is not to say that responsibility may be
fixed when personal failures has caused injury, or that
such persons should be excused from the consequences
of their actions. This means that investigation itself
should be concerned only with facts.
CONCEPTS AND TYPES OF INVESTIGATION
AND ANALYSIS
The accident investigation and analysis discussed
here focuses primary on unsafe acts and unsafe
conditions and is the most often used techniques. Other
similar techniques involve investigation with the
framework of defects in man, machine, materials,
methods and management (the 5Ms), or education,
enforcement and engineering design (the 3Es).
Other techniques come under the system approach to
safety. Systems safety stresses and enlarged viewpoint
that takes into account the interrelationship between

various elements that could lead to an accident. As

accidents would rarely lead to one cause, the systems
approach can point to more than one place in a system
where effective countermeasures can be introduced. This
allows the safety professional to choose the
countermeasure that best meets his criteria for
effectiveness, speed of installation, adoptability and the
like.
WHO HAS THE AUTHORITY TO MAKE THE
INVESTIGATION
According to OSHS, the authority to investigate
varies and subjects to cases. Depending on the nature of
the accident, the investigation may be made by the
supervisor, foreman, the safety engineer or inspector, the
safety committee, or a safety inspector from the bureau
of Working Conditions- DOLE.
1. The Supervisor or Foreman. The supervisor or
foreman should make an immediate investigation of
every disabling injury or other accidents he may be
directed to investigate. He knows more about the people
and conditions than anyone else. Further, he has a
personal interest to protect.
2. The Safety Professional. The safety engineer should
verify the findings of the supervisor or foreman and
make an investigation of every important accident for his
own information and make a written report for his
superior. Nowhere are the safety professionals value and
ability better shown than in the investigation of
accidents. He specialize training and analytical
experiences enable him to search for all the facts,
apparent and hidden, and submit an unbiased report.
Remember, he has no interest in the investigation other
than to get information, which can be used to prevent
similar accident in the future.
3. Special Investigative Committee. In some
companies, a special committee is set up to investigate
and report on all serious accidents. This function is
particularly important where a contributing factor was an
unsafe act on the part of the worker.
4. The General Safety Committee. Companies who
belong to the small and medium scale industries, a
number of safety activities are foisted to the general
safety committee. Accident investigation is one of them.
THE CASES TO BE INVESTIGATED
40

An accident that causes death or serious injury

obviously should be thoroughly investigated. The nearmiss is equally important from the safety standpoint and
should otherwise be investigated. The chief value of such
an investigation lies in uncovering contributing causes.
Each investigation should be made as soon as possible. A
delay may permit important evidence to be destroyed or
removed intentionally. Also, the results should be made
known quickly as their publicity value in safety
education of employees and supervisors is greatly
increased by promptness. Analysis on the circumstances
of the accidents can produce these results:
1. Identify and locate the principal sources of accidents
by determining from actual experience the materials,
machines, and tools, most frequently involved in
accidents and the jobs most likely to produce
injuries.
2. Disclose the nature and size of the accident problem
in department and among occupations.
3. Indicate the need for engineering revisions by
identifying the principal unsafe conditions of various
types of equipment and materials.
4. Disclose inefficiencies in operating processes and
procedures where poor layout contributes to
accidents or were outdated methods or procedures
overtax the physical capacities of the workers.
5. Disclose the unsafe practices which necessitate
training for employees.
6. Disclose improper placement of personnel in
instances in which inabilities or physical handicaps
contributes to accidents.
7. Enable supervisors to use the time available for
safety work to the greatest advantage by providing
them with information about the principal hazards
and unsafe practices in their departments.
8. Permit an objective evaluation of the progress of a
safety program by continued analysis of the effect of
countermeasures, educational techniques and other
methods adopted to prevent injuries.
KEY FACTS TO CONSIDER IN ACCIDENT
INVESTIGATION
The investigation should identify certain facts about
each injury and the accident that produced it and to
record
those
facts
in
a
form
using
DOLE/BWC/OSHD/IP-6
or
Employers
Work
Accidents/ Illnesses Report (sample copy is on the last part of
the chapter). Each is advised to visit the OSHC of the
Philippines to acquire some official format of forms
provided by the agency to all industries. For a complete
recording of an injury, each key fact should be selected.
These items should be selected according to the
following definitions:

1. Nature of injury. The type of physical injury

incurred should be designated. If two or more injuries
were incurred and one injury obviously was more severe
than any of the others, that injury should be selected.
For example, an injury involving permanent
impairment should be selected in preference to a
temporary injury. If there were several injuries of
different nature and no one of them was more serious
than the others, multiple injuries should be used. Other
examples are:
Foreign body in the eye
Cut
Bruises and contusions
Lacerations
Suffocation
Strain and sprain
Fracture
Burns
Avulsion

Amputation
Punctured wound
Hernia
Respiratory collapse
Dermatitis
Ganglion
Abrasion
Drowning
Others

2. Part of the Body. If the injured was localized in one

part of the body, that part should be named. If the
injury extended to several sections of a major body
part, that major body part should be named. For
example, if the burn affected the finger, the hand, the
wrist, the forearm, upper extremities should be given
as part of the body. If the injury was internal, the
body system should be named. Other examples are:
Head and neck
Scalp
Eyes
Ears
Mouth, teeth
Neck
Face
Skull
Others

Upper extremities
Shoulder
Arms (upper)
Elbow
Forearm
Wrist
Hand
Fingers and thumb
Others

Body
Back
Chest
Abdomen
Groin
Others

Lower extremities
Hips
Thigh
Legs
Knees
Ankle
Feet
Toes
Others
3. Source of Injury. Sometimes, an injury results from
forcible contacts with two or more objects, occurring
either simultaneously or in rapid sequence, and it is
impossible to determine which object directly
produced the injury. In such cases, the source of
injury should be determined as follows:
41

a. When the choice is between a moving object

and a stationary object, the moving object should be
selected.
b. When the choice is between two moving or two
stationary objects, the one contracted last should be
selected.
For example: if a person fell from an elevation, struck
one or more objects in the course of the fall and finally
struck the ground, the ground shall be selected as source
of injury
4. Accident Type. The accident type is directly related
to the source of injury classification and explains how
that source produced the injury. If the injury resulted
from contact with an object or substance, the action that
best describes that contact should be named as the
accident type. If exposed to extreme heat or cold
produced the injury, contact with extreme of
temperatures would be the accident type.
Examples are:
Fall on same level, fall below, caught on, caught in,
caught between, struck by, struck against, over
exertion, contact with electricity, acid, caustic, hot,
cold, toxic, etc. beyond the threshold limit of the
body or structure.
5. Hazardous Condition. The hazardous physical
condition or circumstance which directly caused or
permitted the occurrence of the accident should be
named. The hazardous condition is related directly to
both the accident type and the agency of accident.
Generally, therefore, the hazardous condition selected
will determine the agency of the accident to be named.
Since the hazardous condition classification
represents the physical or environmental causes of
accidents, the data in this category may be labeled as
accident causes.
Improperly guarded equipment
Defective tools and equipment
Hazardous arrangement of procedures
Poor housekeeping
Unsafe design or construction
Unsafe dress or apparel (PPE)
Improper lifting
Improper ventilation
Congested areas
Improper illumination
6. Agency of Accident. The agency of accident may or
may not be identical with the source of injury. These two
classifications are entirely unrelated to each other. The

distinguishing characteristic of the source of injury is that

it directly inflicted the injury. The distinguishing
characteristic of the agency of accident on the other hand
is that it was significantly hazardous and for that reason
contributed to the occurrence of the accidents. Its
selection is based strictly upon the fact without
consideration of whether or not it inflicted the injury.
Examples are:
Machine
Vehicles
Slings, couplers, gears
Floors, stairs rungs
Pressure vessels
Scaffolds
Ladders
Hoist and cranes
Others

Ladders
Tin plates
Boilers, compressors
Electrical appliances
Can and end conveyors
V- Belts, chains, cables
Chemicals
Elevators

7.
Agency of Accident Part. If the agency of
accident had a specific hazardous part that contributed to
the occurrence of the accident, the part should be named.
If, for example, a person attempted to climb a ladder that
had a defective rung and fell because the rung broke
when he put his weight on, the agency of accident part
would be the defective rung.
8.
Unsafe Act. The unsafe action which directly
caused or permitted the occurrence of the accident should
be designated. The selected unsafe act may be something
a person did which should not have been done,
something he should have done differently, or his failure
to do something which he should have done.
Since the unsafe act classification represents the personal
causes of accident, the data in this category may be
labelled as accident causes.
Operating equipment without authority
Failure to use personal protective equipment
Failure to warn or secure
Working on dangerous or moving equipment
Taking unsafe positions
Making safety devices inoperable
Using unsafe equipment
Improper loading
Horseplay
Others
METHODS OF INVESTIGATION
1. Secure the accident site
2. Collect facts
a. Collect physical evidences
b. Take photographs
c. Make sketches and drawings
42

3. Identify the witnesses (the manner of interview)

a. Put the person at ease and interview on the spot
b. Interview should be private
c. Get the individuals version
d. Ask necessary questions at the right time
e. Repeat this story once you heard them
f. End each interview on a positive note
g. Keep the pipeline open
ACCIDENT RECORDS AND REPORTS
Records of accidents and injuries are essential to
an efficient and successful safety programs. Records
supply the information necessary to transform safety
program to control both conditions and acts that
contribute to accidents good record keeping is the
foundation of a scientific approach to occupational
safety.
FUNCTIONS AND USES OF RECORDS
A good record system can help the safety
professional in the following ways:
1. Provide the safety professional with the means for an
objective evaluation of the magnitude of his accident
problems and with the measurement of the overall
effectiveness of his safety program.
2. Identify high- rate problem areas so that extra effort
can be made in those areas.
3. Provide data for an analysis of accidents and
illnesses that can point to specific circumstances of
occurrence which can be attacked by specific
countermeasures.
4. Create interest in safety among supervisors by
furnishing them by information about the accident
experience in their own department.
5. Provide supervisors and safety committees with hard
facts about their safety problems so that their efforts
can be concentrated.
6. Measures
the
effectiveness
of
individual
countermeasures and determine if specific programs
are doing the job that they were designed to do.
TYPES OF REPORTS AND RECORDS USED
To make an effective accident prevention program,
preventive measures should be based on complete and
unbiased knowledge of the causes of accidents. The
primary purpose of an accident report is to obtain such
information and not to fix blame. Since the accuracy of
the entire accident record system depend upon the

information in the individual accident reports, be sure

that their purpose are understood by those who must fill
them out. Necessary training or instruction should be
made available to these personnel.
1.
The First Aid Report. The collection of injury
data generally begins in the clinic. The first aider or
nurse fills out a first aid report for each new case. Copies
are sent to the safety department, the workers foreman
and other departments as management wishes.
2.
Supervisors Accident Report. The supervisor
should make a detailed report about each accident even
only a minor injury is the result. For purposes of accident
summaries, only those accidents with lost work days
should be tallied. Minor injury records can help pinpoint
problem areas. An accident investigation reports should
be completed as soon as possible after an accident occur
using DOLE/BWC/OSHD/IP-6 or you may devise your
own form suitable to your need.
3.
Monthly Accident Statistics Report. The
Monthly Accident Statistics Report allows tabulation of
cumulative totals and the computation of frequency and
severity rates. If the indices are big numbers, it is
indicative that the program may not be responsive to the
companys need. Equally, these indices can also be used
to compare performance from previous to current
indices. With this, you can determine whether the targets
are attainable or not. The monthly summary should be
prepared at the end of each moth as the information
becomes available, but not later than the 20th of the
following month. Submit this report to the Bureau of
Working Conditions- DOLE and a copy to the
Regional Labour Office having jurisdiction to the
plants location.
To ensure uniformity in the computation of injury
rates, the standard specifies that only disabling injuries
shall be counted in the computation of injury rates. In
general terms, a disabling injury is one result in death or
permanent impairment or which renders the injured
person unable to work for the whole day or any day after
the day of injury. Disabling injuries are of four or five
classes based on our previous discussion in chapter 3
about accidents and injuries. Near- misses are sometimes
included by other organizations in the reports and also
treated as serious occurrence of incidents:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

Death
Permanent total disability
Permanent partial disability
Temporary total disability
Medical treatment injury

43

The definitions and nature of the following

disabling factors were also presented in chapter 3 and we
are advising the students and readers to review it.
Instructors Note:
__________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
DAYS OF DISABILITY FOR INJURIES
A day of disability is any day on which an
employee is unable because of injury to perform
effectively throughout the whole shift the essential
functions of a regularly established job which is open
and available to him. Days include Sundays, day- offs,
plant shutdowns and other than work days subsequent to
the days of injury. (Note: Disability days for an injury
are not counted when scheduled charges apply). Here is
how the standards describe it:
1.
The day of injury and the day on which the
employee was able to return to full- time employment
shall not be counted as days of disability; but all
intervening calendar days including weekends, holidays,
and other day offs and other day on which the plant may
be shut down shall be counted as days of disability.
2.
Time lost on a workday or non- workday,
subsequent to the day of injury, ascribed solely to the
unavailability of medical attention or of necessary
diagnostic aids shall be considered disability time, unless
the opinion of the physician authorized by the employer
to treat the case, the person was able to work on all days
subsequent to the day of injury.
3.
If the physician authorized by the employer to treat
the case is of the option that the injured employee is
actually capable of working a full normal shift at a
regularly established job but has prescribed certain
therapeutic treatments, the employee may be excused
from work for those treatments without counting the
excused time as disability time provided: 1) the time
required to obtain the treatments does not, on any
workday prevent him from performing effectively the
essential functions of his job assignment on that day; and
2) the treatments are professionally administered and
constitute more than simple rest.
4.
If the physician authorized by the employer to treat
case is of the option that the injured employee was
actually capable of working a full normal shift at a
regularly established job, but because of transportation
problems, associated with his injury, the employee is
forced to arrive late at his place of work, or to leave the

workplace before the established quitting time, such lost

time may be excused and not counted as disability time,
provided: 1) the excused time does not materially
reduced his working time; and 2) it is clearly evident that
his failure to work the full shift hours is the result of
bona fide transportation problem and not a deviation
from the regularly established job.
DAYS CHARGED ASSIGNED FOR INJURY
Losses from work injuries are evaluated in terms of
days of disability or inability to produce either actual or
potential. These losses are referred to simply as days
charged. For the first three classes of injuries- death,
permanent total disability and permanent partial
disability- the number of days charged is a predetermined
totals usually exceeds the actual time lost to reflect
potential future losses of productive capacity. The
predetermined totals are referred to as scheduled charges.
This procedure is based on the philosophy of economic
loss which reasons: if a man has his hand amputated will
produce less during his remaining working years than a
man who completely recovers from a hand injury even
though both injuries resulted in the same number of
actual days lost at the time of the injury. If both injuries
resulted in say 60 days lost at the time of the injury, the
injury from which the victim completely recovers would
be charged only the 60 days, whereas the amputation
would be charged 3,000 days, the scheduled days
charged for this kind of injury.
For death and total disabilities, a scheduled day of
6,000 days is made in each case. There are no variations
on this amount. If the injury is fatal, or if it results in any
of the losses specifies as constituting permanent total
disability, the charge is the same- 6,000 days. The basis
for measuring the permanent disability of an injured
worker was that, on the average, death or permanent total
disability of the worker resulted in his 20 years of
productive labour at 300 days per year or 6,000 days.
Today, the death or permanent total disability of a
worker would on the average result in his losing about 24
years of productive labour at 250 days per year, giving
approximately the same total loss.
DEFINITION OF EMPLOYMENT
The standard specifies that a work injury is one,
which arises out of and in the course employment, i.e.
results from the work activity or environment of
employment.
Employment is defined as: 1) all work or activity
performed in carrying out an assignment or request of the
employer, including incidental and related activities not
specifically covered by the assignment or request; 2) any
voluntary work or activity undertaken while on duty with
44

the intent of benefiting the employer; or 3) any other

activities undertaken while on duty with employers
consent or approval.
For statistical purposes, an employee is considered to
be in the course of employment while he is:
1. Riding in special company furnished transportation
form a designated meeting place to a work place that
is inaccessible to ordinary transportation. The
employee would be considered in the course of
employment from the time he was picked up at such
a meeting place until he was returned to it.
2. A member of a crew that does not have a regular
place of employment, such as a public utility line
crew, from the time he reaches a designated meeting
place for the crew until he is dismissed from the duty
at point where the crew disbands.
3. Travelling in connection with his work, from the
time his travel starts (either at his place of work or
his home) except:
a. During normal living activities, such as eating,
sleeping and the like;
b. During deviations from a reasonably direct route of
travel such a side trip for personal reasons; or
c. During either activities neither necessitated by the
travel not in the interest of the employer.
4. Being entertained by or as a customer or client for
the purpose of transacting, discussing or promoting
business.
5. Going from the entrance of the employers premises
to his place of work or from his place of work to the
exit of the employers premises before or after
working hours or going from one part of the
employers premises to another for any purpose
associated with his employment.
6. Absence from company premises if such absence is
authorized by the employer or his agent and is in the
interest of the employer or his agent.

9. Engaged in company- sponsored athletic events for

which he is paid directly or indirectly.
10. Participating in or a victim of horseplay during
working hours.
11. Engaged in a fight, if the dispute involves
performance of duties or is otherwise connected with
employment or the protection of company property.
12. Performing voluntary work with the intention of
benefiting the employer, whether in emergencies
such as fire or flood or in routine duties.
An employee is not considered to be in the course of
employment while he is:
1. Going to or from his regular place of employment
during normal routine travel. Normal routine travel
includes travel at irregular hours due to late shifts,
overtime, special or emergency work.
2. Outside company property during working hours for
personal reasons, not in the interest of his employer
or the agent of the employer.
3. Going to or from his home to designated place where
his crew meets or where he will be met by special
company transportation, if his workplace is
inaccessible to ordinary transportation.
4. On a company parking lot provided for his
convenience to park his car and not performing
duties of employment.
5. Engaged in company- sponsored athletics events for
which he receives no pay directly or indirectly.
6. Engaged in activities not connected with his
employment while living on company property.
7. Engaged in a fight or other dispute over matters not
pertaining to his or his antagonists duties of
employment.
8. Eating his lunch during a specifically defined lunch
period or off- duty period.

7. Taking a coffee or other rest break.

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND

STANDARDS RECORDKEEPING

HEALTH

8. Going to or from washroom, toilet or shower

facilities before, during or after working hours; using
toilet facilities at any time; taking a shower or
otherwise using washroom facilities on company
premises before, during or after working hours, if use
of facilities is occasioned by the employers work.

The following guidelines have been taken from

Occupational Safety and Health Standards (OSHS)
primer. It provides the basic definitions and
recordkeeping requirements obligated to industrial
enterprises.
45

1. Fatalities. Regardless of the time between the injury

and death or the length of illness.
2. Lost Workday Cases. Cases, other than fatalities
result in lost workdays.
3. Nonfatal Cases without Lost Workdays. Are cases
of occupational injury or illness which din=d not
involve fatalities or lost workdays but did result in:
1) transfer to another job or termination of
employment; 2) medical treatment other than first
aid; 3) diagnosis of occupational illness; 4) loss of
consciousness; or 5) restriction of work or motion.
4. Occupational Injury. Is an injury such as a cut,
fracture, sprain, amputation, etc. which resulted from
a work accident or exposure in the work
environment.
5. Occupational Illness of an Employee. It is any
abnormal condition or disorder other than one
resulting from an occupational injury, caused by
environmental factors associated with his
employment. It includes acute and chronic illness or
diseases which may be caused by inhalation,
absorption, ingestion or direct contact and which can
be included in the categories listed below:
a. Occupational skin diseases or disorders, e.g.;
contact dermatitis, eczema or rash caused by
primary irritants and sensitizers or poisonous
plants, oil acne, chrome ulcers, chemical burns
or inflammations, etc.,
b. Dust diseases of the lungs (pneumoconiosis) e.g.;
silicosis,
asbestosis,
coal
workers
pneumoconiosis,
byssinosis,
and
other
pneumoconiosis.
c. Respiratory conditions due to toxic agents e.g.;
pneumonitis, pharyngitis, rhinitis or acute
congestion due to chemicals, dust, gases or
fumes, farmers lungs, etc.

effects of ionizing radiation (isotopes, x- rays,

radium) ultraviolet rays, microwave, sunburn,
etc.
f. Disorders due to repeated trauma, e.g.: noise
included hearing loss, synovitis, tenosynovitis,
and bursitis, etc.
g. All other occupational illnesses like anthrax,
brucellosis, infectious hepatitis, malignant and
benign tumors, food poisoning, etc.
ACCIDENT AND INCIDENT RATES
Accident analysis will become significant when a
certain organization evaluated its safety performance
with a measurable instrument. In this manner,
computation of injury rates will then be needed to find
out if the subject is performing well in comparison with
other establishments of the same industry. To adjust the
effects of variables contributing to differences in injury
experiences, a standardized procedure is adopted using
frequency and severity rates which relate disabling
injuries and days charged to the number of man- hours
worked. Below are the formulas for computing frequency
rate and severity rates respectively:
Frequency Rate
FR= no. of disabling injuries x 1,000,000
Employee- hours of Exposure
The frequency rate shows the rate of occurrence of
disabling injuries as related to 1,000,000 man- hours may
find it hard to relate to the above figure. However, said
figure is only set as standard for the purpose of
comparison among establishment and other industries.
The FR serves as guide to accident prevention and it
shows how frequent our activities on the workplace got
out of control and resulted to accident or serious injuries.
Severity Rate
SR= total days lost/ charge x 1,000,000
Employee- hours of Exposure

d. Poisoning (system effects of toxic materials),

e.g.; poisoning due to lead, mercury, cadmium,
arsenic or other metals; poisoning by benzol,
carbon tetrachloride, or other organic solvents;
poisoning by insecticide sprays such as
parathion, lead arsenate; poisoning by other
chemicals such as formaldehyde, plastics and
resins, etc.

The severity rate shows the rate of which days are

lost or charged in relation to 1,000,000 man- hours.
Included in the SR are both actual days lost and
scheduled charged which actually exceeds the actual
days lost. The scheduled charge represents potential
losses of production which outweigh the total days lost at
the time of injury.

e. Disorders due to physical agents (other than

toxic materials), e.g.: heatstroke, sunstroke, heat
exhaustion, exposure to temperature extremes,

The average days charged shows how serious the

injuries were on the average and thus reveal conditions
not readily apparent from a review of the frequency and
46

severity rates alone. This can help isolate the principal

sources of high injury rates and permit concentration of
effort and most effective use of time. By the use of
average SR of permanent partial and temporary total
disabilities separately.
Instructors Note:
__________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________

47

EXERCISE NO. 4
Name: ___________________________________________ Yr. & Sec.: _______________
Schedule & Room: _________________________________ Date Performed: ___________

Rating

TEST YOURSELF: Answer the following questions. Use extra paper if needed.
Discuss the purpose and objectives of Safety Program.
1. How important data in solving and preventing accident?
2. What are possible graphical presentations of accident data and statistics? How can it help Safety
Professionals in managing accidents?
3. Explain the purpose of Accident Frequency Rate (FR) and Accidents Severity Rate (SR).
4. Which one has to be given greater importance, the Frequency Rate or Severity Rate? Why?
5. If you want to lower down FR and SR, what are the measures you need to do? Where will you
concentrate and why?

LEARNING ACTIVITY: Perform the following procedural activities.

Title: Accident

Rates and Statistics

Objectives:
After the activity, you should be able to:
1. Gather accident data and statistically organized and treated them
2. Present data in an organize form as well as graphical form, and
3. Analyze and interpret accident statistics
Procedure and Task:
1. Acquire accident data, whether it is organizational data or national data.
2. Analyze the data, develop and innovate graphical presentation of the data, which will be attractive and
easy to understand so that ordinary workers can relate to the data. (At least 5 figure)
3. Prepare acetate for one of the graphical figure for presentation and discussion in the class.

Resource Materials: DOLE Bureau of Working Condition, WAIS Annual Report, Occupational Safety and
Health Center (OSHC) of the Philippines, National Statistics Office (NSO), Bureau of Fire Protection (BFP),
National Disaster Coordinating Council (NDCC)
48

CHAPTER 6
SAFETY INSPECTIONS AND PROCEDURES
INTRODUCTION
As presented in the introduction that one duty of a
safety professional is conduct inspection in a regular
basis, therefore it is necessary to be educated on this task.
Most of the time, safety engineer will conduct an
inspection before considering or implementing a plan of
actions. Inspection is defined as the monitoring function
conducted to locate existing and potential hazards having
the capacity to cause accidents in the workplace. It is
also intended to actually observe the safety program in
place with the work system.
When should a safety inspection be conducted?
Without giving too much thought, some supervisors
would answer, The third Friday of each month. A
much better reply would be, I conduct safety inspection
every time I go through my department. When a safety
inspection has become part of a supervisors everyday
routine, safety responsibilities is integrated in his job
together with his other duties. One aspect of a supervisor
job should not be more important than the other. Safety
inspection should be part of every phase of production
and a regular element of the standard operating
procedure. This type of inspection is called continuous
and it requires that supervisors and their employees
constantly be on the lookout for hazards on the job. This
is sometimes called informal because it does not confirm
to a set schedule, plan or checklist.

1. Periodic Inspection includes those inspections

scheduled at regular intervals. It can be made
weekly, monthly, semi-annually, or other intervals.
They can target the entire plant, a specific type of
equipment, specific type of operation and specific
area.
Periodic inspections can be:
a. Inspections by the safety professional, industrial
hygienist and joint safety and health committees.
b. Inspections for preventing accidents and damage or
breakdowns performed by electricians, mechanics
and maintenance personnel.
c. Inspections by specially trained certified or
licensed inspectors, often from outside, e.g.
inspection of boilers, elevators, unfired vessels,
cranes, etc.
d. Inspections done by outside investigators or
government inspectors to determine compliance
with government regulations.

Inspection can be viewed negatively or positively:

2.
Intermittent Inspections are those made at
irregular intervals and they are performed unannounced.
Occasionally, an accident in another department that
involves equipment similar to the machinery used in
another department would lead to an intermittent
(special) inspection of that equipment. An unscheduled
inspection is done to find and correct unsafe conditions
before an accident occurs.

1) Fault- finding with emphasis on criticisms; and

2) Fact- finding with emphasis on locating hazards that
can adversely affect safety and health.

Inspection, testing and measurement are made

when a health hazard is suspected or present in the
workplace.

The second viewpoint is more effective because it

is (a) yardstick adequate for measuring a particular
situation; (b) comparison of what is, with what ought to
be; and (c) corrective steps taken to achieve desired
performance.

It usually involves:

INSPECTION PHILOSOPHY

FORMAL INSPECTION
In addition to continuous inspection, a formal or
scheduled inspection should be made once a month.
These formal inspections can be the foundation for a
strong loss control program. This process is what most
people term as real safety and health inspection. It is
deliberate, through and systematic by design. There are
three types of scheduled inspections:

a. Sampling the air for the presence of toxic vapour,

gases, radiation and particulates.
b. Sampling physical stresses like noise, heat and
radiation, etc.
c. Testing materials for toxic properties.
d. Testing ventilation and exhaust system for proper
operation.
Intermittent inspection may be initiated because of
the following:
a. Increase in accident or illness rates in an area.
b. Reports from an employee in an area.
49

c. Reports of potential hazards from other departments

or regulating agencies.
d. Random sampling
e. Accident/ severity potential
f. Reaction to an event

5. Clear understanding of his organizations

operation- its workflow, system and products.

3. General Inspections are planned and covers places

not inspected periodically. It includes those areas no
one ever visits and were people rarely gets hint such
as parking lots, sidewalks, fencing and similar
outlying areas.

1. Employees are complying with the safety rules;

2. No physical hazards exist;
3. Aisles and passageways are clear and proper
clearances are maintained; and
4. In- process materials are properly stacked or stored.

OBJECTIVES AND PURPOSES OF INSPECTION

1. Maintenance of a safe work environment through
hazards recognition and removal;
2. To ensure that people are following proper safety
procedures while working.
3. To determine which operations meet or exceeds
acceptable safety and government standards; and
4. To maintain product quality and operational
profitability.
The basic purpose of safety inspection is to ensure
compliance with standards and to serve as tool to
evaluate supervisors safety performance activities. In
the process of conducting a safety inspection, potential
hazards needing immediate corrections or precautions to
prevent accidents are detected. Prompt correction of
substandard or hazardous continuous detected in an
inspection demonstrates to everyone that management is
seriously concerned with accident prevention. A safety
program should answer the following questions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

What items need to be inspected?

What item of each item need to be examined?
What conditions need to be inspected?
How often must items need to be inspected?
Who will conduct the inspection?

RESPONSIBILITIES FOR INSPECTIONS

Safety inspections are the primary responsibility of
the front line supervisor. Because supervisors spend most
of their time in their respective departments, they are the
people who should be continuously monitoring working
conditions. Completion of a good safety inspection
requires:
1. Knowledge of the organizations accident
experience;
2. Familiarity with accident potential and with the
standards that apply to his area;
3. Ability to make intelligent decisions for corrective
actions;
4. Diplomacy in handling personnel and situations; and

During routine inspections, it is important to check to

see that:

These spot checks emphasize supervisors

commitment to safety. Regular formal inspection should
also be conducted as frequently as company policy
indicates or as condition dictates.
WORKING WITH AN OUTSIDE INSPECTOR
In addition to formal safety inspection, an outside
professional (consultants or the companys insurance
carrier) are asked to conduct an inspection. When this
occurs, supervisor should know when the inspectors will
be arrived so that he will be prepared to answer their
questions and offer assistance. An outside inspector is
always required to make an independent observation.
INSPECTION PLAN AND PROCEDURES
Safety inspection is one of the principal means of
locating accident causes, help determine what safeguard
is necessary to protect against hazard before accidents
and personal injuries occur. Finding unsafe conditions
and work practices by means of inspection is one of the
best methods for management to prevent accidents and
safeguard employees. In addition, inspection enables the
personnel of the safety department to come in contact
with individual workmen and enlist their help in
eliminating accidents. Frequently, the workmen are able
to point out unsafe conditions that may otherwise go
unnoticed and uncorrected.
1.
Timing and Preparation. Inspection should be
scheduled when there is a maximum opportunity to view
operations and work practices with a minimum of
interruptions. Although the areas and route for inspection
should be planned in advance, vary the time and the day
on which a formal inspection is conducted. This will
enable you to check the widest possible variety of
conditions. It is a good idea to review all accidents that
have occurred in the area prior to conducting an
inspection. In addition to obtaining the regular checklists
or formats used, a copy of previous inspection reports
should be on hand. Reviewing the reports makes it
possible to determine whether earlier recommendations
to remove or correct hazards were followed.

50

2.
What to Inspect. Particular attention should be
paid to parts likely to become a serious hazard to health
and safety. Many different types of inspection checklists
are available for use. Lists vary in length from hundreds
of items to only a few. There are some of the items that
need to be inspected:
a. Environmental factors (illumination, dusts, gases,
sprays, vapours, fumes, noise)
b. Hazardous supplies and materials (explosives,
flammable, acids, caustics, toxic materials, or byproducts)
c. Production related equipment (mills, shapers,
pressers, borers, lathes)
d. Power sources equipment (steam and gas engines,
electric motors)
e. Electrical equipment (switches, fuses, breakers,
outlets, cables, extension cords, grounding, etc.)
f. Hand tools (wrenches, screw drivers, hammers,
power tools)
g. Personal protective equipment (hard hats, safety
glasses, safety shoes, respirators)
h. Personal services and first aid facilities (drinking
fountains, wash basins, soap dispensers, safety
showers, eyewash fountains, first aid supplies,
stretchers)
i. Fire protection and extinguishing equipment (alarms,
water tanks, sprinklers, standpipes, extinguishers,
hydrants, hoses)
j. Walkways and roadways (ramps, docks, sidewalks,
walkways, aisles, vehicle ways)
k. Elevators, electric stairways and man lifts (controls,
wire ropes, safety devices)
l. Working surfaces (ladders, scaffolds, catwalks,
platforms, sling chains)
m. Materials handling equipment (cranes, dollies,
conveyors, hoists, forklifts, chains, ropes, slings)
n. Transportation equipment (automobiles, railroad
cars, trucks, front- end loaders, helicopters, etc.)
o. Warning and signalling devices (sirens, crossing and
blinker lights, warning signs)
p. Containers (scrap bins, disposal receptacles,
carbouys, barrels, drums, gas cylinders, etc.)
q. Storage facilities and areas both indoor and outdoor
(bins, racks, loaders, cabinets, shelves, etc.)
r. Structural openings (window, doors, sumps, shafts,
pit floor opening)
s. Building and structures (floors, roofs, walls, fencing)
t. Grounds (parking lots, roadways and sidewalks)
u. Loading and shipping platforms
v. Outside structures (small, isolated buildings)
w. Miscellaneous (any item that do not fit in the
preceding categories)
Some items such as
housekeeping procedures, fire

floors, stairways,
hazards, electrical

installations and chains, ropes and slings and critical

parts need particular attention because they represent
high risk areas. Be sure to inspect these items often.
a. Floors. Regardless of their construction, floors
should be carefully inspected, especially slippery
floors or those in areas subject to heavy traffic. Here
are several items to note:
- Is the surface damaged or wearing out too rapidly?
- Is shrinking present?
- Are there slippery areas?
- Are there holes or unguarded openings?
- Are there indications of cracks, sagging or
wrapping?
- Are
replacements
necessary
because
of
deterioration?
b.
Stairways. Always bear in mind that stairs are
never to be used for storage. Stairways should be
checked to determine whether:
- Treads and risers are in good condition and of
uniform width and height.
- Handrails are secured and in good condition
- Lighting in stairways is sufficiently bright
c.
Housekeeping. General housekeeping throughout
the facility must be checked regularly. Make sure that
aisles are marked off with painted lines and kept free of
all materials.
d.
Fire Protection. Because fire is one of the greatest
hazards to an industrial plant, special attention must be
given to fire hazards. Conduct periodic inspections of all
fire protection equipment.
e.
Electrical Installations. Electrical installations
should be in compliance with the National Electrical
Code, ANSI/NFPA 70- 1990 or the Philippine Electrical
Code.
f.
Chains, Ropes and Slings. Have a qualified
expert to regularly inspect chains, wire and fibre ropes
and other equipment subject to severe strain in handling
heavy equipment and materials. Maintain record of each
inspection.
g.
Critical Paths. These would include point of
operation, moving parts and accessories (flywheels,
gears, shafts, pulleys, key ways, belts, couplings,
sprockets, chain, controls, lighting, brakes, exhaust
systems).
Also to be checked are items related to feeding,
oiling, adjusting, and maintenance, grounding
attachment, work space and location.
51

Generally, checklists are keys to company a

standard that has to be met. Checklists not only serve as
reminders of what to look for, but they also serve to
document what has been covered in past inspections.
They provide directions and permit easy on the spot
recording of all findings and comments. If an inspection
has been interrupted, checklist provides a record of what
has already been covered. If you do not have a printed
checklist, carry a notebook to jot down during the
continuous inspection.
But remember a checklist is merely a guide to
inspection. If you simply check off items in the list, you
are not conducting an inspection. A hazard observed
during an inspection- even one not included in the listmust be recorded and corrected.
INSPECTING WORK PRACTICES
Another important purpose of inspection is to
observe work practices. Are employees following
specific safety procedures and training instructions when
doing their jobs? Below are some examples of questions
that are to be considered during an inspection:
1. Are machines or tools being used without proper
authorization?
2. Is equipment being operated at unsafe speed?
3. Are guards and other safety devices being removed
or rendered ineffective?
4. Are defective tools and equipment being used? Are
tools or equipment being used unsafely?
5. Are employees using their hands or bodies instead of
tools to push or pull items?
6. Is overloading or overcrowding occurring? Are
workers failing to stack materials properly?
7. Are materials being handled in safe ways? Are
employees lifting loads properly?
8. Are employees repairing or adjusting equipment
while it is in motion, under pressure or electrically
charged?
9. Are employees failing to use (or using improperly)
personal protective equipment and/ or other safety
devices?
10. Are unsafe, unsanitary or unhealthy conditions being
created by the improper personal hygiene of
employees, such as their poor housekeeping,
smoking in unauthorized areas, or use of compressed
air for cleaning clothes?
11. Are employees standing or working under suspended
loads, scaffolds, shafts or open hatches?
FREQUENCY OF INSPECTIONS
How often must inspection be made? To answer, this
is determined by the five following factors:

1. The loss severity potential of the problem. The

greater the loss severity potential, the more frequent
an item or process should be inspected. A frayed
wire rope on an overhead crane block has the
potential to cause a much greater loss than defective
wheels on a wheel borrow. The rope obviously needs
to be inspected more frequent than the wheel.
2. The potential for injury to employees. If the item
or the critical part should fail, how many employees
would be endangered and how frequently. The
greater the probability for injury to employees, the
more often the item should be inspected. For
example, a stairway used continuously need to be
inspected more frequently than one that is seldom
used.
3. The rapidly can an item or part becomes
hazardous. The answer depends on the nature of the
part and the condition to which it is subjected.
Equipment and tools that get heavy use usually
become damaged, defective or wear out more
quickly than those used rarely. The more quickly
tools and equipment can become hazardous, the
more frequently they should be inspected.
4. The past records of failures. Maintenance and
production records and accident investigation reports
can provide valuable information about how
frequently items have failed and the description of
the results in terms of injuries, damages, delays and
shutdowns. The more frequently a process or
equipment has failed in the past and the greater the
consequences, the more often that item needs to be
inspected.
5. The required regularity of inspections. Some
equipment in the department may have to be
inspected at regular intervals as mandated by
regulation or by a manufacturers recommendation.
When inspections on such equipment are performed,
be certain that they are documented.
SAFETY OBSERVATION PLAN
A safety inspection of work practices requires the
active participation of all supervisory personnel.
Basically, this inspection is called safety observation
wherein the front line supervisors directly observe its
employees while work is in progress. These observations
cover the use of, tools, materials and equipment as well
as any unsafe method or procedure in performing the
task. In fact, all employees, even experienced workers
should be checked periodically.
One reason why safety observation has not been
more fully utilized is that planned safety observation
52

involves a little more effort than the incidental safety

observation. There are several factors necessary for
effective safety observations. These are:
1. Be selective. An inspector might look over a
department first for safety, second for improvement
of operations, third for training needs and so on.
2. Know what to look for. The more a supervisor or
safety professional knows about a job, the better an
observer he will be.
3. Practice observing. The more often a person looks
with the conscious intention to observe, the more he
will see at his fresh trial.
4. Keep an open mind. One way to increase open
mindedness is not to judge facts in advance. The
inspector must keep his mind open until he has all
the facts.
5. Do not be satisfied with general impressions. A
clean shop or a careful routine may still contain
hidden hazards.
6. Guard against habit and familiarity. Asking the
questions what, how and (especially) why will often
uncover the real meaning of the situation.
7. Record observation systematically. All notes
should be dated with space for comment on action
taken and on the results of the actions. The notebook
can serve both as a reminder and as a record of
progress.
8. Prepare a checklist. A systematic checklist for
litter, obstructions, handling flammables, conditions
of fore fighting equipment and so on will uncover
tangible problems that can be corrected.
It is sometimes necessary to watch men at work,
not casually in passing, but closely. This can be
unnerving to the men under observation- the reason for
having a small inspection team. When it is necessary to
observe a man closely, a member of the team should talk
to him and explain what is going on, then ask his
permission to watch him as he works. Here are few
pointers that might help:

REPORTING THE RESULTS

It is important to discuss the results of the
inspections with the employees. If poor work practices
and bad habits have developed, employees must be
advised of the observations immediately and explain the
correct ways on how the work is to be done. Always
remember to communicate the good news with the bad.
Many supervisors fail to mention the positive actions and
practices that take place in the departments. It is
important to encourage people to follow good work
practices.
TYPICAL LIST OF INCIDENTS
An incident is any observable human activity
sufficiently complete in itself to permit references and
predictions to be made about the person performing the
act. These are
1. Adjusting and gauging (calipering) work while the
machine is in operation.
2. Cleaning a machine or removing a part while the
machine is in motion.
3. Using air hose to remove chips from the table or
work.
4. Using compressed air to blow dust or air off of
clothing or out of hair.
5. Using excessive pressure on air hose
6. Operating machine tools without proper eye
protection.
7. Not wearing safety glasses in a designated eyehazard area
8. Failing to use protective clothing or equipment, i.e.
face shield, face mask, earmuff, etc.
9. Failure to wear proper gloves when handling rough
or sharp edged materials
10. Wearing ties, rings, long sleeves or loose clothing
around machine tools.
11. Wearing gloves while grinding, polishing or buffing
12. Handling hot objects with unprotected hands
13. No word rest or poorly adjusted work rest on grinder
(1/8 inches maximum clearance)
14. Grinding without the glass eye shield in place
15. Making safety devices inoperative
16. Using an uninsulated portable hand tool
17. Improperly designed or adjusted safety guard

1. Be firm, but friendly

2. Explain, what, why and how
3. Review the safe alternative
4. Make your contact private
5. Get his reasons for acting unsafely
6. Get agreement on future practice

53

EXERCISE NO. 5
Name: ___________________________________________ Yr. & Sec.: _______________
Schedule & Room: _________________________________ Date Performed: ___________

Rating

TEST YOURSELF: Answer the following questions. Use extra paper if needed.
1. Discuss the purpose and objectives of Safety Inspection.
2. When to conduct plant inspection?
3. Who are responsible to lead and qualified to conduct a safety inspection?
4. Discuss the standard procedure and Dos and Donts of Plabt Safety Inspection.
5. How should we evaluate plant safety inspection result?

LEARNING ACTIVITY: Perform the following procedural activities.

Title: Plant

Safety Inspection

Objectives:
After the activity, you should be able to:
1. Prepare safety inspection forms and procedures.
2. Conduct plant safety inspection according to standard procedure, and
3. Analyze, evaluate and interpret safety inspection result.
Procedure and Task:
1. Make a group compose of 3-4 members, assign group leader.
2. Prepare a Plant Safety Inspection Program containing the 5Ws and 1H elements.
3. Select one area from the prepared program that you can be able to perform within the Engineering and
Architecture building.
4. Perform Safety Inspection according to the designed program of inspection.

Resource Materials: Occupational Safety and Health Center (OSHC) of the Philippines, Inspection materials
according to references, Safety Manual

54

CHAPTER 7
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT (PPE)
AND ITS APPLICATION
INTRODUCTION
In the last chapter, one result of inspection is
identification and detection of hazard. When a hazard is
identified in a workplace, every effort should be made to
eliminate it so that employees are not harmed.
Elimination thus becomes the first thrust of control. The
first approach is to determine whether the hazard can be
engineered out of the operation. Another way of reducing
or controlling the hazard is to isolate the process.
After elimination, the second approach is to control
the hazard by administrative control. For example, a
milling operation might be done at only certain times of
the day, after the shift ends. This reduces the flying chip
hazard to other employees. However, if this cannot be
done since employees will always be around, the use of
personal protective equipment is necessary.
Too often PPE usage is considered as the last thing
to do. It should not be. PPE can provide that added
protection to the employee even when the hazard is being
controlled by other means. In some situations, the only
available protection will be the use of PPE and often in
emergencies, PPE will be required for the safety of the
workers and should be considered one important aspect
of the safety program.
APPROACHES IN CONTROLLING HAZARDS
People who must work in hazardous areas should
use PPE, which can protect a person from head to toe. To
develop an effective program, the supervisor should:
1. Be familiar with required standards and requirements
of the government regulations;
2. Be able to identify hazards;
3. Be familiar with the safety equipment on the market
to protect specific hazards;
4. Know the company procedures for maintaining the
equipment;
5. Develop an effective method for convincing
employees to dress safety and to wear the proper
protective equipment.
6. Review all material safety data sheets (MSDS) that
require personal protective equipment for protection
against hazardous chemicals and materials; and

7. Consider establishing industrial hygiene evaluation

procedure to determine whether PPE is needed to
meet MSDS requirements.
The rule to follow when specifying or buying
safety equipment is to insist on the best and to deal only
with reputable firms. Do not take a chance on inferior
items just because they may be less expensive. Personal
protective equipment should conform to establish
standards.
CHALLENGES IN IMPLEMENTING PPE
1.
The Challenge of Overcoming Objections. One
of the biggest problems that supervisors face is
overcoming the objections of some workers who have to
wear such protective equipment. Most of the objections
encountered are quite similar, whether employees are
talking about eye, ear or head protection, respiratory
protective equipment, or protective clothing such as
apron, gloves and even safety shoes.
To understand why employees do not wear the
prescribed protective equipment, try to be objective and
to see the entire picture. Workers have common concerns
regarding personal protective equipment:
a. Proper fit and comfort are important. Make sure that
eye glasses, ear protectors, respirators, aprons,
gloves and shoes are properly fitted. No one wants to
wear something if he does not feel comfortable.
b. Appearance should be considered. If the piece of
equipment does not look attractive, workers are
turned off. If possible, let workers select their style.
c. Workers will want to know how easily protective
equipment can be cleaned and maintained. This is
particularly important in the case of hearing and
respiratory infection.
Instructors Note:
__________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
2.
Challenge of Selling the Need for PPE. Closely
associated with overcoming objections is selling to
workers on the need for personal protective equipment. If
people can be made to see the need for such protection,
the job will be much easier. When looking at personal
55

protective equipment, picture the human body, and

starting with the head, analyse all the hazards or the
types of accidents that could possibly occur. For
example, the head is vulnerable to injuries such as bumps
and abrasions think what types of protection are needed:
hard hats bump caps, etc.? Then move on to the eyes,
ears, throat and lungs (respiratory protection), arms and
legs, torso, hands and toes. In this fashion, all the hazards
that can occur will be identified and the protection that is
required can be implemented.
3.
The Challenge of Expensive Cost of Equipment.
Companies differ in their policies on personal protective
equipment given to their employees. Usually, companies
that require extremely clean operations will furnish
laundered coveralls, aprons, smocks and other garments.
Personal items such as safety shoes and prescription
safety glasses are often sold in a shared cost basis with
employees. Other items considered necessary to the job
are often supplied free to the employee. A welding
helmet and a welders gloves are good examples. While
companies are concerned with controlling costs, but not
at the expense of safety.

the cradle and the outer shell of the helmet should not be
less than 1- of an inch. Never attempt to repair the
shell of a helmet once it has been broken or punctured.
Do not let people holes on their safety helmets to
improve ventilation or let them cut notches in the brims.
Such practices destroy the ability of the helmet to protect
the wearer.
2.
Auxiliary Features and Functions. Liners for
safety head gear are available for cold weather use. If this
is in use, do not let the workers remove the safety helmet
suspension. This practice completely destroys the
protection given by the helmet and has led to tragic
result. A chin strap is useful when the wearer is exposed
to strong wing or on oil rig derricks or working above on
scaffolding platforms. Brackets to support welding
masks or miners cap lamps are available on some safety
helmets. Other mounting accessory for hearing
protection and eye and face protection is available.

THE DIFFERENT AREAS OF PROTECTION

Standard colours of safety helmets are white,

yellow, red, green and blue. Often, distinctive colours or
designs are used to designate the wearers department or
trade, especially in companies or plants where certain
areas are restricted to a few selected employees.

PROTECTIVE HEADWEAR

FACE PROTECTION

Safety helmets are needed on jobs where a

persons head is menaced by falling objects or by bumps.
Impact resistance is essential. Where contact with
energized circuit is possible, only helmets that meet the
requirements of Class B, ANSI Z89.1 (US Standard)
should be worn. These helmets should have no conductor
fittings passing through the shell. Class B hard helmets
are tested at 20,000 volts.

Many types of personal protective equipment

shields the face against the impact, chemical or hot metal
splashes, heat radiation and other hazards. Face shields
of clear plastic protect the eyes and face of the person
who is sawing or buffing metal, doing sanding or light
grinding or handling chemicals. The shield should be
slow burning and must be replaced if warped or
scratched. A regular replacement schedule must be set up
because plastic tend to become brittle with age.

Another type of head protection is known as

bump hats or bump caps. These are used only in
confined spaces where the hazard is limited to bumping
the head on some obstruction. Bump caps should never
be used on construction sites, shipyards or other
locations where more dangerous hazards are present.
These head gear do not meet the requirements of ANSI
Z89.1.
1.
Types and Material Requirements. Plastic
moulded under high pressure is most frequently used for
safety helmets. It resists impact, water, oil and electricity.
Fiberglass impregnated with resin is preferred because of
its high strength- to- weight ratio, high dielectric strength
and resistance to moisture.
The hard outer shell of the helmet is supported by a
suspension- cradle attached to a headband that keeps the
shell away from the head and provide some degree of
protection against falling objects. The distance between

1.
Helmets. Welding helmets protect the eyes and
face against the splashes of molten metal and radiation
produced by arc welding. Helmets should have the
proper filter glass to keep ultraviolet and visible rays
from harming the eyes.
Most type of helmets have a replaceable, heattreated glass or plastic covering to protect the filter lens
against pitting and scratching. Some helmets have a liftfront glass holder that permits the welder to inspect the
work without lifting or removing the helmet. Welders
helpers should have proper welding goggles or helmets
to wear while assisting in a welding operation or while
chipping flux away after a bead has been run over a joint.
The danger of foreign bodies becoming lodged in the
eyes is great for workers performing this operation
without protection.

56

2.
Shields and Goggles. A hand shield can be used
where the protection of the helmet is not needed, such as
for inspection of work, tack welding and other operations
were requiring little or no welding by the user. Frame
and lens construction are similar to that of the helmet.
Welding goggles are available with filter glass shades up
to No. 8. If darker shades are required, then complete
protection is needed because of the danger of skin burns.
3.
Hoods. Acid proof hoods that cover the head, face
and neck are used by persons exposed to the risk of
severe splashes from corrosive chemicals. This type of
hood has a glass or plastic window that is securely joined
to the hood to prevent acid from seeping through. Hoods
are made of rubber, neoprene, and plastic film or
impregnated fabrics and are available for resistance to
different chemicals. Hoods with air supply should be
worn for work around toxic fumes or dusts. These hoods
provide a supply of clean, breathing- quality air which
excludes toxic materials and maintains worker comfort.
To support the air hose, the worker should wear a
harness or belt.
PROTECTION FOR THE EYES
Industrial operations expose the eyes to a variety of
hazards such as flying objects, splashes of corrosive
liquids or molten metals, dusts and harmful radiations.
Eye injuries not only disable a person but they often
disfigure the face. Flying objects such as metal or stone
chips, nails or abrasive grits cause most injuries. Other
causes of eye injuries are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Abrasive wheels (small flying particles)

Corrosive substances
Damaging visible or thermal radiation
Splashing metal
Poisonous gases or fumes

The hazards can be minimized by the use of safety

goggles or face shields especially when working at head
level or overhead with chance of particles falling or
flying into the eyes. Occasionally, the need for eye
protection is overlooked on many potentially hazardous
jobs. These includes cutting wires or cables, striking
wrenches, using hand drills, chipping concrete, removing
nails from scrap lumber, shovelling material to head
level, working on the leeward side of the job, using
hammers and wrenches overhead or other jobs where
particles or debris may fall. Make sure workers on these
jobs wear the proper eye protective equipment.
1.
Contact Lenses. Where there are appreciable
amount of dust, smoke, irritating fumes or liquid
irritation that could splash into the eyes, contact lenses
are not recommended. Often judgement must be made as
to the degree of potential hazards since some workers

obtain better vision correction with contact lenses and

therefore need them. These persons should wear the
safety spectacles or goggles over their contacts when in
an area where any sort of potential eye hazard exists.
CFR 1910.134 (5)(ii) under OSHA (US) prohibits the
wearing of contact lenses in contaminated areas.
2.
Goggles. Goggles and other kinds of eye
protection are available in many styles along with the
protective medium or heat- treated or chemically treated
gas, plastic, wire screen or light filtering glass.
Supervisors should be familiar with the various forms of
eye protection and should know which one are the best
for each job.
EAR PROTECTION
Excessive noise should be reduced by engineering
changes and administrative controls whenever possible.
Although there are some disagreements as to the
maximum intensity of sound to which the human ear can
be subjected without damage to hearing, the standards of
the Occupational Safety and Health Act should be used
as a minimum level of protection. Under OSHA, where
the sound level exceed and 8 hour time weighted average
of 85 dB measured on a scale, a continuing and effective
hearing conservation program shall be administered. The
level may be increased slightly as the duration of
exposure decreases.
1.
Insert Ear Protectors (Earplugs). Insert
(earplugs) protectors are of course inserted into the ear
canals and vary considerably in design and material.
Material used pliable rubber, soft or medium plastic, wax
and cotton. Rubber and plastic are popular because they
are inexpensive, easy to keep clean and good
performance. Wax tends to lose its effectiveness during
the workday because jaw movements change the shape
of the ear canal and this breaks the acoustical seal
between ear and insert. Cotton is a poor choice because
of its low attenuating properties and because it must be
hand formed. Still another type of earplug popular with
workers is one that is moulded to fit each ear. After being
allowed to set, it will hold its form because each persons
ear canal is shaped differently, these plugs becomes the
property of individual to whom they were fitted. These
plugs must be fitted by a trained and qualified
professional.
2.
Muff Devices (Ear Muffs). Cup or muff devices
cover the external ear and provide an acoustic barrier.
The effectiveness of these devices varies with the size,
seal materials, shell mass and suspension of the muff as
well as with the size and shape of the workers heads.
Muffs are made in universal type or in specific head,
neck or chin sizes. Hearing protection kits that can be
used with hard helmets are also available.
57

RESPIRATORY PROTECTION
Respiratory can be regarded as emergency
equipment or equipment for occasional use. Of course, if
contaminants are present, they should be removed at the
source or the process should be isolated. Since leaks and
breakdowns do not occur and since some operations
expose a person only briefly and infrequently, respiratory
equipment should be available. Workers must be
instructed and trained in its proper use and limitations.
1.
Types of Equipment. Respiratory equipment
includes air purifying devices (mechanical filter
respirators, chemical cartridge respirators, combination
mechanical filters and chemical cartridges respirators and
masks with canisters, air supplied devices (airline
respirators) and self- contained breathing apparatus
(SCBA).
a. Air Purifying Devices. Air purifying devices
remove contaminants from air as it is being breathed.
They can be used only in environment containing
insufficient oxygen to sustain life. Air purifying
devices are only effective in limited concentration
ranges for which they are designed and must never
be used where contaminant levels exceed the
respirator accepted protection factor.
b. Mechanical Filter Respirator. These respirators
must protect the workers against exposure to
nuisance dusts and pneumoconiosis- producing
dusts, mists and fumes. Examples of nuisance dusts
are aluminum, cellulose, cement, flour, gypsum and
limestone. Pneumoconiosis comes from the three
Greek words that mean lung, dust and abnormal
condition. The generally accepted meaning of the
word is merely dusty lung. A mechanical filter
respirator is of no value if use as protection against
chemical vapors, injurious gases or oxygen
deficiency. To use it under these conditions is a
serious mistake.
c. Chemical Cartridge Respirators. These respirators
can be a half mask face piece or a full mask face
piece connected to one or more containers (cartridge)
or sorbent, typically activated charcoal or soda lime
(a mixture of calcium hydroxide with sodium
potassium hydroxide) for absorption of low
concentration of certain vapours or gases. The life of
the cartridge can be relatively short. For protection
against mercury vapours, the nominal container life
is 8 hours. After use, the cartridge must be discarded.
These respirators must not be used in atmosphere
immediately dangerous to life or health, such as
those deficient in oxygen.

d. Gas Masks. It consists of a face piece or a mouth

piece connected by flexible tube to a canister.
Inhaled air, drawn through the canister is cleaned
chemically. Unfortunately, no one chemical canister
has been found to remove all contaminants.
Therefore, the canister must be chosen to match the
contaminants. Gas mask containers are colour coded
according to the type of exposure. Gas mask like
chemical cartridge respirators do not protect against
oxygen deficiency. When the canister is used up, it
should be removed and replaced by a new one.
e. Hose Masks. With or without a blower, it should not
be used in atmosphere immediately dangerous to life
or health.
f.

Air Supplied Respirator. Delivers breathing air

through a hose connected to the wearers face piece.
The air source used is monitored frequently to make
sure it does not become contaminated, say carbon
monoxide. The air- line respirator can be used in
atmosphere not immediately dangerous to life or
death, especially where working conditions demand
continuous use of a respirator. Each person should be
assigned his or her own respirator.

g. Abrasive Blasting Helmets. This is an air- line

respirator designed to protect the head, neck and eye
against the impact of the abrasive and it gives supply
of breathing air. The air quality requirements are the
same as those described for air- line respirators. The
helmet should be covered both inside and out with a
tough, resilient materials. This increase comfort and
still resist the abrasive. Some helmets have an out
hood of impregnated material and a zipped inner
cape for quick removal. The helmet should contain a
glass window, protected by a 30- to- 60 mesh fine
wire screen or plastic cover plate. Safety glass used
to prevent shattering under a heavy blow should be
free of color or glass defects.
h. Self- Contained Breathing Apparatus. the wearer
of a self- contained breathing apparatus is
independent of the surrounding atmosphere,
therefore, this kind of respiratory protective
equipment must be used in environments where
contaminants are immediately harmful to life. This
equipment is frequently used in mine rescue work
and fore fighting.
Protection factors are a measure of the overall
effectiveness of a respirator; these factors are based on
tests and on professional judgements. It ranged from 5 to
10,000 ppm. The maximum use concentration for a
respirator is determined by multiplying the Threshold
Limit Value (TLVs) of the substance to be protected
58

against by the protection factor. For example, a respirator

with a protection factor of 10 of acetic acid is 10 ppm;
the worker would be protected in atmosphere containing
acetic acid concentrations as high as 100 ppm.
PROTECTING EXTREMITIES
Workers extremities are highly vulnerable to
injury in most work environments. Protective clothing
and gear can reduce the number of severity of injuries
workers suffer each year. Supervisors should educate and
train all employees in the importance of using such
protection. Make sure workers understand that their best
protection is prevention.
1.
Arms, Hands, Fingers. Fingers and hands are
exposed to cuts, scratches, brushes and burns. Although
fingers are hard to protect because they are needed for
practically all work, they can be shielded from any
common injuries with such proper protective equipment
as the following:
a. Heat- resistant gloves are used to protect against
burns and discomfort when the hands are exposed to
sustained conductive heat.
b. Metal mesh gloves are used by those who work
constantly with knives to protect against cuts and
blow from sharp or rough objects.
c. Rubber gloves are worn by electricians. They must
be tested regularly for dielectric strength.
d. Rubber, neoprene and vinyl gloves are used when
handling chemicals and corrosive. Neoprene and
vinyl are particularly useful when petroleum
products are handled.
e. Leather gloves are able to resist sparks, moderate
heat, chips and rough objects. They provide some
cushioning against blows. They are generally used
for heavy- duty work. Chrome- tanned leather or
horsehide are used by welders.

2. Feet, Legs. About a quarter of a million disabling

occupational foot injuries take place each year. This
point to the need for foot protection in most
industries and the need for supervisors to see that
their workers wear this gear. All safety shoes have
toes reinforced with a toe cap. These three
classifications are as follow:
Minimum Requirements for
Safety Toe Shoes for Men
Classification

Compression
Pounds

Impact Foot
Pounds

Clearance
Inches

75

2,500

75

16/32

50

1,750

50

16/32

30

1,000

30

16/32

Table 7.1
Safety shoes are selected in the basis of hazards
involved and are properly fitted. These safety shoes
classified according to hazards are:
1. Metal- free shoes, boots and other footwear are
available for use where there are specific electrical
hazards or fire explosion hazards.
2. Congress or gaiter- type shoes are used to protect
people from splashes of molten metal or from
welding sparks. This type can be removed quickly to
avoid serious burns. These shoes have no laces or
eyelets to catch molten metal.
3. Reinforced or inner soles of flexible metal are built
into shoes worn in areas where there are hazards
from protruding nails and when the likelihood of
contact with energized electrical equipment is
remote, as in the construction industry.

Chrome- tanned cowhide leather gloves with steel

stapled leather patches or steel staples on palms and
fingers are often used in foundries and steel mills.

4. For wet work conditions in dairies and breweries,

rubber boots and shoes, leather shoes with wood
soles or wood- soled sandals are effective. Wood
soles have been so commonly used by workers
handling hot asphalt that they are sometimes called
pavers sandals.

g. Cotton fabric gloves are suitable for protection

against dirt, slivers, chafing or abrasion. They are not
heavy enough to use in handling rough, sharp or
heavy materials.

5. Safety shoes with metatarsal guards should always

be worn during operations where heavy materials
such as pig iron, heavy castings and timbers are
handled.

h. Heated gloves are designed for use in cold

environments, such as deep freezers and can be part
of a heated clothing system.

6. Leg protection encircles the leg from ankle to knee

and have a flap at the bottom to protect the instep
and the entire leg.

f.

59

LIMITATIONS OF PPE
Personal protective equipment or clothing are not
substitute for effective engineering controls, safe
working conditions or sound work practices, but can play
an essential part in the protection of the workers.
However, it has some limitations, the following are:
a. PPE does not reduce or eliminate hazards.
b. If the protective equipment is defective, or
becomes ineffective when being worn, the
wearer may become exposed to hazards without
being necessarily aware of it.
c. PPE provides protection for the wearer only, the
potential exposure of unprotected people in the
area must be considered.
d. The use of PPE may introduce additional hazards
to the wearer. The equipment may interfere with
one or more of the senses.
e. PPE may transfer the hazard to another location.
Toxic chemicals may be absorbed on shoes and
clothing and transferred to offices, eating areas
or at home.
f. PPE particularly respiratory protection may not
be suitable for continuous use.
g. PPE may not always be worn properly.
It is very important for us to carefully consider
the following limitations. This is for us to provide the
right approaches in the application of PPE. We must not
put all our security or rest our assurance on PPE alone.
Instructors Note:
__________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________

60

EXERCISE NO. 2
Name: ___________________________________________ Yr. & Sec.: _______________
Schedule & Room: _________________________________ Date Performed: ___________

Rating

TEST YOURSELF: Answer the following questions. Use extra paper if needed.
1. Discuss the purpose and objectives of PPE.
2. How important Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) to the workers at the same time to management?
3. What are the different principles in applying PPE in the workers?
4. Enumerate and discuss different ways how can we implement PPE effectively.
5. How can we manage complaints and refusal in wearing PPE?

LEARNING ACTIVITY: Perform the following procedural activities.

Title: Personal Protective Equipment
Objectives:
After the activity, you should be able to:
1. Identify proper PPE for a particular work.
2. Develop an effective PPE program, and
3. Analyze and evaluate methods of performing work
Procedure and Task:
1. Conduct research on Personal Protective Equipment.
2. Prepare a Matrix of PPE with particular application to workers, nature of job and body parts.
3. Observe and document workers performing job without proper PPE. (Picture)
4. Develop a Job Safety Analysis (JSA) for that unsafe situation. Make a scenario analysis using the
incident as case.

Resource Materials: Occupational Safety and Health Center (OSHC) of the Philippines, Safety Manual,
Field Observation
61

CHAPTER 8
MACHINERY SAFETY AND EQUIPMENT GUARDING
INTRODUCTION

2. Beneficial Contribution of Safeguarding

Hazards must be engineered out of the job first in

any operations to assure continuity in the production.
This is one purpose of machine guarding. Guarding is
frequently, thought of as being concerned only with the
points of operation or with the means of power
transmissions. Although guarding against these hazards
is required, this step can also prevent injuries from other
causes both on and around machines and from the
following sources:

The primary benefits of safeguarding in the eyes of

the supervisors are that it reduces the possibility of injury
and it may improve production. When operators are
afraid of their machines or afraid of getting close to
moving parts, they obviously cannot pay attention to
their production responsibilities. Once their fears had
been removed, their concentrations on operations at hand
often are more productive.

1. Direct contact with exposed moving parts of the

machine either points of operation on production
machines or power transmitting part of mechanism.
2. Work process, for example, pieces of wood that kick
back from a power rip saw or metal chips that fly
from tools or from abrasive wheels.
3. Machine failure, which usually result from lack of
maintenance, overloading, metal fatigue or abuse.
4. Electrical failure, which may cause the
malfunctioning of machine or electrical shocks or
burns.
5. Operator error or human failure caused by lack of
knowledge or skill, emotional distraction,
misunderstanding, laziness, unsafe operation, illness,
fatigue and so on.
PRINCIPLES OF GUARDING
The experience of more than six decades of
organized accident prevention proves that it is unwise to
rely entirely on educations and trainings of operator to
avoid mishaps. Many factors can affect a persons
attitude; judgement and ability to concentrate. For
example, skilled workers with emotional or physical
problems cannot pay strict attention to their production
responsibilities and cannot give their best effort.
1. Safeguard the Hazards Before Accidents Occur
Guarding the hazard is the fundamental principle of
accident prevention and it is not limited to machinery.
When making a survey solely from the point of view of
safeguarding against all hazards, it is likely to list good
potential sources of injury that should be protected by
barricades, rails, toe boards, enclosure or another means.
As you list electrical switches and equipment, motors,
engines, fixed ladders, stairs, platforms and pits is made,
it may be good to consider this question: Can accident
occur here, or thereor where?.

Well- designed and carefully maintained safeguards

assure workers that management means what it says
about preventing accidents and ensuring safe production.
When employees realize these facts, they are more
inclined to contribute to the safety effort.
3. Basic Types of Safeguards
A great standardized devices, as well as improvised
barriers, enclosures and tools have been developed to
protect machine operators particularly their hands at
point of operation areas. Sheet metal, perforated metal,
expanded metal, heavy metal, heavy wire mesh or stock
may be used for types of guards. The best practice is to
follow the requirements of the OSH Standards and the
ANSI (US) when material for new guards or barrier is
selected.
If moving parts must be visible, transparent impact
plastic or safety glass can be used where the strength of
metal is not required. Guards or barriers may be made of
aluminium or other soft metals where resistance to rust is
essential or when iron or steel guards can cause damage
to the machinery. Wood, plastic and glass fibre barriers
have the advantage of usually getting inexpensive, but
they are low in strength compared with steel. However,
these materials do resist the effects of splashes, vapours
and fumes from corrosive substances that would react
with iron or steel and reduce its strength and
effectiveness.
SAFEGUARD DESIGN
It is easier to establish effective methods for
safeguarding power transmissions than it is for guarding
points of operation because power transmissions are
more standardized. To be generally acceptable, a
safeguard should:
1. Conform to or exceed applicable ANSI (US)
standards and the requirements of OSHS
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2. Be considered a permanent part of the machine or

equipment
3. Afford maximum protection not only for the operator
and those performing lubrication but also for passer
by
4. Prevent access to the danger zone or point of
operation during operation
5. Be convenient. Guards must not interfere with
efficient operation with the machine, cause
discomfort with the operator, complicate light
maintenance and/ or cleaning around the machine
6. Be designed for the specific job and specific machine
7. Not weaken the structure of the machine
8. Be resistant to fore and corrosion
9. Be strong enough to resist normal wear and shock
and durable enough to serve over a long period with
minimum maintenance.
10. Not be a source of additional hazards such as
splinters, pinch points, sharp corners, rough edges or
other injury sources.
11. Safeguard covering rotating parts should be
interlocked with the machine itself so that the
machine cannot be operated unless the safeguard is
in place.
MATCHING MACHINE OR EQUIPMENT TO
OPERATOR
All physical or design features of a production
machine and the workplace should be evaluated as
though the machine were and extension of a persons
body and can only do what that person wants it to do. To
match the machine or equipment to an operator, consider
the following factors:
Types of Guards:
1. Fixed Guarding
2. Interlocking Guards
3. Automatic Safeguard
CONSIDERATION
MATCH- UP

FOR

MAN/

MACHINE

1. The workplace. Machine and equipment should be

arranged so that the operator does a minimum amount of
lifting and traveling.
2. The work height. The work station should be of
optimal height in relation to stand up or sit down
methods of operation, whichever is used. The proper
height and top of chair or stool must be determined.
Elbow height is a determining factor in minimizing
worker fatigue. In general, an effective work level is 41
inches from the floor to work surface, with a chair height
from 25 to 31 inches (0.6 to 0.8 metres).

1. Controls. Machine speed and ON- OFF controls

should be readily accessible.
2. Materials handling aids. These aids should be
provided to minimize manual handling of raw
materials and in- process or finished parts, both to and
from machines.
3. Operator fatigue. Workers become fatigued at a
machine station usually as a result of combined
physical and mental activities, not simply from
expanding energy.
4. Adequate lighting. Other working ambient and
environmental considerations.
5. Excessive noise. More than just an annoyance,
excessive noise can be real hazard because it can cause
permanent hearing damage.
SAFEGUARDING MECHANISM
Machines have certain basic mechanisms, which if
exposed, always need safeguarding. These safeguarding,
which incorporate the primary hazards involved in
machinery, can be grouped under the following headings:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Rotating
Cutting or shearing mechanisms
In- running nip points
Screw or worn mechanisms
Forming or bending mechanisms
Impact mechanisms

A piece of equipment may involve more than one

type of hazardous exposure. For instance, a belt- andsheave drive is a hazardous rotating mechanism and also
has in- running nip points.
1. Rotating Mechanisms. A rotating mechanism is
dangerous unless it is safeguarded. They can seize and
wind up loose clothing, belts, hair, etc. Mechanical
power transmission apparatuses represent the large
percentage of this type of hazardous mechanism.
Although relatively few injuries are caused by such
apparatus, the injuries often are permanently disabling.
Transmission equipment should therefore be safeguarded
as effectively possible.
Shafting, flywheels, pulleys, gears, belts, clutches,
prime movers and other types of transmission apparatus
usually seem safety by virtue of their location. However,
many accidents happen in places where such apparatus is
located: places where no one ever goes. The
supervisor, the oiler and maintenance people go into
these seldom entered places. For their safety, the hazard
in such areas should also be safeguarded.
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Rotating mechanisms can seize and wind up loose

clothing, belts, hair, etc. They should therefore be
guarded. Left to right, they are (A) projecting key and set
screw, (B) spokes and burns, (C) coupling bolts, (D) bit
and chuck, (E) turning bar stock, and (F) rotating shaft.
2. Cutting or Shearing Mechanisms. The hazards of
cutting or shearing mechanism lie at the point where the
work is being done and where the movable parts of the
machine approach or cross the fixed parts of the piece of
machine. Guillotine cutters, shear presses, band and
circular saws, milling machines, lathes, shapers and
abrasive wheels are typical of machines that present
cutting or shearing hazards.
a. Saws. A circular saw must be safeguarded by a guard
that covers the blade at all times to at least the depth
of the teeth. The hood must adjust itself automatically
to the thickness of the material being cut in order to
remain in contact with. The hood should be
constructed in such a way that it protects the operator
from flying splinters or broken saw teeth.
b. Shears. The knife head on both hand and power
operated shears should be equipped with a barrier to
keep the operators fingers away from the cutting
edge. The barrier should extend across the full width
of the table and in front of the hold down. This barrier
may be fixed or automatically adjusted to the
thickness of the material to be cut.
c. Grinding wheels. Since the abrasive grinding wheel
is a common power tool and is often used by
untrained workers, it is the source of many injuries.
Stands for grinding wheels should be heavy and rigid
enough to prevent vibration and should be securely
mounted on a substantial foundation. The wheels
should neither be forced on the spindle nor should
they be too loose. The work rest would be rigid and
set no farther away than 1/8 inches (3 mm.) from the
face of the wheel so that the material cannot be caught
between the wheel and the rest.
3. In- Running Nip Points. Whether two or more
parallel shafts that are close together rotate in
opposite directions, an in- running nip point is
formed. Objects or parts of the body may be drawn
into this nip point and be crushed or mangled.
Typical examples of nip points are found on rolling
mills, calendars, chain and sprocket, conveyors, belts
and sheaves, racks and pinions and at points of
contact between any moving body and a
corresponding stationary body.
4. Screw or Worm Mechanisms. The hazards
involved in the operation of screw or worm

mechanisms are the shearing action set up between

the moving screw and the fixed part of the housing.
Screw and worm mechanisms are generally used for
conveying, mixing or grinding materials. Examples
are food mixers, meat grinders, screw conveyors, dry
material mixers and grinders of various types. Screw
conveyor covers should not be used as a walkway. If
they must be walked on, additional protection should
be provided.
5. Fixed Guards or Enclosures. The fixed guard or
enclosure is considered preferably to all types of
protection and should be used in every case, unless it
has been definitely determined that this type is not all
practical. The principal advantage of the fixed guard
is that it prevents access to the dangerous parts of the
machine at all times. Fixed safeguards may be
adjustable to accommodate different sets of tools or
various kinds of work. However, once they have
been adjusted, they should remain fixed. Under no
circumstances should they be detached or moved.
6. Interlocking guards or Barriers. Where a fixed
safeguard cannot be used, an interlocking guard or
barrier should be fitted at the machine as the first
alternative. Interlocking may be mechanical,
electrical, pneumatic, or a combination of types. The
purpose of the interlock is to prevent operation of the
control that sets the machine in motion until the
guard or barrier is moved into position. Operators
subsequently cannot reach the point of operation
which is the point of danger.
To be effective, an interlocking safeguard must
satisfy three requirements:
a. Guard the dangerous part before the machine can be
operated.
b. Stay closed until the dangerous part is at rest
c. Prevent the operation of the machine if the
interlocking device fails
Two- hand tripping devices are incorporated in
many types of interlocking controls. These devices
requires simultaneous and sustained pressure of both
hands on switch buttons, air- control valves, mechanical
lever controls, interlocked with a foot control, to name
just a few.
7. Safe Practices. Safeguards are of primary
importance in eliminating machine accidents but they are
not enough. Employees who work around mechanical
equipment or operate a piece of machinery must have a
healthy respect for safeguards. Positive safety procedures
64

should be established to prevent employees from

misunderstanding instructions. You should enforce the
following rules:

e. When the job is finished or the shift has ended,

maintenance man removes his own padlock and
blocking. Never let another person remove it for him.

a. No guard, barrier or enclosure should be adjusted or

removed for any reason by anyone unless that person
has permission from the supervisor.

If the key to a padlock is lost, it must be reported to

the supervisor at once and a new set should be issued.
Printed tags warn employees of danger. They do not
normally prevent energy isolating device movement.
They warn affected and other employees that the tags
must not be removed and that energy isolating devices
must remain as positioned. Tags can be used only if they
provide the same level of safety furnished by lockout. If
tag outs are used, additional safeguards beyond those
necessary for lockout are required. For example,
measures that can be reduce the possibility of
energization include: removing a circuit interrupting
element, blocking a controlling switch, opening an extra
disconnect device or closing a valve and removing the
valve handle. Tags used for tag outs must:

b. Before safeguards or other guarding devices are

removed, so that repair or adjustments can be made
or equipment can be lubricated or otherwise serviced,
the power for the equipment must be turned off and
the main switch is locked out and tagged.
c. No machine should be started unless the safeguards
are in place and in good condition.
d. Defective or missing safeguards should be reported
to the supervisor immediately.
e. Employees should not work on or around mechanical
equipment while wearing neckties, loose clothing,
watches, rings or other jewelry.
8. Lockout and Tag Procedures. Lockout and tag out
procedures are designed to isolate or shut off machines
and equipment from their power sources before
employees perform any servicing or maintenance work.
Employees must be trained in these procedures and
instructed to replace safeguards after the work is
completed. Supervisors must use all their authority to
enforce the safe work practices.
Where a lockout system is to be set, equipment
must have built- in locking devices. They must be
designed for the insertion of padlocks or have
attachments on which locks can be placed.
The lockout procedure can only be effective if the
supervisors train employees to follow it and then watches
constantly for deviations. A typical lockout routine for
maintenance and repair are given below:

1. Be strong and resilient enough to prevent accidental

loss or removal.
2. Be standardize
3. Have a type, format and warning (such as DANGER)
that are the same for all employers tag out
applications.
4. Be easy to read and understand
5. Hold up against dirt, dampness and corrosion
6. Be used only for tag- out
7. Identify the authorized employee, equipment and
work being performed.
Instructors Note:
__________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________

a. Notify the operator that repair work is to be done on

a machine or piece of equipment.
b. Make sure the machine cannot be set in motion
without the supervisors permission.
c. Place padlock on the power disconnect, even though
another workers lock is already on it and blocks the
mechanism. Another persons lock will not protect
you.
d. Place a MACHINE UNDER REPAIR sign at the
control and block the mechanism. Make sure that
neither the sign nor the blocking can be easily
removed.
65