SOLAR ENERGY

It is radiant light and heat from the sun harnessed using a range of ever-evolving technologies
such as solar heating, solar photovoltaics, solar thermal electricity, solar architecture and
artificial photosynthesis.
Applications of solar technology:
Architecture and urban planning.
Agriculture and horticulture.
Transport.
Solar thermal
o Water heating.
o Heating, cooling and ventilation.
o Water treatment.
o Process heat.
o Cooking.
Electricity production: There are two methods to
convert the solar energy into electrical energy.

1. Concentrated solar power.

2. Photovoltaic cell.
A typical example of the concentrated solar power
schematic has been shown in the figure.
Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) plants
Solar thermal power plants generally use reflectors to
concentrate sunlight into a heat absorber. Such power
plants are known as Concentrating Solar Power
(CSP) plants.
Concentrating solar power plants produce electric
power by converting the sun's energy into hightemperature heat using various mirror configurations.
The heat is then channeled through a conventional
generator. The plants consist of two parts, one that
collects solar energy and converts it to heat, and
another that converts heat energy to electricity.

Types of CSP plants:

1. Parabolic Trough Systems: The sun's energy is
concentrated by parabolic curved, trough-shaped
reflectors onto a receiver pipe running along the
inside of the curved surface. This energy heats oil
flowing through the pipe and the heat energy is
then used to generate electricity in a conventional
steam generator.
2. Solar Power tower: A power tower is a large
tower surrounded by tracking mirrors called
heliostats. These mirrors align themselves and
focus sunlight on the receiver at the top of tower,
collected heat is transferred to a power station
below. This design reaches very high
temperatures. High temperatures are suitable for
electricity generation using conventional methods
like steam turbine or a direct high temperature
chemical reaction such as liquid salt. By
concentrating sunlight current systems can get
better efficiency than simple solar cells. A larger
area can be covered by using relatively
inexpensive mirrors rather than using expensive
solar cells. Concentrated light can be redirected to
a suitable location via optical fiber cable for such
uses as illuminating buildings.
3. Parabolic dish systems: Parabolic dish systems
consist of a parabolic shaped point focused
concentrator in the form of a dish that reflects
solar radiation onto a receiver mounted at the
focal point. These concentrators are mounted on a
structure with a two-axis tracking system to
follow the sun. The collected heat is typically
utilized directly by a heat engine mounted on the
receiver moving with the dish structure.
Photovoltaic cell: A photovoltaic cell is the basic device that converts solar radiation into
electricity. A solar cell is basically an electrical current source, driven by a flux of radiation.

Circuit diagram
Construction overview
Working: It consists of a very thick n-type crystal covered by a thin n-type layer exposed to the
sun light as shown in the figure. If a load is connected across the p-n terminals which are
exposed to sunlight as shown, a photon generated current will flow through this external circuit.
This current will be proportional to the number of electron-hole pairs generated, which in turn
depends on the intensity of illumination. Thus, an illuminated p-n junction becomes a photo
voltaic cell with a positive terminal on the p side.
A PV cell can be either circular in construction or square. Cells are arranged in a frame to
form a module. Modules put together form a panel. Panels form an array. Photocells may have
efficiency in the range of 10 20% and can produce electrical energy of 12 kWh per sq. m per
day in ordinary sunshine. Typically it produces a potential difference of about 0.5V and a current
density of about 200A per sq. m of cell area in full radiation of 1kW per sq.m. A typical
commercial cell of 100sq.cm area, thus produces a current of 2A. It has a lifespan in excess of
about 20 years.

Series and Parallel combination of cells

Cells in Series: When
two identical cells are
connected in series,
the
short
circuit
current of the system
would remain same
but the open circuit
voltage would be
twice.

Cells in parallel: When two cells are connected in parallel as shown in the following figure, the
open circuit voltage of the system would remain same as an open circuit voltage of a single cell,
but the short circuit current of the system would be twice as much as of a single cell.

Applications: The major uses of photovoltaic cell have been in space satellites, remote radiocommunication booster stations and marine warning lights. These are also used for lighting,
water pumping and medical refrigeration in remote areas. Solar powered vehicles and battery
charging are some of the recent applications of solar PV power.
Disadvantages:
1. Cost of solar cell is very high.
2. Efficiency of solar cell is low. As solar radiation density is also low, a large area of solar
cell modules is required to generate sufficient useful power.
3. Not a fully dependent system.

WIND ENERGY
Wind is a form of solar energy. Winds are caused by the uneven heating of the atmosphere by
the sun, the irregularities of the earth's surface, and rotation of the earth. Wind flow patterns are
modified by the earth's terrain, bodies of water, and vegetative cover. This wind flow, or motion
energy, when "harvested" by modern wind turbines, can be used to generate electricity.

Mathematical Expression of Available Power

The wind power is generated due to the movement of wind. The energy associated with such
movement is the kinetic energy and is given by the following expression:
Energy = KE =
v2, where,
m = Air mass in kg = Volume (m3) Density (kg/m3) = Q ,
Q = Discharge
v = Velocity of air mass in m/s
Hence, the expression for power can be derived as follows:

Power =

Here,

= Rate of discharge (m3/s) = A (m2) v (m/s), where

A = Area of cross section of blade movement

Use: -Wind power is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form of energy, such as using
wind turbines to produce electrical power, windmills for mechanical power, wind pumps for
water pumping or drainage, or sails to propel ships.
Advantage: -Wind is a clean source of renewable energy that produces no air or water pollution
and since the wind is free, operational costs are nearly zero once a turbine is erected.

Classification of Wind-mills
Wind turbines are classified into two general types: Horizontal axis and Vertical axis. A
horizontal axis machine has its blades rotating on an axis parallel to the ground. A vertical axis
machine has its blades rotating on an axis perpendicular to the ground. There are a number of
available designs for both and each type has certain advantages and disadvantages. However,
compared with the horizontal axis type, very few vertical axis machines are available
commercially.
Horizontal Axis: This is the most common wind turbine design. In addition to being parallel to
the ground, the axis of blade rotation is parallel to the wind flow. A tail vane is usually used to
keep the blades facing into the wind. Some very large wind turbines use a motor-driven
mechanism that turns the machine in response to a wind direction sensor mounted on the tower.
Commonly found horizontal axis wind mills are aero-turbine mill with 35% efficiency and farm
mills with 15% efficiency.
Vertical Axis: Although vertical axis
wind turbines have existed for centuries,
they are not as common as their
horizontal counterparts. The main reason
for this is that they do not take
advantage of the higher wind speeds at
higher elevations above the ground as
well as horizontal axis turbines. The
basic vertical axis designs are the
Darrieus, which has curved blades and
efficiency of 35%, the Giromill, which
has straight blades, and efficiency of
35%, and the Savonius, which uses
scoops to catch the wind and the
efficiency of 30%. A vertical axis
machine need not be oriented with

respect to wind direction. Because the

shaft is vertical, the transmission and
generator can be mounted at ground
level allowing easier servicing and a
lighter weight, lower cost tower.

Main Components of a wind-mill

Rotor and Blades: The portion of the wind turbine that collects energy from the wind is called
the rotor. The rotor usually consists of two or more wooden, fiberglass or metal blades which
rotate about an axis (horizontal or vertical) at a rate determined by the wind speed.
Hub: The central solid portion of the rotor wheel is known as hub. All blades are attached to the
hub. The mechanism of pitch angle control is also provided inside the hub.
Nacelle: The term nacelle is derived from the name for housing containing the engines of an
aircraft. The rotor is attached to the nacelle, and mounted at the top of a tower. It contains rotor
brake, high speed shaft, gear box, controller and generator.
Brakes are used to stop the rotor when power generation is not desired. It can also be
used for maintenance purpose.
Gear box is used to step up the shaft speed (RPM) to desired speed.
Controller is used to provide necessary control action.
Generator is used to generate electrical energy.
Yaw Control Mechanism: The mechanism to adjust the nacelle around the vertical axis to keep
it facing the wind is provided at the base of the nacelle. Yaw motor and Yaw drive are used for
this purpose.

Tower: The tower on which a wind turbine is mounted is not just a support structure. It also
raises the wind turbine so that its blades safely clear the ground and so it can reach the stronger
winds at higher elevations. Maximum tower height is optional in most cases, except where
zoning restrictions apply. The decision of what height tower to use will be based on the cost of
taller towers versus the value of the increase in energy production resulting from their use.
Studies have shown that the added cost of increasing tower height is often justified by the added
power generated from the stronger winds.

Operating Characteristics of wind mills

All wind machines share certain operating characteristics, such as cut-in, rated and cut-out wind
speeds.
Cut-in Speed: Cut-in speed is the minimum wind speed at which the blades will turn and
generate usable power. This wind speed is typically between 10 and 16 km/h.
Rated Speed: The rated speed is the minimum wind speed at which the wind turbine will
generate its designated rated power. Rated speed for most machines is in the range of 40 to 55
km/h. At wind speeds between cut- in and rated, the power output from a wind turbine increases
as the wind increases.

Cut-out Speed: At very high wind speeds, typically between 72 and 128 km/h, most wind
turbines cease power generation and shut down. The wind speed at which shut down occurs is
called the cut-out speed. Having a cut-out speed is a safety feature which protects the wind
turbine from damage. Shut down may occur in one of several ways.
Betz Limit: It is the flow of air over the blades and through the rotor area that makes a wind
turbine function. The wind turbine extracts energy by slowing the wind down. The theoretical
maximum amount of energy in the wind that can be collected by a rotor is approximately 59%.
This value is known as the Betz limit. If the blades were 100% efficient, a wind turbine would
not work because the air, having given up all its energy, would entirely stop. In practice, the
collection efficiency of a rotor is not as high as 59%.

TIDAL ENERGY
Introduction: The rise and fall of tides nearly twice a day which is associated with the rotation
of earth every 24 hours in relation to both Sun and Moon forms the basis of power generation
from tides. In large portion of world tidal ranges are very low (say 1m or so) and, therefore, not
suitable for electric power generation. The tide amplitude may be considerable 18m to 21m have
been noted near Magellan Strait and the shores of USA respectively are very useful for the
purpose.
Site selection: The use of tides for electric power generation
is practical favourable situated in sites where the geography
of an inlet or bay favours the construction of a large scale
hydro electric power plant. For this a dam would have to be
built across the mouth of the bay. It will have large gates in
it and also low water head turbines installed in it.

Working with non reversible turbine: For storing water in

the storage basin, the gates are opened at the time of high
tide and after storing water the gates are closed. After the
tide has receded, there is a working water head between the
basin water and open sea and the water is allowed to flow
back to the ocean through water turbines installed in the
dam. Thus the tidal energy stored at height can be utilized to
drive a turbine coupled to an electric generator and thus
generate electricity. It uses low head bulb type units. This
arrangement is simple and economical but it is not useful
due to variations in the output (the electric power generation
is not continuous).

Working with reversible

turbine: By using reversible
water turbine, the turbine
can run continuously both
during high tide and low
tide. This system is costlier
but
provides
greater
flexibility and continuous
power output. This system is
very popular in France,
Germany, UK, Canada and
USA.
Advantages of tidal power:
1. It is free from the problems of uprooting the people and disturbing the ecology balance.
2. It is everlasting and not influenced by the changing mood of the nature such as failure of
the monsoon.
3. No extra submerging of the land is involved.
Disadvantages of tidal power:
1.
2.
3.
4.

It is free from the pollution problem.

Tidal power have uneven and discontinuous operation.
High initial capital required.
Long construction period.

The drawback of uneven operation of tidal power plants however, can be overcome by operating
the tidal power plant in conjunction with pumped storage plant or run of river power plant having
a storage reservoir. This system is however costly.
Potential in India: In India the potential for tidal energy exists mainly in Gulf of Kutch
(Gujarat), Bhavnagar and Sunderban area of West Bengal. Total tidal power potential in India is
estimated to be around 9000 MW. 900 MW Kutch tidal power project is being set up by the CEA
(Central Electricity Authority) in Gujarat.