ЛЕКЦИИ ПО ФОНЕТИКЕ

Нурмиевой Лейсан

Consonants
Consonants are the sounds in the productions of which there is and obstruction of the air
passage. We classify the various consonants on the basis of the difference in the way
they are produced. The sounds that are produced by means of a complete obstruction of
the air passage which is after wards released are called plosives. Plosive consonants are
[p], [b], [d], [t], [k] and [g].

Plosive consonants [p], [b]

[p], [b] are labial consonants because they are formed by closing the lower lip against
the upper lip. They are formed by a complete obstruction of the air passage so that no
air escapes while the plosive is maintained. This type of closure is called oral. [p] is
voiceless consonant, [b] is voiced, If the consonant is voiced it means that vocal cords
vibrate during its pronunciation, if we pronounce a voiceless sound. Consonant [p] in a
stressed syllable before a vowel is immediately followed by a puff of air which has a
quality of the following vowel this puff of called aspiration.
In pronouncing the English plosive consonants [p], [b] Russian speaking students usually
make the following mistakes:
1. They pronounce [p] without aspiration before a stressed vowel.
2. They pronounce [p], [b] with plosion before another consonant of an affricate [ ],
[ ] not knowing that is this position they lose their plosion.
3. The students have a tendency to palatalize [p], [b] before [ ], [ ], [ ], [e], [æ].
Palatalization is caused by raising the middle part of the tongue towards the hard
palate.
During the first stage of the articulation of the consonant in preparation for the following
sound. In order to prevent palatalization in middle part of the tongue. Must be raised
towards the hard palate after the release of the preceding consonant. The students must
articulate the following vowel only after that.

Plosive consonants [t], [d]

According to the place of articulation [t], [d] are considered to be dental or alveolar. [t],
[d] are produced with the tongue tip making a closure against the dental ridge or
alveolar ridge the area immediately behind the upper teeth. The area of contact
between the tongue tip and the alveolar ridge is very narrow. [t], [d] are formed by a
complete obstruction of the air passage so that no air escapes while the closure is
maintained. It is an oral closure because the alveolar right and the tongue tip are inside
the oral cavity. From the point of view of the vocal cords. [t] is voiceless, and during it’s
articulation there is no vocal cords vibration. [d] is voiced, it means that the vocal cords
vibrate during its articulation in a stressed position before a vowel.
Mistakes in pronunciation:
1. The students articulate the consonants [t], [d] especially in a word final position as
slightly affricative instead of [t] - [ ], instead of [d] - [ ].
2. They pronounce the voiceless [t] without aspiration before a stressed vowel.
3. They pronounce [t], [d] which plosion before another plosive consonant or an
affricate [ ], [ ]. Don’t forget in this position they lose their plosion.
4. They are apt to pronounced [t], [d] before the lateral sound [ ] which a weak [ ].

5. They are apt to palatalize [t], [d] before [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ].

Plosive consonants [k], [g]

This consonants are formed with the back of the tongue making a closure against the
middle part of the soft palate. They are formed by a complete obstruction of the air
passage. [k] is voiceless, [g] is voiced. Russian speaking students normally don’t have
any difficulties with the pronunciation of that consonants.
Possible mistakes:
1. Students pronounce [k] without aspiration before a stressed vowel.
2. They pronounce [k], [g] which plosion before another plosive or an affricate.
3. They are apt to palatalize [k], [g] before [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ].

Fricative consonants [f], [v]

During the articulation of [f], [v]. the upper teeth bite into the soft part of the lower lip.
The lower edges of the upper teeth are covered by the lower lip. During their
pronunciation of fricative consonants there is no completer obstruction of the air
passage. But one articulator is placed so close to another that there is a spare place of
the air passage.
These sounds could be called “buzzing” because they have a characteristic buzzing
during its pronunciation. Russian speaking students normally don’t have difficulties with
[f] and [v], but they have to bear in mind not to a voiced [v] in a word final position by a
voiceless [f] because the mining of the word could change.

Fricative consonants [s], [z]

These consonants involve complex articulation with the tip of the tongue opposed to
some part of the alveolar ridge. The blade of the tongue is pulled down to form a cupper
area. With the sides and tip of the tongue forming the rim of the cup. We shall call this
consonant post-dental during pronunciation of [s], [z]. there is no complete obstruction
of the air passage but one articulator is placed so close to another that there is a spare
place for the air passage.
[s] is voiceless, [z] is voiced. They are characterized by a specific buzzing. . Russian
speaking students normally don’t have difficulties with the pronunciation of [s], [z], they
should bear in mind not to replace a voiced [z] by a voiceless [s] in a word final position.

Fricative consonants [ ], [ ]
[ ], [ ] are articulated by the further back part of the tongue which is raised towards the
hard palate. We shall identify them as palatal. Many speakers have strong pouting out of
the lips during the articulation. The corners of the mouth are pushed forward and the
lower lip may be so pouted that the soft inner surface of the lip is visible. The tip of the
tongue is behind the upper teeth. They are fricative because there is no complete
obstruction of the air passage, but one articulator is placed so close to another that
there is the spare place for the air passage. Russian speaking students are apt to
replace [ ] by the Russian none palatalized [ ]. To prevent or correct this mistake it is
recommended to palatalize the Russian [ ]. We can say the same about [ ]. [ ] is
voiceless. [ ] is voiced.

Fricative consonants [ ], [ ]
[ ], [ ] are pronounced with the tongue tip forming a stricture just behind the upper
teeth. These consonants are frequently taught to foreign students as interdentally
consonants with the tip of the tongue showing between the teeth during the articulation.
There are obvious pedagogical advantages in it. The teacher can see that the student is
making a gesture between the teeth. There are however disadvantages. The big forward
movement of the tongue slows up the articulation of words. During its pronunciation one
articulator is placed so close to another so that there is a spare place for the air passage.
[ ] is voiceless. [ ] is voiced.
Russian speaking students have some difficulties with the pronunciation of those
consonants. In order to prevent or correct it is necessary to know the way of articulation.
Fricative consonant [h]
[h] is a fricative consonant with a complicated articulation.
Place of articulation: vocal cards became closer and there is no complete obstruction of
the air passage. It goes through the hole between the vocal cards. [h] is hearable only
before a vowel and is pronounced with strong aspiration.
Russian speaking students must not replace English [h] by the Russian [x]. Don’t forget
about aspiration. [h] is called a pure sound of breathing.

Fricative consonant [r]

Place of articulation: [r] involves complex articulation with the tip or blade of the tongue
opposed to some part of the dental ridge. The lips are pouted and the corners of the
mouth are pushed forward during the articulation. The air passage goes along the sides
of the tongue and goes through the corners of the mouth. It is fricative because there is
no complete obstruction of the air passage, so that there is a spare place for it. [r] is
voiced, because vocal cords vibrate during the articulation.
Russian speaking students are apt to replace the fricative post alveolar [r] be the
Russian rolled [p] sound. A rolled [p] is formed be a series of repeated tapes of the tip of
the tongue against the dental ridge. In order not to make the mistake it is necessary to
know the way of articulation and to practice.

The semivowel [w]

Place of articulation: [w] is formed by pushing forward the corners of the mouth and
wrinkling the lips so that a small round hole is formed. The back of tongue is raised
towards the hard palate. This sound is called a semivowel because it has some
characteristics of the vowel [u], but be careful don’t replace [w] by [u]. Russian speaking
students have some difficulties with [w] as there is no equivalent in Russian language.
They are apt to replace it by [v], [u], [ ]. Be careful the mining of the word is changed.
[w] is voiced.

The semivowel [j]

This sound is called the semivowel because it shares some characteristic features with
the vowel [i] and [e]. It involves complex articulation with the tip of the tongue, which is
opposed to some parts of the dental ridge, and the middle part of the tongue is raised
towards the hard palate. Russian speaking students normally don’t have difficulties with
[j]. Don’t replace it by Russian [ ] or [e]. It is voiced.

The lateral sound [ ]

[ ] is articulated be the tip of the tongue which is opposed to some part of the alveolar
ridge. It is called lateral because the air passage goes along the sides of the tongue.
Russian speaking students normally don’t have any difficulties with [ ], but they are apt
to palatalize [ ] before [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ]. Try to avoid palatalization on as it goes
strong accent. [ ] is voiced.

The nasal consonants [m], [n], [ŋ]

Place of articulation: [m] is a labial consonant. It is formed by closing the lower lip
against the upper lip.
[n] is pronounced with the tongue tip making a closure against the alveolar ridge. The
area immediately behind the upper teeth.
[ŋ] is formed with the back of the tongue making a closure against the soft palate.
Manner of articulation:
[m] , [ŋ], [n] are nasal consonants because during their articulation the passage of air
passed into the nasal cavities goes through it and gets up as pacific resonance there.
Russian speaking students don’t have any difficulties with [m], [n], because there are
equivalents in Russian but they have a tendency to replace [ŋ] by two consonants [ng].
Be careful and use the rules of articulation, students also should be careful and don’t
insert a natural sound [ ] in a word final position when we pronounced [m] and [n].
We should pronounce: [ ] not [ ], [ ] not [ ], [
] not [ ].

Assimilation
Speech sounds seldom exist in isolation. They are nearly always used together to form
words and sequence of words. Now in any combination of sounds there is a tendency for
each sound to be influenced by neighboring once. Sometimes this influence is slight and
sometimes it is strongly marked. Among the different influences the most important one
is assimilation. It is a tendency for a sound to be pronounced more like the surrounding
sounds.
Assimilation is common to all languages. In modern English mostly consonants are
affected by assimilation.
Three types of assimilation:
1. Progressive assimilation
When it happens the assimilated phoneme is influenced by the preceding one.
F.E. what is this?
[ ]
[z] is replaced by the voiceless consonant [s] under the influence of [t].
2. Regressive assimilation
The preceding phoneme is influenced by the following one.
F.E. the word newspaper consists of two parts [ ] and [ ].
When we combine them together the voiced [z] becomes voiceless under the influence
of voiceless [p] and we pronounce the word as [ ].
The word gooseberry consist of [ ] and [ ] and it is pronounced [ ].
Where [s] has became voiced under the influence of [b].
3. Reciprocal assimilation
The phonemes influence each other more or less equally.
F.E. twenty, quick
[w] is assimilated by the voiceless plosive phonemes [t] and [k] and becomes devoiced
to some extent. In its turn consonants [t] and [k] are assimilated by [w] and becomes
more labial under its influence. We should bear in mind that not all the types of
assimilation are equally frequent in pronunciation. We should speak of established
assimilation when it has become so usually in the native speech that its omission is
wrong.
F.E. newspaper, gooseberry
We speak of accidental assimilation when it is the result of careless speech and cannot
be conceded a literary norm.
F.E. bless you was to be pronounced [ ] not [ ], give me was to be
pronounced [ ] not [ ].