Welcome to

GEO 101
Introduction to
Geology

 so what is
Geology?

 not just
rocks!

Geology is ...
study of Earth and planetary
bodies
processes responsible for
formation
processes that modify

all areas of geology have either economic

or environmental importance:
earth resources
topography (study of landforms and
processes responsible for their
formation)
natural hazards (floods, volcanism,
earthquakes)
waste disposal and pollution cleanup
climate change

Geology is a physical science with many

sub-areas of study or sub-disciplines:
mineralogy - petrology - geochemistry volcanology
stratigraphy - sedimentology paleontology
geomorphology - surficial geology hydrogeology
structural geology - tectonics geochronology
solid-earth geophysics - rock mechanics

Geology is also an applied science that

interfaces with engineering and deals
with:
environmental and groundwater use
(environmental geology)
oil and gas exploration and exploitation
(petroleum geology)
metal and non-metal mineral exploration
and exploitation (economic geology)

... so what is the

modern context
in which we will
be examining
Earth?

The Dynamic Earth

a system of various
subsystems or
related parts
(atmosphere,
hydrosphere,
biosphere, and
solid earth)
interacting in
organized fashion

initially homogeneous, but with cooling

separated into distinct concentric layers:

Layers
brittle

Crust
lithosphere
Mantle
upper
lower

ductile

asthenosphere
Outer core
Inner core

Layer

Thickness

Inner core
Outer core
Mantle

1216 km
2270 km
~2885 km

Nature
solid iron-nickel alloy
liquid iron-nickel alloy
solid (Mg-rich silicates)
upper (shallow) - intermediate
density
lower (deep) - high density

Crust

65 km

solid (low to intermediate

density silicates)
Oceanic Crust (5-10 km) high density (Fe-Mg rich)
Continental Crust (30-65 km)
- low density (Fe-Mg poor)

solid Earth composed of rocks divided

into three groups based on mode of
formation:
igneous - formed by cooling and
solidification of molten rock (magma)
sedimentary - formed by precipitation
from solution, compaction of plant and
animal remains, or cementation of
particles from pre-existing rocks
metamorphic - formed below surface
under high temperatures and pressures
from pre-existing rocks

different rock types related to

each other by: rock cycle

Geologists interrelate
Earth processes, rock
types and physical
features through global
pattern of change
described by what has
become known as

Plate Tectonic Theory

Earth's brittle outer shell or lithosphere (crust

and uppermost mantle) broken into
coherent pieces or plates that move slowly
over the ductile asthenosphere

three major plate boundary types

marked by earthquakes, volcanism, or both

divergent plate boundary

plates
move
apart from
each
other with
gap filled
by molten
rock
creating
new crust

Rio Grande
Rift

East Africa
Rift
Mid-Atlantic
Ridge
Indian
Ridge

East Pacific
Rise

Indian
Ridge

separation marked by long mountain

ranges on ocean floors and deep linear
valleys (rift zones) on continents

convergent plate boundary

plates move toward
one another and
where crusts of
adjacent plates
have different
densities, denser
plate is forced
down or subducted
beneath other

 plate convergence
with oceanic crust
subducted beneath
lower density
continental crust
plate convergence
with oceanic crust
subducted beneath
oceanic crust
plate convergence
of continental crust
against continental
crust

marked by mountain belt or subduction

zone with deep oceanic trench, volcanism
and inclined earthquake (Benioff) zone

transform plate boundary

plates slide past one another

crust neither created nor destroyed

(earthquakes but no or extremely limited
volcanism)

Plate boundary Characteristics

Boundary

Topography

Igneous

Metamorphic Sedimentary

Earthquakes

MOR
cont. rift

basalt
basalt &
rhyolite

hydrothermal
low-T/low P

deep ocean
coarse
clastics

shallow
shallow

divergent-types
ocean
continent

convergent-types
continentcontinent

mountains

granites

high-T/low P
regional

clastics

shallow
intermediate
deep

continentocean

volcanic arc
& trench

andesite

high-P/low T
regional

clastics

shallow
intermediate
deep

oceanocean

volcanic arc
& trench

andesite

high-P/low T
regional

clastics

shallow
intermediate
deep

none/limited
basalt
none/limited
basalt

none

none

shallow

none

none

shallow
intermediate

transform-types
ocean

very little

continent

very little