ELECTROMAGNETIC ENGINEERING EE325

INDEX
Ampere's circuital law.....11
Ampere's law ................... 6
angstrom .......................... 2
Avogadro's number........... 2
B Ampere's circuital law 11
Biot-Savart law ...............11
Boltzmann's constant........ 2
capacitance ...................7, 8
between coaxial cylinders
................................ 7
between concentric
spheres .................... 7
between parallel plates. 7
between two conductors 7
characteristic impedance .. 2
complex conjugate............ 1
complex notation.............. 1
conductance ..................... 8
conductivity ..................... 8
semiconductor.............. 8
conservative field law....... 6
constants .......................... 2
continuity equation........... 8
coordinate systems ..........10
coordinate transformations10
coulomb ........................... 1
Coulomb's law.................. 7
cross product...................10
curl .................................. 9
current ............................. 8
current density ................. 7
D flux density ................. 6
del ................................... 8
divergence........................ 9
dot product....................... 9
duality of J and D............. 8
E electric field................. 5
electric field..................... 5
electron mass ................... 2
electron volt ..................... 2
electrostatic
force ............................ 5
potential ...................... 5
electrostatics .................... 5
elipse ............................... 8
Faraday's law ..............6, 12
flux density...................... 6
force
electrostatic ................. 5
magnetic .....................11
Gauss' law........................ 6
geometry.......................... 8
grad operator.................... 8
H magnetic field intensity12
impedance
short-circuit ................. 2
induced voltage
due to changing magnetic
field........................13
due to conductor motion13
Faraday's law ..............12
slider problem.............13
inductance.......................12
J current density.............. 7
joule ................................ 2
Laplacian ......................... 9
Lenz's law .......................12
light, speed of .................. 2
line impedance ................. 3
linkage ............................12
magnetic energy ..............12
magnetic field .................11
at the center of a circular
wire ........................11
central axis of a solenoid
...............................11
due to a finite straight
conductor................11
due to an infinite straight
conductor................11
magnetic field intensity ...12
magnetic flux ..................12
magnetic force.................11
magnetization..................13
matching transformer
inline – reactive load.... 3
inline – resistive load... 3
mathematics ..................... 8
Maxwell's equations......... 6
mutual inductance ...........12
nabla operator .................. 8
permeability..................... 2
permittivity ...................... 2
phase constant.................. 2
Planck's constant .............. 2
Poisson's equation ............ 6
potential energy................ 7
power
with phasor notation..... 5
reactance.......................... 3
reflection coefficient......... 2
resistance ......................... 8
Rydberg constant.............. 2
self-inductance ................12
series stub........................ 4
shunt stub ........................ 4
single-stub tuning............. 4
Smith chart ...................... 4
Smith charts..................... 4
space derivative ............... 8
sphere .............................. 8
standing wave ratio .......... 4
static magnetic field ........11
stub length ....................... 4
surface charge density ...... 6
time average power .......... 5
vector differential equation8
volume energy density...... 7
wave
forward-traveling ......... 5
wave equation .................. 2
wavelength....................... 2
We potential energy......... 7
we volume energy density 7
X reactance ..................... 3
Zin line impedance ........... 3
Φ electrostatic
potential ...................... 5
Γ reflection coefficient .... 2
Ψ magnetic flux .............12
λ wavelength................... 2
ρs surface charge density . 6
σ conductivity ................. 8
∇ del............................... 8
∇× curl ........................... 9
∇· divergence................ 9
∇2 Laplacian ................... 9

COULOMB [C] COMPLEX CONJUGATES

A unit of electrical charge equal to one amp second, The complex conjugate of a number is simply that
18
the charge on 6.21×10 electrons, or one joule per number with the sign changed on the imaginary part.
volt. This applies to both rectangular and polar notation.
When conjugates are multiplied, the result is a scalar.
(a + jb)(a − jb) = a 2 + b 2
COMPLEX NOTATION
( A∠B°)( A∠ − B°) = A 2
ae jb = (a∠b)
Other properties of conjugates:
where b may be in radians or degrees (if noted).
( ABC + DE + F )* = ( A * B * C * + D * E * + F *)
(e − jB )* = e + jB

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 TRANSMISSION LINES SHORT-CIRCUIT IMPEDANCE [Ω]
Γ L REFLECTION COEFFICIENT [V/V] Z sc = jZ 0 tan(β l )
The reflection coefficient is a value from –1 to +1 where: Z 0 is the characteristic impedance
which, when multiplied by the wave voltage,
determines the amount of voltage reflected at one 2π
β = ω LC = is the phase constant
end of the transmission line. λ
ZL − Z0 1 + ΓL l is the length of the line [m]
ΓL = ρe jψ = and Z L = Z 0
Z L + Z0 1 − ΓL
where: Z L is the load impedance CONSTANTS
ΓL is the load reflection coefficient Avogadro’s number
ρ is the reflection coefficient magnitude [molecules/mole] N A = 6.02 × 10 23
ψ is the reflection coefficient phase
Boltzmann’s constant k = 1.38 × 10 −23 J/K
L
Z0 = is the characteristic impedance = 8.62 × 10 −5 eV/K
C
Elementary charge q = 1.60 × 10 −19 C
THE COMPLEX WAVE EQUATION Electron mass m0 = 9.11 × 10 −31 kg
The complex wave equation is applicable when the Permittivity of free space ε 0 = 8.85 × 10 −12 F/m
excitation is sinusoidal and the circuit is under steady
state conditions. Permeability constant µ 0 = 4π × 10 −7 H/m
d 2V ( z ) h = 6.63 × 10 −34 J-s
= −β 2V ( z ) Planck’s constant
dz2
= 4.14 × 10 −15 cV-s
2π R = 109,678 cm-1
where β = ω LC = is the phase constant Rydberg constant
λ
The complex wave equation above is a second-order
kT @ room temperature kT = 0.0259 eV
ordinary differential equation commonly found in the Speed of light c = 2.998 × 10 8 m/s
analysis of physical systems. The general solution is:
1 Å (angstrom) 10-8 cm = 10-10 m
+ − jβ z − + jβz
V ( z) = V e +V e 1 µm (micron) 10-4 cm
where e
− jβ z
and e
+ jβ z
represent wave propagation 1 nm = 10Å = 10-7 cm
in the +z and –z directions respectively. 1 eV = 1.6 × 10-19 J
The same equation applies to current: 1 V = 1 J/C 1 N/C = 1 V/m 1 J = 1 N· m = 1
C· V
I ( z ) = I + e − jβz + I − e + jβz
and
V e − jβz + V − e + jβz
+
λ WAVELENGTH [m]
I ( z) =
Z0 vp = velocity of propagation (2.998×108 m/s
vp
λ= for a line in air)
where Z 0 = L / C is the characteristic impedance f f = frequency [Hz]
of the line. These equations represent the voltage
and current phasors.

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 ¼ -WAVELENGTH INLINE MATCHING X REACTANCE [Ω]
TRANSFORMER – resistive load XC = reactance [Ω]
For use with a purely resistive load that does not match the
−j XL = reactance [Ω]
line impedance. The load is matched to the line by XC = j = −1
inserting a ¼-wavelength segment having a characteristic ωC
impedance ZQ. ω = frequency [radians]
λ /4 X L = jω L C = capacitance [F]
L = inductance [H]
Z0 ZQ RL

Z0 = characteristic impedance of the Zin LINE IMPEDANCE [Ω]

transmission line [Ω]
l = distance from load [m]
λ = wavelength [meters]
Z Q = Z 0 RL RL = resistance of the load [Ω] Z L + jZ 0 tan β l j = −1
Z in = Z 0 β = phase constant
ZQ = characteristic impedance of the Z 0 + jZ L tan β l Z0 = characteristic
¼-wave matching segment [Ω]
impedance [Ω]
ZL = load impedance [Ω]
¼ -WAVELENGTH INLINE MATCHING The line impedance of a ¼-wavelength line is the inverse
TRANSFORMER – reactive load of the load impedance.
For use with a reactive load. The load is matched to the Impedance is a real value when its magnitude is
line by inserting a ¼-wavelength segment having a maximum or minimum.
characteristic impedance ZQ at a distance l from the load. l
is the length of transmission line required to produce the
1+ ρ Z0 = characteristic
first voltage maximum—closest to the load. If the load is Z max = Z 0 S = Z 0 impedance [Ω]
inductive, the first voltage maximum will be closer than the 1− ρ S = standing wave ratio
first voltage minimum, i.e. within ½ wavelength.
Z0 1− ρ ρ = magnitude of the
λ /4 l Z min = = Z0 reflection coefficient
S 1+ ρ
Z0 ZQ Zin Z0 ZL

First find the reflection coefficient in order to determine the

value of ψ. Then find the length l of the line that will
convert the load to a pure resistance, i.e. produces the first
voltage maximum. Find this resistance (Zin) using the line
impedance formula. Then determine the impedance ZQ of
the ¼-wavelength segment that will match the load to the
line.
ΓL is the load reflection
coefficient
jψ ZL − Z0 ψ = phase of the reflection
ΓL = ρe =
ZL + Z0 coefficient [radians]
ρ = magnitude of the
i.e. ΓL = ρ∠ψ (radians) reflection coefficient [Ω]
Z0 = characteristic
ψ ψλ
l= = impedance [Ω]
2β 4π β = 2π / λ
λ = vp/f wavelength [m]
Z + jZ 0 tan βl Zin = impedance (resistive)
Z in = Z 0 L
Z 0 + jZ L tan βl of the load combined
with the l segment [Ω]
Z Q = Z 0 Z in ZQ = line impedance of the
¼-wave matching
segment [Ω]

Tom Penick tom@tomzap.com www.teicontrols.com/notes 10/22/2000 Page 3 of 13

 SMITH CHARTS FINDING A STUB LENGTH
First normalize the load impedance by dividing by the Example: Find the lengths of open and shorted shunt
characteristic impedance, and find this point on the chart. stubs to match an admittance of 1-j0.5. The admittance
An inductive load will be located on the top half of the of an open shunt (zero length) is Y=0; this point is
chart, a capacitive load on the bottom half. located at the left end of the Smith Chart x-axis. We
proceed clockwise around the Smith chart, i.e. away
Draw a straight line from the center of the chart through
from the end of the stub, to the +j0.5 arc (the value
the normalized load impedance point to the edge of the
chart. needed to match –j0.5). The difference in the starting
point and the end point on the wavelength scale is the
Anchor a compass at the center of the chart and draw an length of the stub in wavelengths. The length of a
arc through the normalized load impedance point. Points shorted-type stub is found in the same manner but
along this arc represent the normalized impedance at with the starting point at Y=∞∞.
various points along the transmission line. Clockwise Open stub of j .5
length .074 λ
movement along the arc represents movement from the matches an Towar d g ener ato r
.13 .14
admittance .11 .12 .15
load toward the source with one full revolution representing of 1-j.5 .09
.1 .16
.17
1/2 wavelength as marked on the outer circle. The two .08

0 . 1
.18
.07 Admittance
points where the arc intersects the horizontal axis are the (short)

0.

.1
6

2.
Y= ∞

5
.0

9
voltage maxima (right) and the voltage minima (left).

.05

.2
.074 λ
Points opposite the impedance (180° around the arc) are

.21
.04
admittance. The reason admittance is useful is because

.22
.03
5.0
admittances in parallel are simply added.

.23
.02

.24
Γ( z ) = ΓL e j 2 βz z = distance from load

.01

5 . 0

0 . 1

2
1 . 0

.
[m]

.49 0
e j 2βz = 1∠2β z j = −1
Admittance

. 2 6 .2
(open)

.48
Y =0
Z( z ) − 1 ρ = magnitude of the 5.

7
0
Γ( z ) =
.47

.28
reflection coefficient
Z( z ) + 1 β = phase constant .324 λ

.46

.29
45
Γ −1 Γ = reflection coefficient

.3
Z .
Z= L

2.0
ZL = L
5
4

.3
0.
.4

1
Z = normalized .3

ΓL + 1
3 2
Z0 impedance [Ω]
.4
.42
.33

2
0 . 1
.34
Shorted stub of .41 .35
length .324 λ
.4 .36 .37 .38 .39
matches an
admittance
of 1-j.5
SINGLE-STUB TUNING In this example, all values were in units of admittance.
The basic idea is to connect a line stub in parallel If we were interested in finding a stub length for a
(shunt) or series a distance d from the load so series stub problem, the units would be in impedance.
that the imaginary part of the load impedance will The problem would be worked in exactly the same way.
be canceled. Of course in impedance, an open shunt (zero length)
would have the value Z=∞ ∞ , representing a point at the

5
Shunt-stub: Select d d
right end of the x-axis.
so that the
Y0 Y0 YL
admittance Y looking
toward the load from
a distance d is of the
Open
or
SWR STANDING WAVE RATIO [V/V]
short Y0
form Y0 + jB. Then V I 1+ ρ
the stub l SWR = max
= max
=
susceptance is V min
I min
1− ρ
chosen as –jB,
resulting in a
matched condition.
d
Series-stub: Select d
so that the admittance Z0 Z0 ZL
Z looking toward the
load from a distance d
is of the form Z0 + jX.
Z0
Then the stub
l
susceptance is chosen
as -jX, resulting in a Open
or
matched condition. short

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 P(z) TIME-AVERAGE POWER ON A E ELECTRIC FIELD
LOSSLESS TRANSMISSION LINE [W] Ep = electric field at point
Equal to the power delivered to the load. The power p due to a charge Q
delivered to the load is maximized under matched or charge density ρ
conditions, i.e. ρ = 0, otherwise part of the power is 1 n r − rk′ [V/m]
reflected back to the source. To calculate power, it Ep = ∑ Qk
4πε0 k =1 r − rk′ 3
dE = an increment of
may be simpler to find the input impedance and use electric field [V/m]
P = I2R or P = IV. Q = electric charge [C]
V+ = the voltage of the 1 ˆ ρl (r ′) ε0 = permittivity of free
2+ dE = R dl ′ space 8.85 × 10-12
(1 − ρ ) 4πε0 r − r′ 2
V forward-traveling
P( z ) = 2
wave [V] F/m
2Z 0 ρl = charge density;
ˆ ρl (r ′) dl ′
Z0 = characteristic
1
P( z ) = Re{V ( z )
1
[ I ( z) ]*}
impedance [Ω]
ρ = magnitude of the
E=
4πε0 ∫ R
r − r′
2
charge per unit
length* [C/m]
2 reflection coefficient dl' = a small segment of
Re = "the real part" line l*
Electric field from a potential: R̂ = unit vector pointing
E = −∇Φ from r' to r , i.e. in
POWER USING PHASOR NOTATION [W] the direction of r - r'.
refer to the NABLA notes on
S = power [W] r' = vector location of the
1 page 8.
S = VI * V = volts [V] source charge in
2 I* = complex conjugate of current [A] *NOTE: The l symbols could
relation to the origin
be replaced by a symbol for
r = vector location of
area or volume. See Working the point at which
V+ FORWARD-TRAVELING WAVE With … on page 9. the value of Ep is
observed
Z inV0
V+ = ∇ = Del, Grad, or Nabla
(
(Z in + Z S )e jβl 1 + ΓL e − j 2βl ) operator

V+ = the voltage of the forward- β = phase constant

traveling wave [V] l = length of the line [m] Φ ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL [V]
V0 = source voltage [V] ΓL = load reflection
1 n Qk Φ = the potential [V]
∑
Zin = input impedance [Ω] coefficient
Φ= dΦ = an increment of potential
ZS = source impedance [Ω] 4πε0 k =1 r − rk′ [V]
1 ρl dl ′ Φ ab = the potential difference
ELECTROSTATICS dΦ =
4πε0 r − r′ between points a and b [V]
E = electric field
F ELECTROSTATIC FORCE 1 ρl dl' = a small segment of line l*
1 (r − r )
Φ=
4πε0 ∫ r − r′ dl ′ dl = the differential vector
1
F12 = Q1Q2 2 1 3 = 9 × 10 9 displacement along the
4πε 0 r2 − r1 4πε 0 path from a to b
Potential due to an ε0 = permittivity of free space
electric field:
F12 = the force exerted by charge Q1 on Q2. [N] 8.85 × 10-12 F/m
b
r1 = vector from the origin to Q1 Φ ab = − ∫ E·d l Q = electric charge [C]
r2 = vector from the origin to Q2. a ρl = charge density along a
When finding the force on one charge due to multiple To evaluate voltage at line* [C/m]
charges, the result can be found by summing the all points. rk' = vector location of source
effects of each charge separately or by converting the charge Qk
Φ (r ) = − ∫ E·d l
r
multiple charges to a single equivalent charge and ∞
r' = vector location of the
solving as a 2-charge problem. source charge in relation
*NOTE: The l symbols
to the origin
could be replaced by a
symbol for area or r = vector location of
volume. See Working electrostatic potential Φ
With … on page 9. in relation to the origin

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 MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS
Maxwell's equations govern the principles of guiding
and propagation of electromagnetic energy and
provide the foundations of all electromagnetic
phenomena and their applications.
GAUSS'S LAW
The net flux passing through a surface enclosing a charge
is equal to the charge. Careful, what this first integral really
means is the surface area multiplied by the perpendicular
electric field. There may not be any integration involved.

∇× E = -
∂B
∂t
Faraday's Law ∫ ε E·ds = Q
S 0 enc ∫ D·ds = ∫ ρ dv = Q
S V
enc

ε0 = permittivity of free space 8.85 × 10 F/m -12

E = electric field [V/m]

∇ ⋅D = ρ Gauss' Law D = electric flux density vector [C/m2]
ds = a small increment of surface S
∂D ρ = volume charge density [C/m3]
∇× H = J + Ampere's Law*
∂t dv = a small increment of volume V
Qenc = total electric charge enclosed by the Gaussian
∇ ⋅B = 0 no name law, where: surface [S]
E = electric field [V/m] The differential version of Gauss's law is:
B = magnetic field [T]
∇·D = ρ or div (ε 0 ·E ) = ρ
t = time [s]
D = electric flux density [C/m2]
ρ = volume charge density [C/m3]
H = magnetic field intensity [A/m] GAUSS'S LAW – an example problem
J = current density [A/m2] Find the intensity of the electric field at distance r from a
straight conductor having a voltage V.
*Maxwell added the ∂ D term to Ampere's Law.
∂t Consider a cylindrical surface of length l and radius r
enclosing a portion of the conductor. The electric field
passes through the curved surface of the cylinder but not
POISSON'S EQUATION the ends. Gauss's law says that the electric flux passing
through this curved surface is equal to the charge enclosed.
ρ
∇2Φ = − 2π
ε0 ∫ ε0E·ds = ε0 ∫ Er lr dφ = Qenc = ρl l = ClVl
S 0
2π ClV
ρ s SURFACE CHARGE DENSITY [C/m ] 2
so ε0 Er r ∫ dφ = ClV and Er =
0 2πε0 r
ε0 = permittivity of free space 8.85 × 10-
ρ s = ε 0 En 12
F/m Er = electric field at distance r from the conductor [V/m]
En = electric field normal to the l = length [m]
E n = n·
ˆE surface [V/m] φ = a small increment of the cylindrical surface S [m2]
r dφ
ρl = charge density per unit length [C/m]
Cl = capacitance per unit length [F/m]
D FLUX DENSITY [C/m2] V = voltage on the line [V]
or ELECTRIC DISPLACEMENT PER UNIT AREA
Q Q = electric charge [C] CONSERVATIVE FIELD LAW
D ≡ rˆ ε = dielectric constant ε = ε 0 ε r
4πr 2 ∇×E = 0
D = εE E = electric field [V/m] ∫ E·dl = 0
S
E = electric field [V/m]
ds = a small increment of length

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 COULOMB'S LAW C CAPACITANCE BETWEEN TWO
∇·D = ρ ∫ D·ds = ∫ ρ dv
PARALLEL SOLID CYLINDRICAL
S V CONDUCTORS
D = electric flux density vector [C/m2]
This also applies to a single conductor above ground,
ρ = volume charge density [C/m3]
where the height above ground is d/2.
ds = a small increment of surface S
C = capacitance
πε
C= [F/m]
, where d ? a ε = permittivity of
We POTENTIAL ENERGY [J] (
ln d / a ) the material
The energy required to bring charge q from infinity to d = separation
πε
a distance R from charge Q.
or C= (center-to-
Qq d center) [m]
We = qΦ = cosh −1 a = conductor
4πεR 2a radius [m]
1 1
We = ∫
2 V
ρΦ dv = ∫ D·E dv
2V C CAPACITANCE BETWEEN PARALLEL
Φ = the potential between q and Q [V] PLATES
q,Q = electric charges [C] C = capacitance [F]
ε = permittivity of the material εA ε = permittivity of the material
R = distance [m] C= d = separation of the plates [m]
ρ = volume charge density [C/m3] d
A = area of one plate [m2]
E = electric field [V/m]
D = electric flux density vector [C/m2]
C CAPACITANCE BETWEEN COAXIAL
we VOLUME ENERGY DENSITY [J/m3] CYLINDERS
C = capacitance [F/m]
for the Electrostatic Field ε = permittivity of the material
2πε
1 1 C= b = radius of the outer cylinder
we = D·E = εE 2 ln ( b / a ) [m]
2 2 a = radius of the inner cylinder
Φ = the potential between q and Q [V] [m]
ε = permittivity of the material
R = distance [m]
E = electric field [V/m] C CAPACITANCE OF CONCENTRIC
D = electric flux density vector [C/m2] SPHERES
C = capacitance [F/m]
CAPACITANCE 4πεab ε = permittivity of the material
C=
b−a b = radius of the outer sphere [m]
C CAPACITANCE [F] a = radius of the inner sphere [m]

Q Q = total electric charge [C]

C= Φ = the potential between q and Q [V]
Φ Cl = capacitance per unit length [F/m]
J CURRENT DENSITY
ρl ρl = charge density per unit length [C/m] The amount of current flowing perpendicularly
Cl = 2
V V = voltage on the line [V] through a unit area [A/m ]
J = σE σ = conductivity of the material [S/m]
E = electric field [V/m]
∫
I = J·ds
S
I = current [A]
ds = a small increment of surface S
In nc = the number of conduction band
semiconductor electrons
material: qe = electron charge -1.602×10-19 C
J = nc q e v d vd = a small increment of surface S

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 CONTINUITY EQUATION MATHEMATICS
∂ρ WORKING WITH LINES, SURFACES, AND
∇·J + =0
∂t VOLUMES
ρl(r') means "the charge density along line l as a
J = current density [A/m2] J = σE
function of r'." This might be a value in C/m or it
ρ = volume charge density [C/m3] could be a function. Similarly, ρs(r') would be the
charge density of a surface and ρv(r') is the
charge density of a volume.
DUALITY RELATIONSHIP of J and D
For example, a disk of radius a having a uniform
RESISTANCE, CAPACITANCE, CURRENT, charge density of ρ C/m2, would have a total
CONDUCTIVITY
charge of ρπa2, but to find its influence on points
Where current enters and leaves a conducting
along the central axis we might consider
medium via two perfect conductors (electrodes) we
incremental rings of the charged surface as
have:
ρs(r') dr'= ρs2πr' dr'.
σ σQ
I = ∫ J·ds = σ ∫ E·ds =∫ D·ds = If dl' refers to an incremental distance along a circular
S S ε S ε φ, where r' is the
contour C, the expression is r'dφ
J = current density [A/m2] J = σE radius and dφφ is the incremental angle.
E = electric field [V/m]
D = electric flux density vector [C/m2] D = εE
As a result of this, we have the following relation, GEOMETRY
useful in finding the resistance between two SPHERE ELLIPSE
conductors: Area A = πAB
Area A = 4πr 2
R = resistance [Ω]
ε 4 3 Circumference
RC =
C = capacitance [F] Volume V = πr
σ ε = permittivity of the material 3 a2 + b2
L ≈ 2π
σ = conductivity of the material [S/m] 2

G CONDUCTANCE [Ω−1] ∇ NABLA, DEL OR GRAD OPERATOR

1 I R = resistance [Ω] [+ m-1]
G= = I = current [A]
R ∆Φ Compare the ∇ operation to taking the time
∆Φ = voltage potential [V] derivative. Where ∂/∂t means to take the derivative
σ ∫ E·ds σ = conductivity of the material with respect to time and introduces a s-1 component to
= −
S
[S/m] the units of the result, the ∇ operation means to take
∫+
E·dl the derivative with respect to distance (in 3
dimensions) and introduces a m-1 component to the
units of the result. ∇ terms may be called space
σ SEMICONDUCTOR CONDUCTIVITY derivatives and an equation which contains the ∇
[Ω −1] operator may be called a vector differential
equation. In other words ∇A is how fast A changes
σ = conductivity of the material
as you move through space.
[S/m]G = conductance [Ω−1] ∂A ∂A ∂A
in rectangular
∇A = xˆ + yˆ + zˆ
σ ≈ q µe N d q = electron charge -1.602×10-19 C
µe = electron mobility [m2/(V-s)]
coordinates: ∂x ∂y ∂z
in cylindrical ∂A ˆ 1 ∂A ∂A
Nd = concentration of donors, and
coordinates: ∇A = rˆ +φ + zˆ
thereby the electron concentration ∂r r ∂φ ∂z
-3
in the transition region [m ] in spherical ∂A ˆ 1 ∂A ˆ 1 ∂A
coordinates: ∇A = rˆ +θ +φ
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ

Tom Penick tom@tomzap.com www.teicontrols.com/notes 10/22/2000 Page 8 of 13

 ∇ 2 THE LAPLACIAN [+ m-2] ∇ × CURL [+ m-1]
in rectangular ∇ 2 A = xˆ ∇ 2 Ax + yˆ ∇ 2 Ay + zˆ ∇ 2 Az = 0 The circulation around an enclosed area. The curl of
coordinates: vector B is
∂2 ∂2 ∂2 in rectangular coordinates:
∇2 ≡ + + =0
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 curl B = ∇ × B =
in spherical and ∇ 2 A ≡ ∇ (∇·A ) − ∇ × ∇ × A  ∂B ∂B   ∂B ∂B   ∂B ∂B 
xˆ  z − y  + yˆ  x − z  + zˆ  y − x 
= grad (div A ) − curl(curl A )
cylindrical
coordinates:  ∂y ∂z   ∂z ∂x   ∂x ∂y 
for example, the ∂ 2Φ ∂ 2Φ ∂ 2Φ in cylindrical coordinates:
Laplacian of electro- ∇ 2Φ = + + 2 =0
static potential: ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z curl B = ∇ × B =
 1 ∂Bz ∂Bφ  ˆ  ∂Br ∂Bz  1  ∂ ( rBφ ) ∂Br 
rˆ  −  +φ  − + zˆ  − 
∇· DIVERGENCE [+ m ] -1
 r ∂φ ∂z   ∂z 
∂r  r  ∂r ∂φ 
The del operator followed by the dot product operator
is read as "the divergence of" and is an operation
performed on a vector. In rectangular coordinates, ∇⋅ in spherical coordinates:
means the sum of the partial derivatives of the 1  ∂ ( Bφ sin θ ) ∂Bθ 
magnitudes in the x, y, and z directions with respect to curl B = ∇ × B = rˆ  − +
the x, y, and z variables. The result is a scalar, and a r sin θ  ∂θ ∂φ 
factor of m-1 is contributed to the units of the result.
1  1 ∂Br ∂ ( rBφ )  ˆ 1  ∂ ( rBθ ) ∂Br 
For example, in this form of Gauss' law, where D is a θˆ  − +φ  − 
density per unit area, ∇⋅D becomes a density per unit r  sin θ ∂φ ∂r  r  ∂r ∂θ 
volume.
The divergence of a curl is always zero:

∂ Dx ∂ Dy ∂ Dz ∇·(∇ × H ) = 0
div D = ∇ ⋅ D = + + =ρ
∂x ∂y ∂z
D = electric flux density vector D = εE [C/m2] DOT PRODUCT [= units2]
ρ = source charge density [C/m3] The dot product is a scalar value.
A • B = (xˆ Ax + yˆ Ay + zˆ Az ) • (xˆ B x + yˆ B y + zˆ B z ) = Ax Bx + Ay B y + Az B z
In the electrostatic context, the divergence of D is the
total outward flux per unit volume due to a source A • B = A B cos ψ AB B
charge. The divergence of vector D is:
in rectangular ∂Dx ∂Dy ∂Dz xˆ • yˆ = 0 , xˆ • xˆ = 1 ψ A
div D = + +
B • yˆ = (xˆ Bx + yˆ By + zˆ Bz ) • yˆ = By
coordinates:
∂x ∂y ∂z A•B
1 ∂ ∂D
(rDr ) + 1 φ + ∂Dz
in cylindrical Projection of B
coordinates: div D = along â: B
B
r ∂r r ∂φ ∂z
in spherical coordinates: (B • aˆ )aˆ ψ
â ψ
1 ∂ (r Dr )
2
1 ∂(sin θDθ ) 1 ∂Dφ The dot product of 90° vectors is zero. â
div D = 2 + +
r ∂r r sin θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ The dot product is commutative and distributive:
A •B = B• A A • (B + C) = A • B + A • C

Tom Penick tom@tomzap.com www.teicontrols.com/notes 10/22/2000 Page 9 of 13

 CROSS PRODUCT COORDINATE TRANSFORMATIONS
A × B = (xˆ Ax + yˆ Ay + zˆ Az ) × (xˆ B x + yˆ B y + zˆ B z ) Rectangular to Cylindrical:
= xˆ ( Ay B z − Az B y ) + yˆ ( Az B x − Ax B z ) + zˆ ( Ax B y − Ay B x ) To obtain: A ( r , φ, z) = rA
ˆ r + φˆ Aφ + zA
ˆ z
A × B = nˆ A B sin ψ AB A×B
Ar = x 2 + y 2 rˆ = xˆ cos φ + yˆ sin φ
where n̂ is the unit vector normal to n y
both A and B (thumb of right-hand rule). φ = tan −1 φˆ = − xˆ sin φ + yˆ cos φ
A x
B × A = −A × B ψ z=z zˆ = zˆ
x×y = z y × x = −z x× x = 0 Cylindrical to Rectangular:
B
φ× z = r φ× r = − z To obtain: r ( x, y, z) = xxˆ + yyˆ + zzˆ
The cross product is distributive:
A × (B + C ) = A × B + A × C x = r cos φ xˆ = rˆ cos φ − φˆ cos φ
Also, we have: y = r sin φ φˆ = rˆ sin φ + yˆ cos φ
A × (B × C) = ( A ⋅ C) B − ( A ⋅ B) C z=z zˆ = zˆ
Rectangular to Spherical:

COORDINATE SYSTEMS To obtain: A ( r , θ, φ) = rA

ˆ r + θˆ Aθ + φˆ Aφ
Cartesian or Rectangular Coordinates:
Ar = x 2 + y 2 + z 2
r ( x, y, z) = xxˆ + yyˆ + zzˆ x̂ is a unit vector rˆ = xˆ sin θ cos φ + yˆ sin θ sin φ + zˆ cos θ
r = x2 + y2 + z 2 z cos −1
θ=
Spherical Coordinates: x2 + y2 + z2
P(r , θ, φ) r is distance from center θˆ = xˆ cos θ cos φ + yˆ cos θ sin φ − zˆ sin θ
θ is angle from vertical y
φ is the CCW angle from the x-axis φ = tan −1 φˆ = − xˆ sin φ + yˆ cos φ
x
r̂ , θ̂ , and φ̂ are unit vectores and are functions of Spherical to Rectangular:
position—their orientation depends on where they
To obtain: r ( x, y, z) = xxˆ + yyˆ + zzˆ
are located.
Cylindrical Coordinates: x = r sin θ cos φ
C(r , φ, z ) r is distance from the vertical (z) axis xˆ = rˆ sin θ cos φ − θˆ cos θ cos φ − φˆ sin φ
φ is the CCW angle from the x-axis y = r sin θ sin φ
z is the vertical distance from origin yˆ = rˆ sin θ sin φ + θˆ cos θ sin φ + φˆ cos φ
z = r cos θ zˆ = rˆ cos θ − θˆ sin θ

Tom Penick tom@tomzap.com www.teicontrols.com/notes 10/22/2000 Page 10 of 13

 THE STATIC MAGNETIC FIELD B MAGNETIC FIELD [T or A/m]
due to an infinite straight conductor
F F12 MAGNETIC FORCE [N/m] May also be applied to the magnetic field close to a
due to a conductor conductor of finite length.
If the current in the two wires travels in opposite BP = magnetic field vector [T]
directions, the force will be attractive. µ0 = permeability constant 4π×10-7 [H/m]
µ0 I
F12 = the force exerted by conductor 1 BP = φˆ I = current [A]
carrying current I on conductor 2. 2πr r = perpendicular distance from the
xˆ µ 0 I1 I 2 [N/m] conductor [m]
F12 = µ -7
2πd 0 = permeability constant 4π×10
[H/m]
I = current [A] B MAGNETIC FIELD [T]
d = distance between conductors [m] due to a finite straight conductor at a point
perpendicular to the midpoint
µ0 Ia BP = magnetic field vector [T]
BP BIOT-SAVART LAW B P = φˆ µ0 = permeability constant
Determines the B field vector at any point P identified 2πr r 2 + a 2 4π×10-7 [H/m]
by the position vector r, due to a differential current I = current [A]
a a = half the length of the
element I dl' located at vector r'. r
BP = magnetic field vector conductor [m]
r = perpendicular distance
µ 0 I dl '×R
ˆ [T] I
dB P = µ = permeability constant from the conductor [m]
4πR 2 0
4π×10-7 [H/m]
µ I dl'×(r − r ') I dl' = current element [A]
BP = 0
4π C ∫ r − r'
3 R̂ = unit vector pointing
B MAGNETIC FIELD [T]
at the center of a circular wire of N turns
from the current
element to point P B = magnetic field [T]
ˆ = r − r'
R R = distance between the µ 0 NI µ0 = permeability const. 4π×10 [H/m]
-7

r − r' current element and Bctr = zˆ N = number of turns of the coil

point P [m] 2a I = current [A]
a = radius [m]

B AMPERE'S CIRCUITAL LAW

Ampere's law is a consequence of the Biot-Savart B MAGNETIC FIELD [T]
law and serves the same purpose as Gauss's law. along the central axis of a solenoid
Ampere's law states that the line integral of B around µ 0 NI  (z + l / 2) − (z − l / 2) 
any closed contour is equal to µ0 times the total net B(z ) = zˆ 
2l  a 2 + (z + l / 2 )2 a 2 + (z − l / 2 ) 
2
current I passing through the surface S enclosed by 
the contour C. This law is useful in solving µ NI
and at the center of the coil: Bctr ≈ zˆ 0
magnetostatic problems having some degree of l
symmetry. B = magnetic field [T] l = length of the solenoid [m]
B = magnetic field vector, equal to µ0 = permeability constant z = distance from center of
B times the appropriate unit 4π×10-7 [H/m] the coil [m]
vector [T] N = number of turns a = coil radius [m]
µ0 = permeability constant 4π×10-7 I = current [A]
∫ C ∫
B·dl = µ 0 J·ds
S
[H/m]
dl = an increment of the line which
= µ0 I is the perimeter of contour C
[ m]
J = current density [A/m2] J = σE
ds = an increment of surface [m2]

Tom Penick tom@tomzap.com www.teicontrols.com/notes 10/22/2000 Page 11 of 13

 H MAGNETIC FIELD INTENSITY [A/m] L11 SELF-INDUCTANCE [H]
The magnetic field intensity vector is directly When a current in coil 1 induces a current in coil 2,
analogous to the electric flux density vector D in the induced current in coil 2 induces a current back in
electrostatics in that both D and H are medium- coil 1. This is self-inductance.
independent and are directly related to their sources.
NΛ N = number of turns of the coil
B
H = magnetic field [A/m] L11 = 1 11 Λ11 = the total flux linked by a single
H≡ −M B = magnetic field vector [T] I1 turn of coil 1 [Wb]
µ0 µ0 = permeability const. 4π×10-7 [H/m]
N Ψ I1 = current in coil 1 [A]
2

∂D M = magnetization [A/m2] = 1 11 Ψ11 = the magnetic flux produced by

∇×H = J + J = current density [A/m ] J = σE I1 a single turn of coil 1 and linked
∂ t D = electric flux density vector by a single turn of coil 1 [Wb]
[C/m2]

L12 MUTUAL INDUCTANCE [H]

Ψ, Λ (,lambda) MAGNETIC FLUX, LINKAGE The mutual inductance between two coils.
Flux linkage Λ is the ability of a closed circuit to store N Λ N NΨ N = number of turns of
magnetic energy. It depends, in part, on the L12 = 2 12
= 2 1 12
the coil
physical layout of the conductors. It is the total I1 I1 Λ = flux linkage [Wb]
magnetic field due to circuit #1 passing through the I = current [A]
Neumann formula:
area enclosed by the conductors of circuit #2. The Ψ = magnetic flux [Wb]
text seemed to describe Ψ as the flux due to one turn µ 0 N1 N 2 dl 1 ·dl 2
and Λ as the flux due to all of the turns of the coil, but
L12 =
4π ∫ ∫
C1 C2 r − r'
r = vector to the point
of observation
was not consistent so be careful. r' = vector to source
Ψ12 = the magnetic flux passing
Ψ12 = ∫ B1 ·ds 2 through coil 2 that is produced
S2 by a current in coil 1 [Wb] Wm MAGNETIC ENERGY [J]
Λ 12 = N 1 Ψ12 Λ = total flux linkage [Wb]
Energy stored in a magnetic field [Joules].
B = magnetic field vector [T]
Λ = N ∫ B·ds N = number of turns of the coil
Wm = energy stored in a magnetic
S field [J]
ds = an increment of surface [m2] 1
Wm = ∫ µ
2 = permeability constant
B dv ' 0
2µ 0 V 4π×10-7 [H/m]
LENZ'S LAW B = magnetic field [T]
Induced voltage causes current to flow in the direction
that produces a magnetic flux which opposes the flux
that induced the voltage in the first place. This law is FARADAY'S LAW
useful in checking or determining the sign or polarity When the magnetic flux enclosed by a loop of wire
of a result. changes with time, a current is produced in the loop.
The variation of the magnetic flux can result from a
time-varying magnetic field, a coil in motion, or both.
L INDUCTANCE [H] ∂B ∇×E = the curl of the electric field
Inductance is the ability of a conductor configuration ∇×E = −
to "link magnetic flux", i.e. store magnetic energy.
∂t B = magnetic field vector [T]

Two methods of calculating inductance are given Another way of expressing Faraday's law is that a
below. changing magnetic field induces an electric field.
Λ where S is the surface
Ñ∫
L= Λ = flux linkage [Wb] d
I I = current [A]
Vind = E·dl = −
C dt S C.
∫
B·ds enclosed by contour
2W Wm = energy stored in a magnetic field
L = 2m [J]
(see also Induced Voltage below)
I

Tom Penick tom@tomzap.com www.teicontrols.com/notes 10/22/2000 Page 12 of 13

 Vind INDUCED VOLTAGE M MAGNETIZATION [A/m]
The voltage induced in a coil due to a changing The induced magnetic dipole moment per unit
magnetic field is equal to the number of turns in the volume.
coil times the rate at which the magnetic field is Nq 2 a 2 B N = number of turns of the coil
changing (could be a change in field strength or coil M=− e qe = electron charge -
area normal to the field). 4me 1.602×10-19 C
dΨ N = number of turns of the coil χ B a = orbit radius of an electron [m]
Vind = − N Ψ = the magnetic flux produced by or M = m B = magnetic field vector [T]
dt a single turn of the coil [Wb] µ0 µ0 = permeability constant 4π×10-7
Vind = ∫ E·dl where [H/m]
C
Nq e2 a 2 µ 0 me = who knows?
χm = − χm = magnetic susceptibility
Vind INDUCED VOLTAGE DUE TO 4me
MOTION
When conductors move in the presence of magnetic
fields, an induced voltage is produced even if the
magnetic fields do not vary in time. For the voltage
produced due to both a changing magnetic field and a
conductor in motion:
∂B
Vind = − ∫ ·ds + Ñ∫ ( v × B )·dl
S ∂t C

B = magnetic field vector [T]

v = velocity vector of the conductor [m/s]
ds = increment of the surface normal to the magnetic field
vector [m2]
dl = incremental length of conductor [m]

INDUCED VOLTAGE – SLIDER PROBLEM

A frictionless conducting bar moves to the right at
velocity v produces a current I.
I d

R B0 v h

An expanding magnetic field area having a static

magnetic field directed into the page produces a
CCW current.
Vind = induced voltage [V]
B0 = static magnetic field [T]
h = distance between the conductor rails
[T]
Vind = B0 hv v = velocity of the conductor [m/s]
Fmag = magnetic force opposing slider
[N]
Fmag = xˆ B0 Ih x̂ = unit vector in the direction against
d conductor movement [m/s]
E = I 2R I = current [A]
v E = energy produced [J or W/s]
R = circuit resistance [Ω]
d = distance the conductor moves
[m]

Tom Penick tom@tomzap.com www.teicontrols.com/notes 10/22/2000 Page 13 of 13