Definition of Subsurface Stratigraphy, Structure and Rock Properties From 3-D Seismic Data

Earth-Science Reviews 47 1999.
189218
www.elsevier.comrlocaterearscirev
Definition of subsurface stratigraphy, structure and rock

properties from 3-D seismic data
Bruce S. Hart
New Mexico Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources, Socorro, NM 87801, USA
Received 2 February 1998; accepted 12 April 1999
Abstract
This paper summarizes how three-dimensional 3-D. seismic technology is being used, primarily in the petroleum
industry, to define subsurface structure, stratigraphy and rock properties. A 3-D seismic data volume: a. provides a more
accurate image of the subsurface than can be obtained with 2-D seismic methods; b. is continuous, and so has a much
greater spatial sampling than is obtained with 2-D seismic or other subsurface data e.g., wells.; and c. can be viewed and
interpreted interactively from a variety of perspectives, thus enhancing the interpreters ability to generate an accurate
description of subsurface features of interest. Seismic interpretation was once the almost exclusive realm of geophysicists,
however, most 3-D seismic interpretation today is conducted by multidisciplinary teams that integrate geophysical,
geological, petrophysical and engineering data and concepts into the 3-D seismic interpretation. These factors, plus proper
survey design, help to increase the chances of success of a 3-D seismic interpretation project. Although there are cases where
the technology is not appropriate or cannot be applied for economic reasons or otherwise., the general success of 3-D
seismic has led it to become a mainstay of the petroleum industry. The approach and technology, first developed in that
industry, have potential applications in other applied and fundamental earth science disciplines, including mining,
environmental geology, structural geology and stratigraphy. q 1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: seismic; petroleum; structure; stratigraphy; rock properties
1. Introduction
Few technologies have affected a geoscience subdiscipline to the extent that three-dimensional 3-D.
seismic has affected petroleum geoscience geology
and geophysics.. Like the field of seismic stratigraphy before it which more or less directly spawned
sequence stratigraphy., 3-D seismic technology was
developed in the petroleum industry and until re)
Fax: q1-505-835-6333; E-mail: hart@nmt.edu
cently has been utilized almost entirely within that

field. However, potential applications of 3-D seismic
data in other geoscience disciplines are many, including studies in structural geology, stratigraphy, geophysics and petrophysics. The mining industry has
begun to investigate the potential of 3-D seismic to
identify and map ore bodies, and to plan mine development Eaton et al., 1997.. Furthermore, it may be
possible to transfer the technology cost-effectively to
the environmental sector Siahkoohi and West, 1998..
The cost and technical requirements of collecting
0012-8252r99 r$ - see front matter q 1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 0 1 2 - 8 2 5 2 9 9 . 0 0 0 2 9 - X
190
B.S. Hart r Earth-Science Reiews 47 (1999) 189218
and interpreting 3-D seismic data have prevented,

until recently, most academic researchers from obtaining and utilizing them, although some 3-D seismic data have been collected to study deep crustal
structure e.g., Kanasewich et al., 1987, 1995. and
others have been collected in conjunction with the
ocean drilling program Shipley et al., 1994..
Changes within the petroleum industry that have
been brought about by the use of 3-D seismic also
have had a significant, albeit indirect, impact in other
areas. One example is the use of computer workstations in data visualization. Some large 3-D seismic
surveys contain gigabytes of data. Seismic interpreters have been pushing software and hardware
developers to be able to visualize and interpret these
enormous data sets interactively, and the hardware,
software and concepts developed this way will have
an impact on other earth science fields. The 3-D
seismic revolution has helped to promote the development of multidisciplinary teams. Integration of
seismic and geological data and concepts in workstation environments has been undertaken for at least a
decade cf., Cross and Lessenger, 1988.. However,
the continuous coverage provided by 3-D seismic
data has revealed details of reservoir complexities
that cannot be characterized using 2-D seismic and
well control. Multidisciplinary teams in many companies integrate different data types and use the 3-D
seismic workstation and derived products such as
maps and volume interpretations. as focal points for
their exploration and development efforts. In some
regions and organizations, wells are not drilled without previously collecting and interpreting 3-D seismic data.
Why have 3-D seismic and associated technologies had such a profound impact on the petroleum
industry? What are the benefits of 3-D seismic? How
does one acquire and interpret such data? This summary will address these questions, and present answers in terms that will be accessible to the geoscience community at large. The main purposes of
this paper are: a. to illustrate how 3-D data are
collected and interpreted in the petroleum industry,
and b. to suggest how other subdisciplines of geoscience might exploit the technology.
There are other developing fields of seismic technology, such as amplitude variation with offset, vertical seismic profiling, seismic inversion and cross-
well seismic technology that are often used in conjunction with 3-D data. It is beyond the scope of this
paper to discuss these topics. Furthermore, a complete review of the principles of seismic surveying
and interpretation will not be presented here. Instead,
only those aspects that are germane to 3-D seismic
collection, processing or interpretation will be presented here. Numerous other sources present information about the seismic method e.g., Sheriff and
Geldart, 1995.. Brown 1996a. dealt exclusively with
3-D seismic analyses, and Weimer and Davis 1996.
presented many illustrative case studies of the use of
3-D seismic data, principally for petroleum exploration and development.
2. 3-D seismic acquisition and processing

Like 2-D seismic studies, 3-D seismic data are
acquired by generating an acoustic pulse at or near
the surface land surface or sea surface., and recording the energy that is reflected from subsurface
changes in physical properties specifically, velocity
and density.. Contacts between stratigraphic units
having detectable changes in physical properties
often associated with the tops of formations, members, etc.. will cause reflections and be picked as
seismic horizons 1 during the interpretation phase in
order to discern structural and stratigraphic details of
interest.
On land, sources are typically vibroseis trucks or
dynamite, and the receivers are geophones that detect
ground motions. At sea, 3-D seismic surveys are
collected using airgun arrays, with pressure sensitive
hydrophones detecting the reflected energy. In almost all cases, it is compressional wave p wave.
energy that is recorded, although multicomponent
3-D surveys that include recording of shear wave
reflections are becoming more common e.g., Arestad
et al., 1996..
With 2-D seismic data collection, sources and
receivers are laid out along a line, and the reflected
energy is assumed to come from a point mid-way
between source and receiver the common midpoint.
Italicized terms are defined in Appendix A.
along a vertical 2-D plane. In the case of horizontally

layered strata, this assumption is valid. However, in
areas where there is appreciable subsurface structure,
reflected energy can be recorded from interfaces that
191
do not lie mid-way between sources and receivers.

Seismic migration is a processing technique that
attempts to reposition this reflected energy to its true
subsurface location. The need for migration of 2-D
Fig. 1. Seismic modeling results showing an example of sideswipe and Fresnel zone effects associated with a reef. The upper image shows
the model in map view, illustrating the locations of seismic transects shown below. The reef is visible in a seismic transect that is over 300
m to the side. Although the sections have not been migrated, 2-D migration will not be able to remove the sideswipe image of the reef from
the transects Jackson and Hilterman, 1979; cited by Crawley Stewart, 1995.. Reproduced with permission from Hilterman.
192
seismic data has been recognized from the early

stages of seismic exploration Sheriff and Geldart,
1995..
Where subsurface structural or stratigraphic entities have a distinct three dimensionality i.e., many
or most areas of geologic interest., reflections may
be recorded from interfaces that are outside of the
plane containing the source and receivers Fig. 1..
These reflections, sometimes called sideswipe, cannot be removed from seismic profiles using 2-D
migration. It may be impossible to distinguish this
sideswipe from reflections that are truly in the plane
of the seismic profile, and maps or interpretations
that are drawn from such seismic sections will be
erroneous. Applied and theoretical examples of this
problem have been presented by French 1974.,
Crawley Stewart 1995. and Brown 1996a. among
others.
The acquisition of 3-D seismic data exploits the
spherical expansion of the acoustic pulse in the
subsurface away from the source. On land, one
common acquisition pattern spreads receiver groups
out in lines that are oriented at 908 to the shot lines
Fig. 2.. Reflections from each shot are recorded by
many geophones, producing a row of common midpoints that is perpendicular to the orientation of the
source lines, and parallel to the orientation of the
receiver lines. By moving the shot location, a subsurface grid of common midpoints is generated. Note
that the acquisition geometry shown in Fig. 2 is a
gross simplification of real survey design. Although
there are many different designs that can be used,
each survey typically consists of many parallel source
lines and many parallel receiver lines that are oriented perpendicular to the source lines. Each shot is
recorded by a patch of geophones. In this way,
individual midpoints are imaged by different combinations of sources and receivers, thus, building up
the fold or multiplicity . of the survey. Higher fold
data, all else being equal, will result in a higher
signal-to-noise ratio and therefore more interpretable
seismic data. Experience has shown that the fold of a
3-D survey needs only to be about one half the fold
of a 2-D survey to obtain the same interpretability
B. Hardage, personal communication, 1994..
At sea, 3-D seismic data are generally acquired by
ships towing airgun arrays and hydrophone streamers
that sailed back and forth across the survey area.
Fig. 2. Sample source and receiver layout for a land-based 3-D

seismic acquisition program. In this simple case, each shot is
recorded by a line of receivers. By moving the source location, a
rectangular grid of common midpoints is generated. In practice,
many source and receiver lines would exist, increasing the number
of source receiver combinations that image a particular midpoint to build up the fold and data quality. of the survey. Other,
more complex, survey layouts are typically used in practice.
Increasingly though, innovative techniques such as

using two vessels simultaneously, or implanting geophones on the sea floor, are being developed and
exploited.
The spacing between the midpoints in the receiver
direction is one half the distance between the re-
ceivers, while the spacing in the source direction is

one half the distance between the source locations.
For example, assuming that source and receiver locations are both at 60 m intervals, midpoints will be
generated every 30 m = 30 m. In this case, each
midpoint represents an area or bin of 30 m = 30 m.
The bin size might be rectangular, rather than square,
if the distances between source and receiver locations are not identical.
By acquiring continuous coverage of seismic data
in three dimensions, the data can be migrated in
three dimensions. In this way, reflection energy is
accurately repositioned to its true subsurface location, and transects through a 3-D seismic volume
will only show those features that are truly in the
plane of the section e.g., Brown, 1996a.. As such,
all else being equal, a vertical transect through a 3-D
seismic volume is a more accurate, better image than
an equivalent seismic transect derived using 2-D
acquisition and processing.
193
of as a series of cubes, or oxels a term analogous

to the 2-D pixels of remote sensing., each of which
stores a particular amplitude value Fig. 3.. Using
modern computer graphics capabilities, it is possible
to visualize and interpret the seismic data in a variety
of ways see below..
When seismic data were primarily viewed as paper sections, the standard display format was to use
black and white variable area wiggle displays. This
display presents seismic traces as continuous curves
that define a time series of positive peaks. and
negative troughs. amplitudes, and the peaks are
filled in with a solid black colour.
A drawback of the variable area wiggle display is
that the eye tends to focus on the peaks, and the
3. Viewing 3-D seismic data

Virtually, all interpretation of 3-D seismic data is
conducted on workstations or powerful personal
computers Hart, 1997.. By exploring and visualizing both the data and interpretations in progress, the
geoscientist can derive a much better understanding
of the three dimensionality of subsurface stratigraphic and structural elements. This allows the interpreter to generate a more accurate subsurface description depicted in maps, etc.., than by working
with paper seismic displays andror well logs alone.
These visualization technologies further aid the geoscientist in conveying the results of his or her work
to others who have not been involved in the interpretation process.
Each bin in a 3-D seismic volume having x, y
dimensions that are defined primarily by data acquisition operations. can be represented by a single
seismic trace, conceptually centered in the middle of
the bin. Each trace in turn is divided into equal
increments in the z direction that define the sampling interval. For petroleum exploration purposes,
the sampling interval is typically 2 or 4 ms. The
result is that the 3-D seismic volume can be thought
Fig. 3. Conceptual diagram showing a 3-D data volume. Each

voxel in such a volume is characterized by x, y, z coordinates
and an amplitude value positive and negative values.. The x and
y dimensions of each voxel represent the bin size, and are a
function of acquisition parameters, whereas the z dimension of a
voxel represents the digital sampling interval. The range of amplitudes depends upon how the data have been scaled. In a variable
density display top and side of the cube., the numerical amplitude
values are represented by colours that are selected by the interpreter see Fig. 4..
194
Fig. 4. Colour displays of seismic data. a. Seismic data has traditionally been displayed as ariable area wiggle displays left. in which the
reflected energy is displayed as waveforms consisting of positive and negative amplitude values peaks and troughs respectively.. Peaks are
filled in with black to enhance the interpretability of the seismic transect. Computer graphics displays allow the amplitudes center. to be
colour coded so that positive and negative amplitudes are shown, respectively, in blues and reds with the darkness of each colour being
proportional to the amplitude value. Whites correspond to zero amplitude. By removing the wiggle trace right. the seismic traces are shown
as ariable density displays. b. Variable density display of a seismic transect. By displaying adjacent traces side by side, the display has the
appearance of data continuity throughout the entire transect. Compare with the variable area wiggle display of the same transect c.. The
colour display gives approximately equal weight to peaks and troughs blue and red, respectively., helping the interpreter to detect
stratigraphic and structural features. Variations in amplitude along a single reflector are also easier to detect. Although the bluewhitered
colour scale shown here is the most commonly used, interpreters will choose other scales to enhance certain aspects of the seismic data.
195
Fig. 4 continued..
information present in the troughs can be overlooked

Brown, 1996a.. With the advent of interactive computer displays, variable density displays have become the norm. In this display, the peaks and troughs
are arbitrarily assigned distinct colours. One commonly employed colour scheme shows peaks as blue
with stronger positive values being shown as darker
blue. passing through white near zero amplitudes.
to red troughs more negative values as darker red..
Other colour schemes can be generated by interpreters to highlight specific aspects of the seismic
data e.g., bright spots, dim spots. on which they
wish to focus. The variable density display gives the
appearance of reflection continuity throughout the
entire 3-D volume Fig. 4..
The 3-D seismic data volume is stored in digital
format, on disk. The types of displays that can be
generated Fig. 5. depend on the software and hardware capabilities of the interpreter, but generally can
be grouped into a few distinct categories that are
discussed next.
3.1. Vertical transects
Vertical transects through a 3-D seismic volume
Fig. 5ad. look like 2-D seismic profiles, but differ
in that their location and orientation are decided by
the interpreter in an interactive manner, rather than

being constrained by the original seismic survey line
orientation as is the case for 2-D data. Since the data
are stored digitally, the interpreter can also zoom in
on small portions of the seismic data, or zoom out to
see the larger structural and stratigraphic framework.
Most software packages allow the user to quickly
display vertical transects: a. in the inline or line
direction, b. in the crossline or trace direction, and
c. arbitrary lines that represent transects through
the data in any direction decided upon by the interpreter. The arbitrary line may consist of a single
transect or a series of continuous transects that zigzag
their way through the data set sometimes called a
multipanel display.. Arbitrary lines are used when
the interpreter wishes to view the true geometry of
structural or stratigraphic features that are oriented
obliquely to the line or trace orientation see below.,
or when wishing to tie borehole log information
from more than one well by integrating with the
seismic data. With vertical transects, the data can be
flattened on a selected horizon to more clearly view
true stratigraphic relationships in areas that have
been structurally deformed. This latter process is
akin to using a formation top or log pick as a datum
to construct a stratigraphic cross-section using well
logs or outcrops. rather than generating a structural
cross-section.
196
Fig. 5. Different types of 3-D seismic displays that can be viewed during an interactive interpretation session. a, b. Line and trace transects
that correspond to source and receiver line orientations, c. arbitrary transect, d. multipanel display, e. time slice, f. horizon slice, g.
perspective display, h. cube display. See text for discussion.
3.2. Horizontal sections

These displays, known as time slices, represent a
slice through the data at a given two-way traveltime
TWT, constant z coordinate; Fig. 5e and Fig. 6..
The display is somewhat analogous to a geologic
map. The difference is that instead of viewing how
stratigraphic units intersect the ground surface which
may or may not be planar., the interpreter sees how
the seismic manifestation of the stratigraphy intersects an arbitrarily selected plane of constant TWT
through the seismic data. In both cases, however, the
thickness of the reflection from a given stratigraphic
unit on the display map. is a function of the stratigraphic dip for a constant thickness, a less steeply
dipping bedrreflection will appear wider; Fig. 7a,b.
and thickness frequency. of the reflection event
for a given structural dip, higher frequency events
will appear thinner; Fig. 7c..
Although Brown 1996a. and others recommended using time slices for horizon interpretation,
most interpreters tend to concentrate their use of
these displays on interpreting faults especially
where stratigraphic dips are small i.e., relatively
undeformed basins.. The utility of time slices for

horizon interpretation is greatest when beds have a
pronounced dip. In this case, horizon mapping on
time slices can be a quick way of generating time
structure maps for those horizons. With the advent of
automatic horizon tracking and interfacing of seismic
interpretation with mapping packages see below.,
time structure maps can, in most circumstances, be
generated just as readily by basing most interpretation on vertical sections.
Fault interpretation and correlation can be significantly improved by interactively working with time
slices and vertical slices together. Time slice displays
show faults as curvilinear features that display lateral
offsets of reflections, amplitudes or abrupt changes
in seismic reflection character Fig. 6.. Typically,
faults can be traced laterally for considerable distances on time slices, thus, reducing the ambiguity
inherent in interpreting fault locations and orientations from 2-D seismic or well data see below..
3.3. Horizonr fault and map displays
These displays show characteristics of horizons or
faults that have been interpreted in a seismic volume.
197
Fig. 6. Time slice through 3-D seismic volume, offshore Gulf of Mexico. Note curvilinear trends of reflection character offset that
correspond to faults viewed in vertical sections. By interpreting the faults on both vertical transects and time slices, the potential for
miscorrelation is reduced, leading to a more accurate interpretation than could be generated using 2-D seismic data.
They allow the interpreter to view spatial relationships in two dimensions. Time structure of an interpreted horizon, showing locations of faults, folds and
structural dips, is perhaps the most commonly viewed
display. If desired, the interpreter can interactively
adjust the colour scale bar to detect structural relationships e.g., areas with subtle closure that could
act as hydrocarbon traps. that might otherwise be
overlooked.
In many areas, the seismic amplitudes associated
with particular stratigraphic horizons can be of significance e.g., Enachescu, 1993.. For example,
bright spots are associated with hydrocarbon accumulations in some areas, and interpreters will examine map displays of the amplitude of seismic horizons in order to look for stratigraphic or structural
features that might be hydrocarbon traps. Displays of
horizon amplitudes are sometimes called horizon

slices Fig. 5f.. Channel sandstones and other stratigraphic features can also, under some circumstances,
be identified using seismic amplitudes e.g., Hardage
et al., 1994; Brown, 1996a.. Structural contours can
be superimposed onto amplitude displays in order to
allow the interpreter to easily search for relationships
between these two data types Fig. 8..
Bouvier et al. 1989. present an example of the
use of fault slices to examine fault sealing capabilities of Tertiary faults in the Niger Delta area. By
generating fault slices in both the hanging wall and
footwall, the juxtaposition of lithologies across the
fault can be assessed. In this way, it might be
possible to judge whether a fault is a barrier to fluid
flow e.g., sand on shale contact. or not e.g., sand
on sand. along the entire fault plane.
198
times employed in a quick look fashion to identify

stratigraphic configurations or rock properties elements that warrant detailed investigation. Horizon
attributes discussed below. are also viewed in map
views.
3.4. Perspectie displays
This type of display Fig. 5g. shows horizons,
faults and well data as 3-D perspective isometric.
views that can be rotated to help the interpreter
assess spatial relationships in 3-D. Additionally, they
can be employed to quality check interpretations
for example, to ensure that horizon or fault picks are
physically plausible. With some interpretation packages, it may be possible to superimpose attributes
such as seismic amplitude, isochrons thickness, in
time units., etc. on top of the 3-D surface to more
easily evaluate, for example, possible relationships
between amplitudes and structure. Illumination angles and opacity might also be adjusted to help
detect subtle structural trends.
3.5. Cube displays
Fig. 7. Schematic diagram illustrating the effects of: a. stratigraphic dip, and b. reflection frequency on the thickness of a
reflection viewed on a time slice. Adapted from Brown 1996a..
Although strictly not related to one horizon, map

displays are also employed to view thickness, in time
isochrons. or depth isopach. units, between two
stratigraphic horizons. Other interal attributes, such
as the maximum amplitude between two horizons,
can also be viewed and interpreted in this fashion.
These, and other interval attribute analyses are some-
This type of display Fig. 5h and Fig. 9. allows

the interpreter to view the seismic data as a volume.
By scrolling through the data cube front to back, left
to right, and top to bottom., the interpreter can
quickly get an intuitive feel for the broad scale
stratigraphic and structural configuration of a study
area before beginning detailed interpretation. Interpretations fault and horizon. can, however, be made
on the faces of the data cube. The data may be
clipped in various ways to visualize specific aspects of the data set that will assist in the interpretation.
Most cube displays show the faces of the data
volume, while data behind those faces remain out of
Fig. 8. a. Vertical transect through 3-D seismic volume from the San Juan Basin, New Mexico, showing classic doublet response
troughs. associated with thick accumulations of aeolian Jurassic Entrada Formation. Strong peak above the Entrada is the Todilto
Formation gypsum and limestone.. b. Time structure contours of the Entrada horizon superimposed on horizon slice of the formation.
Contours were generated by picking the horizon on seed lines, autotracking the horizon throughout the survey area, quality checking the
result, then contouring the data. The contours suggest a thick build-up of the dune deposits along the lower margin of the survey area. The
amplitude of the Todilto reflection decreases over the crest of the buildup lower amplitudes shown in lighter greys., helping to corroborate
the interpretation and increase the attractiveness of this area as a drilling target see Vincelette and Chittum, 1981, for a description of the
seismic character of Entrada reservoirs.. Although small, these deposits can form attractive drilling targets. It would not be possible to
pinpoint the optimal drilling location for these types of buildups, or other features such as pinnacle reefs, meandering channel sands, etc.,
with this degree of confidence using 2-D seismic or well control alone.
sight. Voxel rendering technologies allow the interpreter to make specific ranges of amplitudes transparent, leaving only particular ranges of amplitudes
visible. The objective is to facilitate the 3-D viewing
and interpretation of subsurface features, such as
199
bright spots associated with hydrocarbon accumulations, that have specific amplitude characteristics.
This type of display can be especially useful, for
example, when planning a deviated wellbore so that
it penetrates multiple pay zones that manifest them-
200
selves as bright spots at distinct stratigraphic levels.

Virtual reality technologies are being explored that
allow the interpreter to view the data in 3-D or even
to enter the seismic volume Dorn, 1998.. However, application of these technologies is not
widespread.
3.6. Combination displays
Some software applications allow several different types of data and interpretations to be visualized
together e.g., Fig. 10.. For example, it may be
desirable to examine well paths, interpreted horizons,
and some seismic data together. As is the case with
the other types of displays, the objective is to help
the interpreter to visualize the geology, engineering
and other types of data in 3-D. Another important
component is that these displays help the interpreter
to present hisrher results to others e.g., co-workers,
management, investors. who have not been active in
the interpretation process.
4. Interpreting 3-D seismic data

In the petroleum industry, most 3-D seismic interpretation is conducted by members of multidisciplinary teams that are composed of geologists,
geophysicists and engineers Hart, 1997.. This is
because experience has shown that the ambiguity
inherent in the seismic method due to limitations on
vertical and lateral resolution and the non-uniqueness
of the seismic response. can be reduced by integrating geologic and petroleum engineering data and
concepts Fig. 11..
As with other subsurface studies, the principal
objectives of a 3-D seismic survey are definition of
subsurface stratigraphy, structure and rock physical
properties. Most such data sets are collected from
areas of existing production, so that some subsurface
control e.g., wireline logs, paleontological data, en-
201
gineering data. exists already. Having this information up front allows the interpretation team members to better exploit the massive amounts of data
available to them in the 3-D seismic volume. Typically, however, an interpretation is not viewed so
much as a final product as a work in progress
that is to be updated and revised as new data become
available through drilling. The establishment of development drilling plans finding infill and step out
drilling sites. is a common application of 3-D seismic, although most interpreters will also use the data
for exploration purposes e.g., looking for other, as
yet unproductive, stratigraphic intervals.. There is
increasing use of 3-D seismic data, particularly by
large companies, as a purely exploration tool.
It should be noted that although the vertical resolution of seismic data generally, only features 10 m
or more in thickness will be resolved. is not as great
as wireline logs or core millimeter scale in core,
decimeter scale in logs., the continuous subsurface
coverage in a 3-D survey provides much better spatial control for mapping. For example, in North
America, typical development drilling density might
be 16 wells per section 2.59 km2 ., yielding 16
control points wells with wireline logs. in that
area. A 3-D seismic survey over that same area
might have 33.5 m = 33.5 m bins, yielding 2304
control points in the same area. The result is that the
3-D seismic survey has 144 times more control
points for mapping than even the relatively tightly
spaced wells Ray, 1995.. As such, mapping of
stratigraphic and structural features using 3-D seismic provided that they can be detected seismically.
is much more accurate than mapping based on interpretation between even densely spaced wells or 2-D
seismic data.
4.1. Stratigraphic interpretation
As with a 2-D seismic interpretation, the stratigraphic interpretation of a 3-D seismic volume typi-
Fig. 9. Sample cube displays. a. Entire data set showing eastwest and northsouth vertical transects along the front and right side faces of
the cube, respectively, and a time slice on the top face. b. Entire time range is shown, but the front face has been cut to show an eastwest
transect about 2r3 of the way into the volume, showing only a limited part of the survey area. c. Entire area of survey is shown, but the top
face has been cut down about 3r4 of the way into the volume. By interactively scrolling through a data cube such as this, the interpreter can
quickly assess changes in stratigraphic and structural style with location and depth.
202
Fig. 10. Combination display showing a 2-D seismic line left, colour., a portion of a 3-D seismic cube back, grey tones., a voxel display of a 2nd 3-D volume greens and
yellows, right., two interpreted horizons from the seismic data blue, pink., some well logs blue, coming down from top. and the locations of the 3-D seismic data sets yellow
and red grid at bottom., 2-D seismic lines blue, at bottom. and wells red dots at bottom.. By integrating different types of data and interpretations into single displays such as
this, multidisciplinary teams can make better drilling and reservoir management decisions. Figure courtesy of Landmark Graphics.
203
Fig. 11. Bar graph showing responses of 133 seismic interpreters when asked about the need to integrate geologic and engineering data and
concepts into a 3-D seismic interpretation. Experience shows that it is only through integration of the technology with other data types that
the true potential of 3-D seismic technology is realized. From Hart 1997..
cally begins by tying wireline logs geologic data. to

the seismic data using elocity sureys, ertical
seismic profiles andror synthetic seismograms e.g.,
Sheriff and Geldart, 1995.. From these initial seed
points, horizons are interpreted on a grid of vertical
transects. The grid allows the user to box in the
picks, helping to ensure a consistent interpretation.
Picking a horizon on every line in a 3-D volume
can be a labour intensive task, and so most software
packages have an autotracking application that can
be employed to automate the process. The grid of
manual horizon picks forms a network of seed points,
from which the software will attempt to track a pick
of similar phase and amplitude throughout the seismic volume. Under ideal conditions, such as a continuous reflection that has significantly higher amplitude than surrounding events, it might be possible to
autotrack a horizon based on a single seed point.
Conversely, in areas of high noise or geologic complexity it may not be possible to autotrack a horizon
at all. In any case, the results of the autotracking
need to be checked and manually edited where necessary. The finished horizon pick should be both
geologically and geophysically defensible. Once time
structure maps have been derived, the horizons are
converted to true depths e.g., meters. using available velocity data.

Once a stratigraphic framework has been established, such as by defining and mapping flooding
surfaces, unconformities or other significant and definable horizons, detailed stratigraphic analyses
seismic facies analysis, reflection character analysis.
are conducted on those intervals that are judged to be
of particular stratigraphic importance. Clinoforms,
channels, parasequences, reef complexes or other
stratigraphic entities are studied using conventional
seismic stratigraphic criteria e.g., Mitchum et al.,
1977; Sarg, 1987. and by integrating all available
log, core and biostratigraphic data e.g., Hart et al.,
1997.. Where line or trace orientations are oblique to
stratigraphic trends, arbitrary lines through a seismic
volume will be selected to examine the true longitudinal and cross-sectional geometries of clinoforms,
channels and other features.
With most software packages, it is possible to
superimpose wireline logs directly over the seismic
data in vertical transects in order to help merge
geologic logs. and geophysical seismic. data and
concepts Fig. 12.. To do so, some time-depth conversion information is required. Depending on the
204
Fig. 12. Example of a seismic view with well log overlay. Log curve shows g-ray increasing to the right. with true well position indicated
by vertical white lines. Note good correspondence between lithology contrasts as indicated by logs low g-ray, clean carbonates; higher
g-ray, dolomitic sandstones and siltstones. and the location of prominent reflections. This type of display is used to help verify picks, both
log and seismic. Seismic transect shows basinward progradation to left. of mixed siliciclasticrcarbonate Permian shelfrslope in Delaware
Basin, SE New Mexico.
types of logs employed, these displays can help to

guide correlations from well to well, identify facies
associations or stratal surfaces, identify fluid contacts, etc.
Time and horizon slices can help the interpreter to
identify and map features such as fluvial channels,
sinkholes, e.g., Hardage et al., 1994; Brown, 1996a.,
deltaic lobes Hart et al., 1997. and even meteorite

impact structures Isaac and Stewart, 1993.. In the
petroleum industry, knowledge of the distribution of
these depositional features can help to identify or
predict sedimentary facies distributions, and thus the
location of reservoir quality rock or barriers or baffles to subsurface fluid flow that might compartmen-
Fig. 13. Structure map lower left. of a horizon suggests the presence of a small NWSE trending graben darker greys are structurally
X
lower areas.. A seismic transect in the inline direction AA . does not clearly show the subtle fault on the southwest. This might be the
X
orientation of a 2-D seismic line. By viewing an arbitrary line that is perpendicular to the fault orientation BB ., the fault geometry
becomes clearer. Although the fault is readily apparent, it may not be clear from this view how the horizons correlate from one fault block
X
Y
to another. As such, a multipanel display was chosen that goes around the fault pinchout to the north CC C .. This latter display clearly
X
shows reflection continuity from one block to the other, thus, confirming the interpretation shown in BB . Example from New York State
see Hart et al., 1996..
205
206
Fig. 14. Two different horizon attribute maps for the same seismic horizon. a. Dip map, showing variability in dip amount for the surface
darker s greater dip.. b. Azimuth map, showing which way the horizon is dipping. Light source is from the upper right NE., so that
surfaces dipping to the SW appear dark. These maps show linear trends that indicate the presence of subtle faults which were not evident
when interpreting vertical transects through this data volume.
talize reservoir. Typically, vertical sections, time

structure maps, and horizon displays will be evaluated simultaneously to assess a given prospect.
4.2. Structural interpretation
Structural and stratigraphic interpretations necessarily feed off one another. For example, it is not
possible to calculate throw on a fault without being
able to identify common horizons on either side of
the structure. Conversely, to correlate a horizon from
one side of a fault to the other, the interpreter needs
to understand the fault geometry normal, reverse,
207
etc... As with stratigraphic interpretation, vertical

transects, time slices, and other displays will all be
utilized together during the structural interpretation
procedure. Faults can be interpreted on both time
slices and vertical transects, and the results of interpretation on one display can be viewed and used to
guide fault picking on the other. The ability to view
arbitrary lines through the seismic volume can, as
with stratigraphic interpretation, have a significant
beneficial impact on structural interpretations Fig.
13..
As with a stratigraphic interpretation, the structural interpretation begins by identifying the large
Fig. 15. Continuity cube similar to a Coherency Cubee. showing subtle faulting indicated by curvilinear trends of low coherence dark.
and poor data quality area. As with the horizon attribute maps, these cubes help interpreters to recognize subtle structural features that
otherwise might be undetected in vertical sections and time slices. Stratigraphic features, such as channels and reefs, can also sometimes be
delineated with continuityrcoherency cubes.
208
scale faults, then successively mapping finer details.

Faults can generally be detected when the throw is
greater than 1r4 the wavelength Sheriff and Geldart, 1995.. Subtle faults that are not easily recognized on vertical transects can sometimes be detected
by generating and examining horizon attributes e.g.,
Dalley et al., 1989; Hoetz and Watters, 1992; Hesthammer and Fossen, 1997a; Fig. 14.. These can
include dip in msrm., azimuth i.e., the direction
that the surface is pointing, ranging from 08 to 3608.,
edge detection emphasizing discontinuities. and
other properties. Depending on the orientation and
dip of the fault with respect to stratigraphic horizons,
any particular one of these displays might help to
detect subtle structures that might have a significant
impact on subsurface fluid flow.
Coherency Cubee processing and similar techniques. generates a seismic attribute that quantifies
the similarity between a given seismic trace and its
neighbours Bahorich and Farmer, 1995.. This numerical measure is somewhat analogous to the reflection continuity that seismic interpreters have
been employing qualitatively for many years. When
the waveshape for a trace in a given time window is
similar to that for adjacent traces, as might be expected when the stratigraphy is continuous across an
area, the coherency attribute calculated at that position is high. When there are significant differences
between traces, as might be expected where the
stratigraphy is offset by faulting, the coherency is
low. This type of data is derived from a 3-D seismic
volume, and can be viewed in the same way; typi-
cally cube displays or time slices are considered to

be most revealing Fig. 15.. This attribute can very
precisely and quickly reveal the location of subtle
faults or stratigraphic features that might be otherwise missed.
3-D seismic analyses can often result in structure
maps that are significantly different from structure
maps based on 2-D seismic andror well control.
That these maps truly are more accurate than the
original maps has been empirically and frequently.
demonstrated by drilling results, and by integration
with other data types e.g., Badgett et al., 1994;
Brown, 1996a; Weimer and Davis, 1996..
4.3. Rock properties
Definition of subsurface rock properties, such as
porosity or fluid saturation, directly from reflection
seismic data continues to be a field of significant
interest. Seismic inversion is a technique that attempts to reconstruct the subsurface physical properties distribution, usually directly from the processed
seismic traces e.g., Lindseth, 1979.. Many inversion
algorithms have been developed, but the inversion
process itself provides non-unique solutions
sometimes many different stratigraphic successions
could have produced a given seismic section. Accordingly, interpreters generally attempt to constrain
the inversion process with physical property information density, velocity. derived from well control.
Acoustic impedance volumes are generated for interpretation in this way.
Fig. 16. Empirical, quantitative derivation of rock properties from seismic attributes. a. Values of selected attributes are extracted from the
bins that correspond to well locations, and crossplotted against well-derived measurements. In some cases, no correlation is present
Attribute 1.. In other cases, there might be a negative correlation between attributes and log properties Attribute 2. or a positive correlation
between the two Attribute 3.. Linear and polynomial regression approaches might be tried. b. Relationships might be sought out between a
reservoir property and several attributes. Here, the 3-D graph, which can be interactively rotated, allows the interpreter to view statistical
relationships between three variables. The size of the data point is proportional to its closeness to the observer. This type of interactive data
exploration can help the interpreter to seek out correlations between seismic attributes and log-based physical properties. Multiple regression
techniques can be used to improve the correlation between seismic attributes and reservoir properties. c. Once an empirical, numerical
relationship between seismic attributes and rock properties has been established, it is used to assign rock properties to other areas within the
3-D survey area that lack well control. Here, a 2nd order multiple regression based on three attributes not the three shown in a.. has been
employed to derive the thickness of the reservoir interval having a porosity greater than 12% contours.. The underlying grey scale shows
structure, with structurally high areas being the lightest. Structure generally shows a dip from upper right to lower left. The thickest porous
section ) 20 m. is located beneath the structural culminations in this Jurassic shelf margin carbonate buildup center of map., although
some porosity also appears to be present on the seaward flank bottom. possibly as talus accumulations. See Hart and Balch 1998. for
further discussion.
209
210
Complex trace attributes, such as amplitude, instantaneous frequency, reflection strength and instantaneous phase and many others Tanner and Sheriff,
1977; Brown, 1996b. are currently being analyzed
and exploited qualitatively in the hopes that they
contain information about the physical properties of
the rocks being imaged. Although the analysis of
these attributes is not new, the degree of vigour with
which 3-D seismic interpreters are currently deriving
and exploiting them Hart, 1997. can be related to:
a. the direct way in which large amounts of digital
data can be analyzed, and b. the ability to link
log-derived physical properties from individual wells
to a specific traces in a spatially continuous 3-D
seismic volume. Seismic amplitudes are the most
readily imaged and qualitatively interpreted attribute
Enachescu, 1993., although other attributes are exploited in a qualitative way as well e.g., Hardage et
al., 1996., either individually or collectively. Nonuniqueness of response e.g., seismic amplitudes can
be affected by changes in porosity, bed thickness,
reflector geometry, fluid content, processing and
other variables. should be an important consideration
when interpreting such data.
Using a relatively new technique, growing numbers of interpreters are attempting to correlate seismic attributes empirically with reservoir physical
properties measured by borehole logs Schultz et al.,
1994.. The complex trace attributes potentially contain information about the physical properties of the
rocks being imaged seismically, but the direct relationship between the rock properties and seismic
attributes may be practically impossible to derive
from first principles. The objective is to try to correlate physical properties, as measured from borehole
logs, with seismic attributes derived from the traces
that correspond to the boreholes. Different methods
are being utilized or developed, including multiple
regression, geostatistics, and neural networks first to
derive the relationships, and then to distribute properties throughout the area of the seismic survey Fig.
16..
Matteucci 1996. and others have identified several aspects that need to be considered when adopting this approach. First and foremost, the correlation
between the attributes and physical properties must
be statistically significant. A prediction of reservoir
properties based on a quantitative, empirical relation-
ship is of limited value if the correlation coefficient

is too low. Second, the relationship should be statistically robust and take into account uncertainties, for
example, in the exact borehole location or seismic
noise. The location of boreholes might be known
only to within a range of bins, especially if the wells
are old and poorly surveyed. or large offsets in
deviated wells are present. Using several adjacent
bins in the correlation exercise can, provided that the
reservoir is homogeneous enough, help to determine
the robustness of the correlation. Finally, the number
of attributes that can be generated is great, increasing
the probability that there will be at least one statistically significant, but possibly spurious, correlation
Kalkomey, 1997.. Additionally, Hirsche et al. 1997.
pointed out that limited well control or biased sampling only specific facies might be drilled. can
make it difficult to assess whether basic statistical
assumptions that underpin the utilization of these
methods are violated.
Ideally, the interpretation team might have a large
number of wells to work with. From these wells,
they can randomly exclude some from the calibration
process, then test the predictions of their work against
the data from the excluded wells e.g., Schultz et al.,
1994.. This approach may not be feasible in areas of
limited well control e.g., new or small fields.. One
of the fundamental questions that should be asked of
any rock properties prediction is whether the result
makes geologic sense. This is true regardless of how
the prediction is derived, or the strength of the
statistical correlation. The most prudent approach to
assessing these predictions is to view them as working hypotheses that: a. will help to assess the risk
associated with drilling a specific prospect, and b.
will need to be revised as new information becomes
available.
4.4. Integration
As is the case with any subsurface data, there is a
certain amount of ambiguity in the interpretation of
seismic data 2-D or 3-D. that cannot be removed by
working with it alone. These limitations are the
product of many factors, including the vertical resolution and non-unique response of seismic data, acquisition and processing programs, and interpreters
skills or biases. As such, most interpreters recognize

that their seismic interpretations need to be integrated with geologic and engineering data and concepts in order to maximize the benefit that they
derive from a 3-D seismic volume Hart, 1997..
As noted previously, the integrated study might
include paleontologic, core, wireline log, production,
and other data types. Case studies presented by
Badgett et al. 1994., Hardage et al. 1994.,
Rafalowski et al. 1996. and Hart et al. 1997.
illustrate how 3-D seismic, core, wireline log, pressure and production data are integrated with sequence stratigraphic, seismic attribute, production
and other analyses to generate holistic reservoir
models. Detailed analyses of the seismic data themselves, possibly including wavelet extraction, forward modeling, phase correction and other steps, can
be employed to add confidence to the ties between
seismic and well data e.g., Dorn et al., 1996..
Ideally, it would be possible to export a 3-D reservoir model populated with physical properties directly from the seismic analyses into a reservoir
simulator, but this type of activity is not yet commonplace Hart, 1997..
Integration is a key component in the developing
field of time-lapse or 4-D seismic analyses. This
type of analysis seeks to find differences in amplitude or other attributes. from a given reservoir that
might be visible in successive 3-D seismic surveys
covering the same area, and then to relate these
differences to changes in pore fluids that are due to
production or enhanced recovery operations e.g.,
Greaves and Fulp, 1987; Anderson et al., 1996.. This
approach is most widely used where amplitudes
bright spots. provide direct hydrocarbon indicators,
although applications of the technique to monitor
steamfloods or CO 2 injection programs have also
been undertaken D. Lumley, personal communication, 1998..
5. Discussion
First conceived within large petroleum companies
in the early 1960s, it was not until the 1970s that 3-D
seismic concepts were publicly presented Walton,
1972; French, 1974.. Documentation of 3-D seismic
success stories in the late 1970s e.g., West, 1979. to
211
middle 1980s fueled interest in the technology. Although much, if not most, of the ensuing drilling
success attributable to 3-D seismic has gone unreported in the scientific literature there are many case
histories in trade journals., the worth of the technology is empirically demonstrated by a single statistic
that shows the extent to which the petroleum industry has begun to focus on the technology: by the end
of 1996, 3-D surveys accounted for nearly 75% of all
seismic acquisition Society of Exploration Geophysics, 1997.. The application and development of
this technology has had a tremendous impact on the
petroleum industry, largely due to the precision and
accuracy with which stratigraphic and structural elements can be identified, mapped and drilled e.g.,
Haldorsen and Damsleth, 1993; Sibley and Mastoris,
1994.. These same types of benefits should be realizable in any geoscience discipline where the objective
is to characterize properly subsurface structure,
stratigraphy and sediment or rock. properties.
5.1. Non-petroleum applications
The cost of acquiring and processing 3-D seismic
data is no doubt the greatest impediment to the
development of more widespread application of the
technology. Additionally, relatively inexpensive PCbased data visualization and interpretation packages
are making interpretation capabilities at least the
more commonly used applications. accessible to
greater numbers of potential users.
Eaton et al. 1997. performed costbenefit analyses to examine when the technology can be cost-effective in the mining industry, and also examined
some of the technical considerations related to seismic imaging in plutonic environments, rather than
layered sedimentary successions. For example, they
noted that while most reflection seismic processing
is geared towards enhancing continuous features such
as bedding, in crystalline terranes scattering effects
from localized bodies are of paramount importance.
Unmigrated 3-D seismic volumes can help interpreters to recognize scattering anomalies produced
by features such as ore bodies, and may therefore be
of greater interest in the mining industry than migrated volumes Eaton et al., 1997..
Cost was initially considered to be an obstacle to
the application of 3-D seismic in the environmental
industry House et al., 1996., although recent experi-
212
mental studies are suggesting otherwise Siahkoohi

and West, 1998.. Costsavings realized by technological improvements e.g., more cost-efficient acquisition layouts. are likely to overcome this barrier,
especially in hydrogeology where aquifers are structurally or stratigraphically complex, and the economic considerations associated with water availability or contamination are great. Problems associated
with obtaining high quality shallow seismic data
especially in the vadose zone. are also currently an
impediment.
As an academic discipline, structural geology
could benefit by more widespread application of 3-D
seismic data. Experience in the petroleum industry
has shown that many structural interpretations based
on 2-D seismic are wrong, to varying degrees typically, fault geometries are oversimplified; e.g.,
Brown, 1996a; Mansfield, 1996.. Since 2-D seismic
based interpretations are used as input into kinematic
models, it may be desirable or even necessary to
revise some of the models to take into account new
details that could be provided by 3-D seismic mapping. In some cases, it will not be possible to derive
the true 3-D geometry and evolution. of these structures without 3-D seismic data. For example, Mansfield 1996. and Rowan et al. 1998. demonstrated
how 3-D seismic data can be employed to understand the spatial and temporal development of a
growth fault arrays. These types of analyses traditionally have been based on 2-D analyses seismic or
outcrop., either in section or plan, and case studies
that document the true 3-D geometry and evolution
of real fault arrays are rare.
Beginning in the 1970s, the development of seismic stratigraphy and the offshoot of sequence
stratigraphy. as a mature science did much to revolutionize and reinvigorate the field of stratigraphy. The
first order controls on depositional sequence architecture sea-level change, subsidence and sediment
supply. are fairly well established, although the relative importance of each and the nomenclature used
to describe successions of sedimentary rocks remain
topics of considerable debate. By providing a continuous and accurate image of the subsurface, 3-D
seismic data have the potential to improve our understanding of some of the 2nd or higher order controls
on stratigraphic architecture. Although 3-D seismic
data are often collected over smaller areas than 2-D
seismic surveys, limiting their usefulness for regional

stratigraphic interpretations, the lateral continuity
provided by 3-D seismic will help stratigraphers to
better understand the controls of local processes such
as reactivation of basement tectonic elements, and
autocyclic lobe switching on depositional architecture. Additionally, many studies have shown that
stratal geometries derived from 2-D seismic profiles
can be misleading, possibly leading to erroneous
reconstructions of depositional histories e.g., Hart
and Long, 1996.. The integration of 3-D seismic data
into sequence stratigraphic studies will help to reduce these potential errors.
5.2. Limitations of 3-D seismic technology
Experience in the petroleum industry has shown
that, despite its general applicability, 3-D seismic
technology like any technology. has its limitations.
These limitations can influence how a survey is
collected, processed and interpreted.
There are areas where good quality seismic data
2-D or 3-D. are impossible or very difficult to
obtain. For example, velocity-related problems have,
until recently, prevented geophysicists from obtaining clear subsurface images below salt bodies in the
Gulf of Mexico or beneath thrust sheets. New processing flows, for example, pre-stack depth migration, are helping in some of these areas, however,
there remain areas where seismic acquisition is not
?yet. feasible. Portions of North Americas Permian
Basin region fall into this category. In some areas of
this basin, unconsolidated Tertiary sediments overlie
and bury a dissolution surface developed on a Permian aged salt zone. The thickness of the Tertiary
fill changes abruptly and there is a strong velocity
contrast between the fill and the underlying Paleozoic rocks. For this reason, much energy is scattered
at this contact and the implementation of certain key
processing steps becomes problematic. As such, it is
not possible to obtain useable images of much of the
Paleozoic section.
In shallow earth applications, it is generally difficult to obtain good quality seismic data from unconsolidated or poorly consolidated soils that are above
the water table. These, and some other settings, are
considered to be lossy media i.e., much energy
is lost through attenuation as the acoustic pulse
propagates. where it may be difficult or impossible

to obtain interpretable seismic images.
213
In other areas, noise generated by waves, wind, or

cultural features e.g., working pumpjacks, road
Fig. 17. Example showing the effects of seismic processing on data interpretability. The images show a common vertical transect through
two different versions of a 3-D seismic volume. Both data versions began with the same field data input, but different processing flows were
applied discussion and analysis of the processing differences is beyond the scope of this paper.. The upper original. image is difficult to
interpret above 600 ms TWT., but after reprocessing lower image. the stratigraphy and structure in that part of the section become clearer.
Conversely, the reprocessed volume lower. has some of the higher frequencies removed, making stratigraphic details somewhat harder to
interpret in the lower part of the section.
214
traffic, electromagnetic emissions from power cables. can cause low signal-to-noise ratios that make
data difficult to interpret. Source testing, wherein
different types of source are tested to determine
which provides the best combination of frequency
and energy characteristics for a particular application, and noise testing, looking at ambient and system noise levels, can be used to help design survey
acquisition parameters or even determine whether it
is possible to collect usable seismic data.
Other concerns are related to acquisition parameters such as survey design., processing parameters,
the subsurface geology, non-uniqueness of the seismic response and, perhaps, the way that these elements interact. For example, the acquisition footprint
is an artifact characterized by patterns of noise in
3-D data that are related to the geometric distribution
of sources and receivers on the earths surface
Marfurt et al., 1998.. This, and noise related to
other sources e.g., multiples, diffractions, low fold
areas., can obscure stratigraphic and structural features e.g., Hesthammer and Fossen, 1997b. and
disrupt seismic attribute studies e.g., Marfurt et al.,
1998..
As illustrated in Fig. 17, choices made during the
processing phase can significantly impact seismic
data interpretability. Older seismic data sets both
2-D and 3-D. are sometimes reprocessed using different parameters to enhance interpretability e.g.,
Hesthammer and Fossen, 1997a.. Processing can
affect the quality of the final data volume for a
number of reasons. Two of the more important aspects include the experience of the processors in
working with data from a particular area e.g., there
might be velocity problems or multiples that a processor with experience from that area might know
how to handle., and the choice of processing algorithms often the better algorithms take more computer time and are therefore more costly..
Assuming that the data set has been satisfactorily
acquired and processed, there are still aspects of the
interpretation phase that can affect the validity of the
results. The most obvious of these are the interpreters capabilities and experience working with 3-D
seismic data and the software used in the interpretation. Various types of pitfalls can confront even an
experienced interpreter. Velocity related problems
e.g., a horizontal layer might appear to be pulled
up on a seismic transect beneath a region that has

fast velocities. are a common type of pitfall, and can
be most problematic when available velocity control
is limited and lateral lithologic changes and depths
are great. Depth migration converts the z axis of the
seismic volume from time to depth either pre- or
post-stack., but the quality of the result depends on
the accuracy of the velocity model used during the
migration. Experience, and an understanding of the
principles of geology and geophysics can help the
interpreter to watch out for these and other types of
interpretation problems.
Finally, within the petroleum industry there is
general recognition of the limitations of 3-D seismic
technology, and these limitations need to be remembered if, or when, the technology is applied in other
fields. For example, in addition to the artifacts and
pitfalls just described, practical limits on vertical and
lateral resolution can make targets impossible to
identify in seismic data. Improper survey design and
excessive cost cutting during acquisition and processing have been known to lead to poor data quality
and failure in the petroleum industry. The geology of
an area and the project economics need to be characterized up front, in order to properly design a 3-D
survey or, indeed, to decide whether a 3-D seismic
survey is worth acquiring. Likewise, although 3-D
seismic data can provide some valuable insights
compared to 2-D seismic or well data, it is only
through the integration of multidisciplinary data sets
and concepts e.g., pressures, borehole logs, core,
geochemical analyses. that the full benefits of 3-D
seismic technology are realized. No matter how
widespread the technology has become in the
petroleum industry, economic, technical or other obstacles can cause 3-D seismic to be an impractical
tool for studying the subsurface. Overcoming these
obstacles will continue to be a topic of considerable
interest.
6. Conclusions
This summary has endeavoured to illustrate how
3-D seismic technology is applied in the petroleum
industry and to suggest that similar approaches might
be undertaken in other branches of the earth sciences. Although a 3-D seismic data volume provides
a tremendous amount of information about the sub-
surface structure, stratigraphy and rock properties, it

is only through integration of these geophysical data
with other geologic and engineering data and concepts that the true potential of the technology is
unlocked. The quality and continuity of the subsurface image obtained with a properly acquired 3-D
survey, combined with the flexible data visualization
and interpretation capabilities of interpretation software and data integration, help petroleum geoscientists to produce the worlds hydrocarbon resources
more economically and efficiently. These, or similar
benefits may be realizable in other applied and fundamental branches of the geosciences.
Acknowledgements
The material presented in this paper is derived
from the authors own published and unpublished
research, and from examples and concepts presented
in the literature. Geographic coordinates for some of
the illustrations have been deliberately disguised or
omitted to conserve the confidentiality of the data.
Support for the authors current research comes from
the Adanced Reseroir Management Project of Los
Alamos National Laboratory, the Southwest Section
of the Petroleum Technology Transfer Council, and
the New Mexico Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources. Data sets and technical guidance have been
provided by Amoco, Ardent Resources, Cross Timbers Oil, Harvey E. Yates, Marathon, and Smacko
Operating. Interpretation software has been provided
to the New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology by Landmark Graphics Corporation.
Appendix A. Glossary of some commonly used

terms in 3-D seismic interpretation
This Appendix provides definitions for some terms
in 3-D seismic technology based on common usage
by interpreters. Some of these terms have other
meanings in the field of reflection seismology.
Arbitrary line r transect A vertical seismic
transect through a 3-D seismic volume, the location,
orientation and length of which is defined freely by
the interpreter.
215
Autotracking Automated picking of a seismic

horizon throughout a 3-D seismic volume based on
seed points provided by the interpreter. Picking parameters are set by the interpreter. This process is
used to provide a continuous horizon pick more
rapidly than could be achieved through manual picking. Despite the time efficiency, results of autotracking applications need to be quality checked by interpreters, especially in areas of complex geology or
poor data quality.
Bin A rectangular area in the x, y plane
horizontal. that is represented by a single seismic
trace in a 3-D volume. Bin dimensions are determined by acquisition parameters, and each bin can
be identified by a specific combination of line and
trace numbers.
Coherency attribute An attribute defined by
comparing a seismic trace with its neighbours over a
sliding time window in order to numerically define
the lateral trace continuity at that location. This
attribute is commonly used to define discontinuities
that can be due to faulting or stratigraphic features
e.g., channel or reef margins.. The term Coherency
Cubee refers to a technology that has been patented
by Amoco, but other companies have developed
similar attributes most of which are proprietary..
Complex trace attribute A seismic attribute
e.g., instantaneous phase, instantaneous frequency.
that is derived from the Hilbert transform.
Crossline (trace) One of the two sequentially
numbered orthogonal reference coordinates for 3-D
seismic surveys the other being the linerinline.. For
land surveys, the crossline orientation is typically the
direction in which source lines were laid out.
Fault slice Amplitudes extracted along the
plane of a fault, and viewed projected onto a vertical
plane.
Fold (multiplicity) The number of field traces
sharing a common midpoint that are stacked together
during data processing to produce a single trace in
the final data volume. All else being equal, the
higher the fold, the better the data quality. The fold
may not be constant throughout the entire area of a
3-D survey.
Horizon A seismic pick that typically corresponds to a particular stratigraphic level e.g., the top
of a formation..
216
Horizon attributes Attributes that are derived

from and define geometric properties of a picked,
continuous horizon, such as dip, azimuth, edge detection, etc.
Horizon slice Instantaneous amplitudes extracted along a horizon and displayed in a map view.
Inline (line) One of the two sequentially numbered orthogonal reference coordinates for 3-D seismic surveys the other being the tracercrossline..
For land surveys, the inline orientation is typically
the direction in which receiver cables were laid out.
Interal attribute A seismic attribute e.g.,
average frequency, average amplitude. that is derived for an interval that is defined either by two
horizons or a user selected time window defined
with respect to one horizon.
Migration A seismic processing step which is
used to reposition reflected energy to its true subsurface location thus, eliminating sideswipe., collapse
diffractions and shrink the Fresnel zone. 3-D migration produces a seismic image that is more accurate
than an equivalent 2-D image.
Multipanel display A display that consists of
two or more contiguous vertical transects typically
arbitrary lines. through a 3-D seismic volume.
Patch In land 3-D seismic acquisition, a rectangular series of geophones that record reflections
from a shotpoint that is typically located near the
center of the patch.
Perspectie display A display that shows objects from a seismic survey, typically interpreted
horizons and faults, in pseudo 3-D form. These
displays can be rotated i.e., viewed from any angle.
and are useful visualization tools for quality checking interpretations or presenting results.
Sideswipe Reflected energy that comes from
objects to the side of the vertical plane that is
intended to be imaged in a 2-D seismic transect.
Sideswipe is eliminated during 3-D migration.
Synthetic seismogram Seismic traces generated by mathematically convolving a seismic wavelet
with a time series of reflection coefficients that has
been derived from well log data velocity and density logs.. These synthetics are used to predict the
seismic response at a borehole location and thus tie
log-derived geologic information to the seismic data.
Time lapse (4-D) seismic The use of different
vintages of 3-D seismic data covering a constant
area to monitor changes in subsurface conditions. A

common example is the use of changes in seismic
amplitudes through time to monitor changes in the
location of an oilrwater contact that are due to
production.
Timeslice A slice through a 3-D seismic volume at a constant TWT. Since subsurface velocities
may vary laterally, a constant TWT does not necessarily represent a constant subsurface depth.
Velocity surey Determination of the subsurface velocity field, usually by lowering a receiver
down a borehole to different depths, generating an
acoustic pulse at the surface, then measuring the
vertical traveltime to the receiver.
Vertical seismic profile (VSP) A seismic profile that is collected in a manner somewhat analogous to a velocity survey, but with more recording
depths. Longer recording times are analyzed in order
to detect reflected energy from subsurface interfaces,
and not just first arrivals. Processing transforms the
raw data into seismic traces that: a. show the seismic response in the vicinity of the borehole, b. can
be directly tied to other borehole information e.g.,
wireline logs., and c. can be displayed in either time
or depth.
Voxel A volume element defined by the
bin size in the x, y plane. and the sampling interval
in the z direction.. For conventional 3-D seismic
volumes, each voxel stores a numerical amplitude
value.
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Earth-Science Reviews 47 1999.

Definition of subsurface stratigraphy, structure and rock

Fax: q1-505-835-6333; E-mail: hart@nmt.edu

cently has been utilized almost entirely within that

B.S. Hart r Earth-Science Reiews 47 (1999) 189218

and interpreting 3-D seismic data have prevented,

2. 3-D seismic acquisition and processing

Italicized terms are defined in Appendix A.

B.S. Hart r Earth-Science Reiews 47 (1999) 189218

along a vertical 2-D plane. In the case of horizontally

do not lie mid-way between sources and receivers.

B.S. Hart r Earth-Science Reiews 47 (1999) 189218

seismic data has been recognized from the early

Fig. 2. Sample source and receiver layout for a land-based 3-D

Increasingly though, innovative techniques such as

B.S. Hart r Earth-Science Reiews 47 (1999) 189218

ceivers, while the spacing in the source direction is

of as a series of cubes, or oxels a term analogous

3. Viewing 3-D seismic data

Fig. 3. Conceptual diagram showing a 3-D data volume. Each

B.S. Hart r Earth-Science Reiews 47 (1999) 189218

B.S. Hart r Earth-Science Reiews 47 (1999) 189218

information present in the troughs can be overlooked

the interpreter in an interactive manner, rather than

B.S. Hart r Earth-Science Reiews 47 (1999) 189218

3.2. Horizontal sections

undeformed basins.. The utility of time slices for

B.S. Hart r Earth-Science Reiews 47 (1999) 189218

horizon amplitudes are sometimes called horizon

B.S. Hart r Earth-Science Reiews 47 (1999) 189218

times employed in a quick look fashion to identify

Although strictly not related to one horizon, map

This type of display Fig. 5h and Fig. 9. allows

B.S. Hart r Earth-Science Reiews 47 (1999) 189218

B.S. Hart r Earth-Science Reiews 47 (1999) 189218

B.S. Hart r Earth-Science Reiews 47 (1999) 189218

selves as bright spots at distinct stratigraphic levels.

4. Interpreting 3-D seismic data

B.S. Hart r Earth-Science Reiews 47 (1999) 189218

cally begins by tying wireline logs geologic data. to

converted to true depths e.g., meters. using available velocity data.

B.S. Hart r Earth-Science Reiews 47 (1999) 189218

types of logs employed, these displays can help to

deltaic lobes Hart et al., 1997. and even meteorite

B.S. Hart r Earth-Science Reiews 47 (1999) 189218

B.S. Hart r Earth-Science Reiews 47 (1999) 189218

B.S. Hart r Earth-Science Reiews 47 (1999) 189218

talize reservoir. Typically, vertical sections, time

etc... As with stratigraphic interpretation, vertical

B.S. Hart r Earth-Science Reiews 47 (1999) 189218

scale faults, then successively mapping finer details.

cally cube displays or time slices are considered to

B.S. Hart r Earth-Science Reiews 47 (1999) 189218

B.S. Hart r Earth-Science Reiews 47 (1999) 189218

ship is of limited value if the correlation coefficient

B.S. Hart r Earth-Science Reiews 47 (1999) 189218

skills or biases. As such, most interpreters recognize

B.S. Hart r Earth-Science Reiews 47 (1999) 189218

mental studies are suggesting otherwise Siahkoohi

seismic surveys, limiting their usefulness for regional

B.S. Hart r Earth-Science Reiews 47 (1999) 189218

propagates. where it may be difficult or impossible

In other areas, noise generated by waves, wind, or