Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
A handbock
DAVID FULFORD
)roe
PU BLISH ING
rsBN 0 9.16688 49 4
A catalogue record for this book is available tiom the British Library.
Contents
Acknowledgements ix
Notation used in drawings x
I. An Overview of Biogas I
I .l A world view on biogas I
1.2 Biogas in Nepal 3
1.3 Challcnges of biogas 3
1
.4
1.5
1.6
2.
Economic challenges 4
Technical challenges 6
Organisational challenges 7
4.
4.8
4.9
Effluent slurry 38
Research on microbiology and slurry use 40
5.
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.{
5.5
-5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10
5.1I
5.12
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.{
6.5
6.6
7.
Slurry handling 59
Gas piping 60
Gas valves 63
Biogas stoves
6.1
Biogas lights 66
Supply of ancillary equipnrent 67
Biogas in Engines 68
Running engines on biogas 68
Practic:al aspcts of biogls in cngincs 69
Use of engines in villages 71
7.1
7.:
.3
7..t
7.5
S.l
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
S.6
8.7
9.
Ancillary Equipment 59
6.
8.
of Biogas S)'srelr 85
Domestic biogas plants 86
Economics
9.1
9,2
9.3
9.4
Milling systems 87
Irrigation systcnrs 90
Economic conclusions 95
I.
.2
1.3
ll .4
I
11.5
1
.6
11.7
I1.8
ll.9 StaffforR&Dl16
12. I'olitics of Biogas I l7
12.l National views of biogas technology
117
I.
II.
III.
14O
vii
pH measurement 150
Total solids and volatile solids analysis 150
ClfD and alkalinity nreasurenrents 150
N.
V.
Glcery
167
Biblbgrephy l7a
Inder ltS
vlll
163
Acknowledgements
'l'his b<xrk is dcdicatcd to the mcmory of
Sanfred Ruohoniemi, who was
the first Executive Director of the Cobar Gas Company in Nepal and who
dicd suddcnly while in office.
Acknowledgements are made to the rest of the DCS Biogas Research
Team: Andrew Bulmer, John Finlay and Mamie Wong, who pur Biogas
Rcscarch in Ncpal on an cffcctive scientific footing. Thanks ire ottered
to the Mcnnonite Central Committee (MCC) who, with funds from the
Canadian Internationa Development Administration (CIDA), financed
the setting up of the DCS biogas programme, and to the United Smtes
Agcncy for International Development (USAID) who funded rhe conrinuation of this work.
Acknowf cdgcmcnts arc also madc to Dan lantzen, who wa_s Director of
DCS when the biogas programme was first started, as well as S.K.p.
Upadhaya, thc Gcncral Manager of ADBA.,I and thc Chairman of the
Board of Directors of the Cobar Gas Company. Mention must also be
made of the support of Odd Hoftun and Al Schlorholtz, who were succcssivc Economic Dcvclopmcnt Sccrctarics of UMN cluring the projea
period.
Thc contribution of the staff of the Cobar Gas Company in Nepal must
als<r bc rccognisc<J, espccially that of Govind a Devkota, the iompany
Research Scientist and West-Central Regional Manager, as well as Narayan
B. Pradhan, who was West-Central Regional Manager before he left.
who helpcd in rhe writing of this book were Rani Chowdhury,
.Kcy qg<rplc
whose M.Phil. thesis provided a lot of the detailed material on laboratorv
rcscarch in biogas tcchnology, and Joy Clancy, whose course nores on rh;
mechanisms of biogas digestion provided a clear model for that chapter.
Ot:g .y wife, Jane, helped in rhe checking of rhe manuscrrpr.
Finally, the author and the publishers would like to thank Mr John
McKechnic whose generosity made the publication of this book pocsible.
ix
E
m
w
ffi
Brick
Steel
Earth
Brass
Concrete
Plastic
Plaster or
ceramic
Liquid
The equations given in this book arc dcsigncd to bc uscd with a sinrplc
electronic calculator. A scientific calculator, with trigonometric functions,
is
mrxt useful.
xi
CHAPTEIT
An Overview of Biogas
I.1
There are many advantages to biogas technology for people living in the
rural areas of a developing country. A biogas plant can digest materials
that are readily available on small farms, such as animal dung and crop
wastes. Biogas digestion not only produces a clean, high-grade fuel gas, it
also gives a residue that is a good fertilizer. The quality of this fertilizer is
often higher than if the same materials were composted by more traditional
methods.
Biogas is much more convenient to use than traditional fuels, such as
firewood, dried dung and even kerosene. It gives a hot, clean flame that
does not dirty pots or irritate the eyes, as does the smoke from other fuels.
The compost from the plant does not smell or attract flies. Once it has been
dried, it is easy to apply to the crops in the fields.
Biogas can be used in engines to drive machinery and water pumpe.
Groups of farmers can come together to buy and run a biogas plant with an
engine and they will all benefit from the income eamed from a cottage
industry, such as a grain mill, or from the increased crop production
resulting from pumped irrigation.
The concept of replacing wood fuel and petroleum oils by alrernative
fuels, such as biogas, has encouraged governments in various countries to
sct up biogas programmes. In India, for example, over 200,00 biogas
plants were reported to have been completed by 1984, in a programme that
startcd in the 1950s. In 1985 the government set a target for another
1,500,UJ0 plants to be built in the five years to 1W). ln China, the tota.l
claim for biogas plants built by 1985 was over 10,000,000 (including both
Moulik'sr and Cui's2 totals for plants built before and after 199).
Biogas programmes in other Asian countries have had erratic histories.
Korea had 30,000 plants in 1979,3 but problems with poor gas production
in Korca's cold winters seem to have reduced the impetus.aj Thailand has
had a small biogas study programme for many years, but an adeguate
supply of other fuels has meant a slow growth in the extension to rural
arcas. 'Ihe high cost of imported fuels and a high national debt have
encouraged Brazil, along with other South American nations, to start
biogas piogrammes. Between 1980 and 1985 Brazil built 7,530 plans.6
However, biogas technology does not always seem to have lived up to
expectations. Despite government subsidies (25 per cent to 50 per cnt for
family plans, 75 per ccnt to 100 per cent for community plants) and highpressure salesmanship by extension agents the uptake of biogas technology
in India is much slower than government targets (between 1975 and 1980,
5,ffi to 6,000_plants were built per year, conrpared to thc annual target of
20,0OJ plants.?) Biog:rs technoltlgy hus only rcally rcachcd onc stratunr in
Indian society, the richer land-owners in the rural areas, because of the
r2
over pollution from farms has led to an improved economic climate for
building biogas plants as a means of reducing the oxygen demand of anima.l
wastes.l6
In gcncral, biogas tcchnology faces the future irom a weak base , but
with incrcasing opportunitics for its use. If planners are not to rcWat the
mistakes of the past as they attempt to fit biogas into development and aid
programmcs, they nccd to understand the limitations of biogas technology
as well as its benefits. The economic, technical and organisational difficultics of setting up a biogas programme need to be faced and plans made
to ovcrcome them.
1.2
Biogas in Nepal
.3
Challenges of biogas
The challenges that face attempts to popularise biogas are not so much
difficult as unexpected and complex. Biogas is very difficult to define as an
academic subject, as it includes many different disciplines.
The process by which biogas is made is mioobiological. Ttre biocbemistry
of anacrobic fermentation is very complex. While the details are becoming
cfcarcr as a rcsult of an cffective research effort in manv countries. such as
USA and China, r8'r e'20'2r the next step, to design micrbbiological systems
that arc more effective and efficient at biogas digestion, aqpears to be still
in the future.22'21
The practical problem of making cheap but effective biogas plants is one
of civil and mechanical engineering. Again, research effort has produced
many different designs of plant.r5 The selection of the right plant for
manufactured.
Thc economirs of biogas are imporlant; pcoplc will nol usc a new
teclnologr, however good, if it costs more than the alternatives. There
.gobar gas'
are
in Ncpal
{so sociological implications: biogas is callcd
and India, as'gobar' is the word for cow dung. The cow is a holy animal
to a Hindu, so gobar is an acceptable source of cooking fuel. pig dung
and human faeces are not acceptable feedstocks for a biogas ptint foi
many Hindus, even though the gases produced from them are almost the
same.
The use of the effluenr from a biogas plant brings in the subjects of soil
science and horticulture. In China, where conrposting of all agricultural
residues. including human faeces (nighr soil) is helcl in high estecm,24,2s thc
usc of biogas plans for producing good conrpost is often more important
than the fuel gas.
The organisation ofbiogas progr nlnlcs hrs pr.vctl tliflicult, particularly
as lhere may be politic-:tl dinrensions. ln India, tlte govcrnrncnt givcs large
subsidies for the construction of biogas plants and annuar constructi;n
targets are defined. In China. while biogas technology was givcn an initial
impetus by Chairman Mao's Great Leap Forward, the ongoing incentive
lay in biogas plants and pigs being owned privarely, in rhc nridsi of a state_
runIn Nepal, the organisation was further complicated by
-eornomy.e
making the extension work the responsibility of a commercial concern.
This company was supgtsed to nrakc a profit on thc sllc and construction
of biogas plants. The Agricultural Development Bank was also involved in
giving loans so that farmers could pay for their plants.
When a governnrent departnrent or an aid lgcncy plan to start a biogas
progmmme, they are faced with this set of closely related challenges that
demand a very wide range of skills and experience. A biogas tcarn-cannot
usually entploy c.xperts in evcry licld, so pcoplc involvcd in biogas tcclinology must be 'generalists' with skills in different fields.
1.4
Economicchallenges
While the economics of biogas have received nruch attention ,26.27.2s.2e lhe
c'rlnclusions arc not hopeful.'l'he running costs of a biogas plant are low,
but the capital cosrs per unit of energy produced arJfoiity high. This
is a factor clmmon to nrost altcrnative cncrgy tcchuologics, bcciuse thc
of energy produced
plant to extract that energy must be larger per unit
for conventional Plants'
ihan
--iorrvcntional
scale to extracl
cncrgy plants also rely on economies of
in ccntralisci units' Altcrnative enersv tcchncrd;';;;;;i;ui
and this also
"n,itgv
i.gi"r-,""a to be diff;;e; plants are small and scattered'
produceo'.
inlrcuscs thc capital cost pcr unit of power
"'
of biogas consider only its use as a
tuf *y- unrf ytes of the economics
benefit: cost ratio is
domestic fuel, such as for cooking and lighling'.The
usually firewood
fuels'
cooking
;;;; ";ty ,"nri,iu" to thc cost of aliernativefuel
made bv
savings
the
is low'
cost of wood
i*."" ciiplli 9). If the cash
original
The
unattractive'
rcplacing it with biogas appear to be financially
recovered
not
be
plant may
investmcnt made on the purchase of a biogas
figures from Nepal)'
years
ten
to
iUryd.9n
from these savings for seven
go
'I'hc actual cash cost to many farmeri of wood fuel is. often zero' as they
many
in
is illegal
to'.uif"o itt"lt own supplies from the forest' although this
countrics.
1 kW'hr of
Appr*i-ututy 0.33 litres of oil are used to produce
power-stauon
;t
clay.
if.W ni
.t4'270 for a biogas
three times higher. However, the cost of feedstock
while the cost of oil (even at $18 per barrel in
p[^i ir
""grigible,
lor rnany governments'
1988).
-Also,is of major concerrl
the supply
Aiogu. plants can be built in villages' from which
to remote
power
transmission
of
t"eostoJr comes. The cost
of biogas
economics
the
making
villages becomes v-ery expensive,
po*"i.
li
morL attractive.?B'2e
Biogas can nlsrr tr used to frrel cnginr.s, *'hiclr c*n thcr c.rrr .rr irrc'rrrc
for the owner- However this requircs a rlrgcr plant, which uscs fccd fronr
more than 20 cattle (if cattle dung is the main feed). Either dung nrust be
bought in from outside suppliers or several farmers nrust co-operate to run
such a plant. The emnomics of a group-owncd plant running a grain mirl
look reasonable in Nepal (see Chapter 9). The group of firm-ers could
recover the original investment within thc peri.tl of thc loan (scvcn years).
Government subsidies help to increase the economic attractiveness of this
approach.
l5
Technical chalhnges
.6
Organisational challenges
CHAPTER 2
2.1
Bkrgas in China
under the rrnf of the pit (see Chaptcr 5). Sevcral hundrcd units wcre built,
mainly for rich land-owners, of which about fifty survive and still work
u'9ll,l Most of these plnnts had rccr:rngular rJigcsrcr pirs, alrlrough a fcw
cylindrical designs were also made. Their sizes ranged from 6 to l0gm3
intemal volume and they were made of brick or stone, with concrete roofs.
While the quality of constructitrn Nils vcry good, thc cost of thc plants wus
very high.
projects.
I large number of plants were built, but their reliability was not good
and many did not function for long. The basic design was poor, as it used a
flat-roofed digester pit.3 which was difficult ro n.,ikc gas-tight. .I.he local
supplies of cement, brick and steel were of variable quality and there was a
lack of traincd masons who could guide the local people in their construc-
tion work.
The biogas programme was revived in the 190s, apparently spontaneously'
appcar.'
-
22
Biogs in lndh
The lndian biogas programme was inspired by research carricd out by the
Indian dgriculiural Research Institute at Dcthi,T in conncction with a
scwage plant in Bombay. The idea was taken up by J'J. Patel of thc Khadi
and Village Industries Contntission (KVIC) in l95l and thc conrnrission sct
up its own national biogas programme. The KVIC was originally set up
to encourage village industries, especially 'khadi'-hand-spun and woven
cotton goods-along the lines inspired by Mahatnra Gandhi. It has an
effective team of extension agents, with good technical training, although
therc are not enough of these people to fulfil all the demands made upon
rhem. KVIC is also involved in the cxtcnsiorl of othcr tcchnologics, such as
soapmaking and carpentry (up to 20 different rural industries).8
Various biogas plant designs were testcd at thc KVIC Biogas Ccntre
near Bombay, but the choice of design for the extension work was unfor-
23
lhe t*)gas
prcg,ramme in Nepal
The pioneer of biogas in Nepal was B.R. Saubolle S.J., a Bclgian teacher
at St Xaviers school. He built a demonstration plant in 1955.17 'l'wo other
t2
plants built in Kathmandu are still running. In 1968 KVIC built a plant for
an cxhibition in Kathmandu. ln 1974, thc Energy Rescarch and Develoy
ment Forum at Tribhuvan University recommended that biogas be considcrcd as an altcrnativc cncrgy resource for Nepal.lE
'l'hc Dcpartmcnt of Agriculture planned a programme of biogu, exwn'
sion. The aim was to build 250 biogas plants during the 'Agricultural Year'
of 1975176. Scvcral contractors were asked to make sleel gas drums to
the KVIC design, while the Department's local extension agenb (Junior
Tcchnical Assistants, (JTAs)) were to sell plants and find local builders to
make the brick-lined pits. The Agricultural Development Eank of Nepal
(ABD/N) were to offer zero-interest loans for biogas plans during this fint
year
Thc two groups still involved in biogas extension-DCS and ADBfi'{rJccidcd to pool resources by setting up a commercial concern to sell biogas
plants. The Gobar Gas Company was formed in 198, with capital finance
from UMN, ADB/N and the Fuel Corporation of Nepal, based on the DCS
biogas extcnsion organisation. UMN has a policy of setting up is develop
mcnt programmes as private limited companies; a model that allows more
controf to pass to local managers as they gain expeiencn. Most of the staff
of thc ncw company were Nepali citizens, apart from an expatriate Executive Director. DCS retained the research and development side of
tlrc programmc, oftcring tcchnical back-up to the staff of the company.
Responsibility for research and development passed to the Company in
1984.
strategSc places in
Nepal, mainly on the Terai (the plains area). Transport was far more
diffit'ult in the hills:rnd thc highcr lnrtricnt tcrnllcnlturcs trclow 3(X) ructrcs
altitude allowed better year-round gas production. By the nriddle of 1987
the Company had built over 2,300 biogas plants in Nepal, including those
built under DCS. The work of follow-up, strrtcrd try DCS, has continucd,
ensuring that at least 95 per cent of these plants continue to work. For each
plant built a seven-year guarantee is offered against design or construction
fauls: yearly visits are made by company staff to the owners for thc period
of the guarantee.:r This approach was encouragcd by ADB/N, nrainly (o
safe-guard the repayment of loans.
Even after eight years of trading, however, the Gobar Gas Company had
not made a profit. It was under-financed for the sudden expansion from a
local extension programme to a national organisation, and this also put
severe strains on staff and resources.x The follow-up programme means
very high overheads, which cannot be fully financed from plant sales.
Sudden expa.nsion resulted in technicians, who had only been trained to
supervise the building of biogas plants, being pronroted to area managcrs,
with little management training. They rvere expected to look after their
office accounts and stores inventories, act as salesmen to farmers, liaise
between fsrnrers and bank officirls for lolns, supcrvisc tlrc ctlustruction of
plans and follow-up all their customers, all with no transport in a country
that has few roads. Most were given nrotorbikes in 1983. These men have
gained experience over time and received orr-the-job training, so thcir
wealinesses are being overcome.
Nepal is a difficult country in which to do busincss.
It
is landlocked and
While there are biogas programnres in other countries,23 they are less
well documented than those in India, China lnd Ncpll. 'l'hailand had
about 3,tI0 family-sized digesters in 1984t: and a governnrent programme
for 15.fr[ nlore to be buitt by l99t). Thcy lurd protrlcnrs witlr thc lloutirrg
drum design and changed (o the tixed donre dcsign. 'l'lrc govcrnnrcnt of
Taiwan is promoting the use of bag digesters using red mud plastic. In
1982, t,200 of these plants had been built, but thcrc is a lack of infornration
on how successftrl they have been or how the programme is progressing.12
2.4
l-essons
to be learned
While the Chinese and Indian programmes started very differently, the
practicalities of building biogas phnts for large nunrbcrs of customcrs has
meant that the organisational structures are becoming similar. The chinese
programme startid as a 'people's movement'. In- some ways the pro-
iechnology, with people discovering the benefits for themselves and making their own decisions. The economics of these plants looked very good '
as pcople had to pay the production team for fuel, either firewood or crop
staiks, but were paid for the compos ted fertilizet from the plant. Despite
all these advantages, the Chinese programme up to 1979 was considered
officially as a failure, mainly because of the short lifetime of the plants'r
The Chinese government recognised the need for central coordination and
planning, especially in the development of effective technologies and in
providing standards for quality control.
The Indian programme started as a centrally planned opration, first by
2.5
A biogas programme
cooperation.
Thc corc of the biogas programme is the extension work. Salesmen must
go to potential customers to persuade them to buy biogas plants. Once a
customer has agreed to purchase a plant and loan finance (if necessary) has
15
l6
rcgular visits to rcscarch centres to see new ideas and to receive training in
ncw tcchniqucs, so that the results of research and development may be
quickly applied in practice. Research and development originally inspired
thc In<Jian biogas programmc and KVIC has continued the tradition with a
research dcpartment attached to its Bombay office. However' the research
work done it the centre does not seem to be very closely relarcd to the
rrcccls of f ndian villagcrs. 'fhc cmphasir appcars to be more on tcahnical
problems.l3
The opposite extreme obtained in China, where the farmers themse lves
cxpcrimentcd with new ideas and designs. Many of thesc designs were
imaginative and did work, the best ideas being shared with others through
thc Chincsc propaganda machine. As academic research became accept'
able again after the disruptions of the Cultural Revolution in the early
1970s, the Chinese government recognised the lack of scientific method in
thc peasants' work antl set up biogas research centres' Tltete wete over 50
biogas research projects in different institutions in 1985'l
DCS in Nepal attempted to link the extension and research and develoP
mcnt sidcs of thcir projcct from the start. The follow'up Programme
started as part of the research programme' as a series of surveys of how
KVIC design to be adapted to meet the needs ofthe people who were using
thc plants in thc ficld. The research and developmenl work continues in the
Ciobar Gas Company, thc staff acting as trouble-shq)ters if extensi<-rn staff
discover problems with the plants they are building. They are also continuing morc basic rcscarch projects, such as the use of alternative feed stocks
in biogas plants.''
Rnottrei aspect needing early organisation is that of finance' Capital
is riquircd to sct up thc programme infrastructure, such as manufacturing ficilities and research laboratories, and to obtain adequate stocks of
miterials. Few rural farmers can find enough cash to purchas a biogas
plant outright, so loan financc is also required. Arranging loans and colleciion of repayments and interest is a specialised job, best done by banks or
an agricultural credit scheme. If national subsidies are provided, govemmeni departments become involved, although money can be disbursed
through the bank that provides the loans.
Thc banks are very involved in the Indian biogas programme, with the
National Ilank of Agricultural and Rural Development (NABARD) pro
viding reserve financing to commercial banks to allow them to lend to
farmcrs.12 Commcrcial banks ask an interest rate ol 7l Wr cant for a loan
period of five to seven years, depending on the sizr of the plant. Bank
officials have problems with loan security, as a biogas plant is a pernanent
installation and cannot be moved. Banks prefer the steel drum design, as ar
least the gas holder can be repossessed in case of non-payment of debts' In
17
UNDP.
Finance was not a key concern in the Chirrcse progruntnrc unlil rcccntly.
The early plants were considered to be so cheap thai fanrilics could pay tor
them directly from their earnings, either in the fornr of cash oi work
credils. As the cost of biogas digcstcn has riscn thc provincial ofliccs arc
having to malie arrangements for loan linance and foi subsidies.6 The cost
of_loans from the Agricultural Bank of China is low (2.1 per cent interest).
If the idea of biogas is to be presenred to potential customers publicity is
required, through national newspapers and radio. The idea of biogas only
became well-known in rural India after 1970, whcn the governirent of
India made
subject newsworthy enough for the nationaimedia to take
^the
an interest.s While a national publicity Lmpaign as such has not been
organised in Nepal, certain civil servants and journalists have bccome
interested enough in biogas technology for the subject to appear regularly
in newspapen and on the radio. In communist China, a miisive puUti.ity
o*plq formed an important part of the 1970s biogas progranrnre. The
usc of demonstration plants in strategic pluccs forntcd ihc basis of this
popularisation campaign which proved very successful.2
t8
CHAPTER 3
3.1
The 95 floating drum biogas plants built by DCS for the Agricultural
Year in Nepal acted as a pilot programnle for the national piogramnrc
under thc Goblr Grrs Ctlntp:lny. Nincty-livc provcd too largc t nunrbcr for
the limited resourccs of DCS, as finance was insuflicicnt to cover the cost
of the failures against which guarantees had been given.
As staff skills develop and technology bccorucs rcliablc, thc pil.t schc'rc
will merge into an on-going extension programme. The temptation to
erpand too fast must be resisted. The rapid expansion of the 1970s' pro_
gramme in China led ro a high plant-failurc rate. Sinrilarly, whcn the
Gobar Gas Company was fornred front the local DCS progiamnre , staff
were not prepared for the sudden increase in work and responsibility.
Staff training nrust continuc as the progranrme cxpands. In the earty
stages of expa.nsion the programme will be overstaffed, with two people
being trained for each job. This approach allows for drop-out of staff as
well as for expansion. Some of rhe more able personnel will discovcr they
crn us their training in other areas which may pay more money than the
biogas pmgramme. ManRgcnrcnt stuff orc l)ill.t iculilrly iruportlrrt. DCS
trained technical staff very effectively, but rnanagcnrcnt skills were given a
lower priority. The Gobar Gas Company therefore built good-quality
plants, but was gxrrly adurinistcrcd.
An important factor at the starl of a progranrnre is rescarch and development, so a research centre should be included early in the programme
plans. Scientific and technical staff are requircd who can lcarn the basics of
the technology and teach the extension staff. They are also required to
monitor the progress of the pilot programnre and to identify design and
construction faults so they can be correctcd quickly.
3.2
The governments of India and China recognised in the 1970s that the way
to ma\e their programnres really effective wls to sct up a coordination
committee composed of senior people fronr all the organisations involved
in biogas technology. In Nepal one of the first moves of the government
planners when setting up their biogas progranrntc, was to appoint a Biogas
Committee to supervise it. Such committees include representatives from
government ministries. such as Agriculturc, Encrgy, Industry and Financc,
so that appropriare grlitical dccisions att'ecting thc progranrnrc can bc
made. A weakness on the Nepal comntittee was lack of representation
from the Ministry of Finance, which meant that decisions about subsidies
and problems rhat the Gobar Gas Conrpany had with tax payments took a
long time to sort out.
This typc of coordinating conrnrirtee should bc sct up cithcr bcfore the
programme starB or soon after. As well as civil servants. it needs to
include senior managers of the banks involved in loan finance and the
20
3,3
Programmestructure
2l
.u"tr
offce. Wth communications being poor in China, India and Nepal, all
manager and staff under him responsible for the various aspects of
the
work. The main function of area offices will be extension *oik. with the
srea malager looking after teams of extension agents and construction
area managers may have additionairesponsibility for liais_
:"rk:T:S"T"
ing with local manufacturing workshops or'raterial suppriers in iheir
area,
on bcbalf of the centrar office. others may have research raboratories or
test sites in their area.
Responsibilities need to be carefully defined in written job descriptions,
with lines being carefully drawn between the different geographical and
functional areas for which different offices have oversight. Also clear rines
of authority need to be defined by the central office, to ensure that everv
member of staff knows to whom they report. such careful planning white
the organisation. is being set up saves a great deal of upset, woiy and
uouble later on.r
3.4
)',
The approach in Nepal was similar, with senior staff in the Department
pre-
planning stage is required when senior technical and management staff are
hircd and trained to allow them to be involved in planning the programme
they are to administer. Plans must be based on accurate and uptodate
data, so this stage also involves market surveys and economic analyscs.
The lines of responsibility between the managers of the different aspccts of
the programme should be clearly defined at this point. Initial budgets
should adequately cover every aspect of the programme, as funding agencies are more prepared to give money at the start of a programme than
while it is running.
The plans should also include set times
for programme
evaluation.
Several assumptions have to be made in order to design the plans and tbese
assumptions should be identified, so they can be tested during the evalua-
L5
reports if they are given a list of definite questions related to these indicators to ,nceer- Further detailed information is only required if any
indicator deviates markedly from its planned value.
Planning and evaluation are effective tools that assist in the smooth
running of a pnrgrammc. However, the skills required are not well understood end many administrators feel threatened by the process. Further
infornuti<m on planning and evaluation is available in uooti on the subject.a
alternative to walking. Horses and mules were too expensive to fead ald
look after.
The progress of each plant sale should be monitored at area otfrce level,
with periodic checks being carried out with bank offices that ban agglica'
tions are being processed and with construction grouPo that sufficicnt criff
are available for their side of the work. Area offres need to carry sutfieient
stocks of materials locally to ensure that all current orders can be rupplied
in good time. In Nepal customers are normally exq*ie.d to collect their
own materials from the area offices, as they often have a tractor and trailer
or a bullock cart that can be used. Customers often atange their mm
suppfies of bricks directly from suppliers. Sand and aggegato can often bc
obtained from locat riverbeds by farmers supplying their own transpo, t and
labour. As far as possible, customers are also asked to provi& local
labouren to dig the holes for the digester pits and to assirt the sldlled
masons in mixing concrete and carrying materials on the site. Ttte pne
paid by the customer for his biogas plant reffects the amount of work bc ir
able to contribute towatds the building of the plant.
An area office may employ several construction teamr to build tbeir
plants. Each team would consist of a master mason with one or rwo
assistants and labourers, A team may also include a specialia ppc' fitter to
connect up the gas pipe lines. These teams may be employeA ditealy by
the area office, as in Nepal. Alternatively, they may be empbyed by
indcpendcnt construction firms who build biogas plants under can|uact lo
the area office, as in India and China.
The use of small independent contraclors has several a&antagcs. Being
focal pcople, they are available to cuslomers tor repzir work and maintenance of the plants they have built. They also have a motivation to scll
biogas plants that is separate from that of the main programme and geared
to the local situation. Their efforts to advertise biogas plants can reinforcc
those of the extension agents from the biogas progtamme.s
effective,
25
A small percntage (e.g. 10 per cent) of the fee for the work can be
withheld for a year, when it can be paid after the plant has been inspected
to ensrc it is still working. Further checks can be made during subsequent
follow-up visis. Building contracts can be cancclled if thcrc arc too many
hults in certain contractors' work.
3.6
Resourcemanatement
central office then provides finance (from grants and other income) to the
area offices according to the cash-flow plans and the area managers are
expected to keep their spending as close to their plans as pocsible.
'I'he ovcrall funding for the programme shoul<t come from gwernment
or aid agencies, as grants. If the programme is made self-financing, with all
overheads paid out from the money earned by selling biogas plants, the
cost of thc plants to customers is artificially inflated. A customer should
only pay the direct cost for his plant: materials, skilled labour and tramport.
The question of subsidies for a biogas Programme is a difficult one. In
principle, subsidies do little to overcome the basic eronomic p'roblems
associated with biogas extension; they do little to make a bad programme
bctter. Howevcr, most biogas programmes are giving subsidies for plant
construction or are considering doing so. The argumcnt for subsidies is
based on the idea that a government benefits from the programme in
rcduccd dcforcstation and lower import bills for oil'bascd fucls. Thesc
benefits are not seen by the consumer as lower prices for the fuel from their
biogas plant, as wood fuel has a low market price and kerocene and diesel
arc usually subsidised by the government, anyway. Tlterelote, the best way
to pass the national benefits of biogas technology to people who are
prcparcd to buy a plant is to give government subsidies on the caPital codt
of the plant itself.
3.7
Communication
in the field at
regulat
intervals.
Extension staff are motivated by such visits, as they feel their work is
being appreciated. This policy proved effeclive in Nepal, where regional
and central managers made a point of visiting as many field staff as pocsible
each ycar, despite the difficultics of travel. Lack of intrest by the central
office can quickly lead to reduced morale among the 6eld staff and a high
turnover of personnel (a problem faced by the PRAD Programme in Uttah
Pradesh in North India).6
Groups of staff, especially field staff, should meet logether at intervals
(perhaps once or twice a year) for training weeks. There are often times in
thc year when field visits are difficult (such as in the monsoon in South
Asia), or when potential customers are very busy with agricultural work' so
27
training sessions need not adversely affect the progress of the programme.
Thcse times arc olst opportunities for udnrinistrttivc staff to discuss any
changes in the procedures used by the programme and to listen to problems discovered by the field staff. They are also tinrcs whcn R & D and
technical staff can present new ideas and train field staff in the use of new
and equipment that is being made and sold. The main value of
such meetings, though, is the exchange of ideas betwecn field staff from
different areas. They will all encounter similar problems, so they will be
3.8
Most of the field and area staff will be expected to understand the basics of
biogas technologSr, how it works and how to teach customers to use it.
Ho*cver, as the pmgranrnre expands, especially in the use of community
plants to run engines and mttage industries, more specialised technical
staff will also be required. For example, if group-owned plants are to be
uscd for grain milling and rice hulling, pcopte with cxpcricnce in sctting up
engines and milling equipment will be required. Help can be obtained from
the ompany agents supplying the equipnrent. but thc progranrme should
also employ staff who can assist extension agents in this work, both in the
sctting-up and the follow-up. Another area where expert help is required is
in irrigation projeca.
Depending on the number of technical projects in the programme,
specialist staff may need to travel from a base in the head office, or several
sucl staff may be stationed at different area offices. If the biogas programme is linked up with other rural development programmes, then some
of this technical help may be available from thc area offices of thesc other
progrsnrmqs. For eramplc, in Ncpal hclp is availablc fronr thc Srnall
Farmen' Development Programme, which is also linked with ADBA.{.
3.9
Management training
Management is a oomplex subject and there are nrany books about it.
There are also many courses available to train nranagers, ranging from
28
29
CHAPTER4
4.1
They sesete chemicals, calleA enzymes, through the membrane into the food
around them. to bresk it down into sinrplcr sutrstunccs. Thcsc sutrstarrccs
will dissolvc in water, so they can be absorbed and used by the bacteria.
There are several ways of classifying bacteria. Here it is useful to consider their response to oxygen. Aerobic bacteria require oxygen to survive,
while anaerobic bacteria cannot function at all in the presence of oxygen
(they do not die, they stop working until the oxygen is removed). Facalaa'va bacteria are able to use oxygen if it is present, but can use alternativc
digestion processes if it is absent.
30
Feedstock
Carbohydrateg
I
t----
- - -r
Fats
Protelnr
'-
nYDRoLYSIS
SImple sugars
Alcohols
I
_l
- -
-Volatlte dattY'aclde
ll
t-
- -
Ammonla
I
METHANOGENESIS
Blogae
I
I
ACIOOGENESIS
t_
-l
Amlno aclde
HYdrogen
L-
I
I
SlurrY
if
3l
acid Gormcrs can use. The acid fornten;, in turn, produce acids that the
mcthanogens usc, giving biogas as their waste product. lf all the bacteria
are working in balance the acid level remains constant, the rate of production by the acid formers equalling the rate of use by the methanogens.
12
EffectofpH
Thc measurc of acidity is called pH (the negative logarithm, base 10, of the
@ncentnrtion of hydrogen ions; see Fig. a.2). A normal value for pH in a
uorking biogas plant is between 7 and 8 (ubout rrcutrul). Whcn a biogas
plant is newly started, the acid formers become active first, reducing the
pH to below 7 (incrcasing the acid content). The methanogens then start
using thcse acids, increasing, the pH brcli to ncutral.
A working biogas plant is buffered, in other words, the acid level is
@ntnolled by the procass itself. Some of the carbon dioxide (CO2) produced by the bacteria dissolves in the water to form bicarbonate ions
(HCOr-) which cause the solution to become mildly alkaline. The amount
of bicarbonate in solution depends on the concentration of carbon dioxide
and thc amount of acids in the slurry. The effect of this carbon dioxide
passing in and out of solution acts as a buffer to balance out small variations in the acidity of the slurry.
Basic
Acidic ph Yalue Neutral
11 12 13 14
12345678910
Vinegar I Beer ,Water lSodiu.m
A*monia
I
I
lbicarbonate
Blood
Soft drlnks Sallva
4.3
Effects of temperalure
4.4
Effect of toxins
The main cause of a biogas plant going sour is the Presence of toxic
substances. Antibiotics, disinfectants and pesticides are designed to kill
bacteria and will stoP a digester functioning, as will detergents. Oilorinakd
hydrocarbons, such as chloroform and other organic solvents, are Particularly toxic to biogas digestion.
Care must be taken that the feedstock used in a biogas plant has not
been affected by these chemicals and that the water used to mix the slurry
is not polluted. 1he dung of any animals being given antibiotics should b
kept separate and not added to the plant' If an animal shed is cleaned with
detergents or disinfectants the washings must be directed away from the
biogas plant. The chemicals used to clean the shed must then be washed
away with plenty of water before the animals are allowed to return.
4.5
Properties of feedstock
I Total solids (fS) is a measure of the dry matter (DM) left after the
moisture has bcen removed (by heating to 105"C).
2 Volatile solids (VS) is a measure of the organic solids lost when the dry
matter is burnt (at 50fC or 60trC).
3 Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is a measure of the degree of pollution of the slurry. It is determined by chemically oxidizing a sample.
4 Biological oxygen demand (BOD) is an attempt to measure the pollution morc rcalistically. Aerobic bactcria arc uscd to digest the sanrple and
rhe oxygen required is measured.
5 C-arbon to nitrogen ratio (C:N) is an important paramcter as anaerobic
bacteria need nitrogen compounds to grow and nrultiply. Too nruch nitrogen, however, can inhibit methanogenic activity.
Typical values for some of these parameters are given in Table 4.1.
These resuls depend very much on the size of the animal, what it is eating,
the weather, etc. Hot dry weather will cause water to evaporate from the
dung before it is collected, giving an apparent increase in TS, while humid
Table
4.1
Animal
Biogas
(kg/day)
(tit/day)
Buflalo
Cow
14
10
Pig
100 hens
Human
7.5
0.2
450-480
280-340
280-340
420-510
11-
14
Total
(%)
Solid
Volatile
Solid (%rs)
16-20
16-20
77
77
25
80
4a
77
15-20
90
programme and these values considered when suitable biogas plants are
designed.
The total solid content of animal dung varies between 15 per cent and 30
per cent (Table 4.1), while the remmmended value for slurry is between 8
per ccnt an<l 12 per cent. This means that dung must be diluted with water
before it is used in a biogas plant. A low solids concentration mean that the
digcstcr volume is used inefficiently.It can also lead to *paration oI the
slurry, the heavier solids sinking to the bottom to form a sludge layer and
the lighter solids floating to form a scum layer on top of the liquid (supernatant). Thc scum laycr can dry out to form a solid mat, preventing EAs
release from the liquid and blocking pipes. This should not happen if rhe
TS of the slurry is kept above about 6 Wr cent.
A slurry with a high solids concentration (greater than 12 pl cent) does
not easily flow through inlet pipes. If toxins are presnt, such as a high
nitrogen concentration, bacteria are more likely to be atfer,lred in a thick
slurry. However slurries of up to 30 per cent total solids can be digasted in
a dry fermenter.12'13
The volatile solid content of dung is usually around 80 per cent of the
total solids (Table 4.1). The remaining ash (fixed solids) is composed of soil
particles, inert portions of vegetable matter (some grasss, e.g. nc*, cr.ncentrate silica in their stalks) and some solid carbon left from the decomposition of foodstuffs. VS is not an ideal measure of the digestibility of a
feedstock. Lignin and other indigestible solids will burn at 50fC, while
some digestible solids, such as sugars, Ieave a carbon deposit when teAted.
It is an easy measurement to make (Appendix III).
COD and BOD arc also not ideal ways to predict whan proportion of the
feedstock will be digested in an anaerobic digester, as they were designed
as measures of the aerobic digestibility of materials. While they may $ve a
more valid answer than VS, these measurements are much more difficult to
make (Appendix III). The best way to determine the anaerobic digesribility of a feedstock is to digest it in small laboratory digesters (2 litres) in
controllcd temperature baths (sce Appendix III).
35
Tebb
t[2
Matqial
C:N
Canle dung
20-30
25-35
Horse dung
Sheep dung
25
20
Pig duns
14
Pouhry dung
Human faeces
Human urinels
Water hyacintht6
Rice strawr
6-10
0.8
r
5-23
47.2
o/oN %C %Water
Comments
Notes: Data for fresh dung. All dung will lose water and nitrogen on
keepirp. especially if air humidity is low.
In general, the C:N ratio of dung from cattle fed with poor feeds, such as
straw and dry grass, tends to be too high (up to 35 per cent). The values
quotd in Westem literaturc (20 per cent or lcss) arc nrelsured using dung
from cattle that eat more protein-rich foods. If the C:N is high, then gas
production can be enhanced by adding nitrogen in the form of cattle urine
or urca, or by fitting a latrinc to the pl$nt. lf thc C:N rutio is low, for
example if chicken manure is used as a feedstock, the addition of carbon,
such as chopped grass or water hyacinth, can reduce the possibility of
toxicity from too much nitrogen affecting thc bactcria.
(5 per cent to 30 per cent by volume), and the gas collected as it is given
off. There is a lag time of between one and 74 days before the first gas ii
givcn off (dcpnding on the slurry Lempralute and tllr- afifr)nt of lzttcrl.e
For the 6rst day or two the gas will be mainly carbon dioxide . T)n.e gw
production rate will rise to a peak and then fall off (Fig. 4.3). There may be
subsidiary peaks in the gavproduction rate as les digestible tnzterial
becomes available to the methanogens.
The advantage of a batch reactor is that the
It
-:
=
o
'1.
1.
;0.
60.
Eo.
5
30.
o.
o
0.
so.
go.
30.
ooo-
10
20
Tlme
30
40
ot dlgostlon
50
60
(d)
digestion process has stabilised, the gas production rate is fairly constant
(with onstant feed rate and temperature). Care must be taken that the
inlet and outlct pipes arr not blcked by indigcstible matter.
Many digesters in China are run in a semi-batch mode. They are started
as batdr digesters and filled with vegetable nlntter, such as straw and
gudcn wastcs, and animal dung and a startcr. Howevcr thcsc digcsters are
also fed daily, with dung (usually from pigs and an attached latrine) and
rrcgeteblc wastes. The gas production rcmains fairly constant, as the daily
fccd is digcsted, but it is enhanced by the slow degradation of the less
digestible matter. The Chine.se empty thcse plants once or twice a year,
rcmoving the undigested materials and using the slurry as fertiliser on their
6elds. The disadvantage of this approach is the break in gas production
during the time the plant is being emptied and restarted.
4.7
Digster
derip parameters
R=Y
a"ys.
(3.1)
The volume feed rate (v) is given by the mass of total solids (m, kg) fed
daily, divided by the proportion of total solids in the nrixed slurry (assuming the density of feed is 1000 kg/m3):
" = TS={m
or v =
OU}-
m3/day
(3.2)
pit, .wash-out'
r = mxvs
v
' = i:
Y#'ks.vstmltday
(3.3)
Typical values for the foading rate are between 0.2 kg.YVmtlday and
2.0 kg.VS/m3/day.
-or
4.8
Effluent slurry
Anaerobic digestion not only breaks down plant materials into biogas, it
also releases plant nutrients, such as nitrogen, potassium and plrocphorous
and converts them into a form that can be easily absorbed by plants.lt
These fertif iser chemicals are not removed or created in a biogas plant,
although the removal of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen as methan and
carbon dioxide means that the concentration of thesc other ctremicals
is incrcascd (Table 4.3). For example, protein and amino-acids in tlrc
feed-stock are mnverted into ammonia, which forms soluble ammooium
compounds with the fatty acids.le
While the value of biogas effluent as a fertililr.r ig well-knosn lo brogu
workers, most biogas programmes have given it too little emphasis. Farnlen
tend to assume that the removal of one benefit (biog;as) from the feed must
reduce its effectiveness in other directions (as a fertiliser). Thfu attitud
prevails even in China, where the people have a long tradition of compcting wastes (especially night-soil)-despite intensive propaganda on the
benefits of biogas.2l'2 Few lndian and Nepalesc farmers, are convinced of
the fertiliser value of the effluent, except those who have tried it and have
become impressed with the results. One such farmer claims to be saving 80
per cent of the urea he used to put on his cropc. A few institutions in India
run biogas plants purely for the fertiliser they produce.
Table
4.3
mcalrrcd
in Nepal2o
Material
Nitrogen
%
Buffalo dung
1.01
Biogas effluent 1 .41
0.92
26.43
1.18
1.8
28.U
Nepalcsc biogas plants using cow dung as feed, so this may not be a major
problcm.
If
scil conditioner.
It
it
h8rmful bacteria and parasites in the original feed are either killed or
onsiderably reduced in number.a'2a The benefits of slurry use build up
owr scvcrd pars. Tasts in China show a productivity increase in rice
production of tl per cent to 14 per cent ajter biogas slurry had been
appiea to the fields regularly for four years. re'5
Thc major problcnr with clllucnt slurry is trunsporting it to thc liclds tts it
is in liquid form. Chinese plant owners often collect the slurry daily in
buctets and carry them to nearby vegetable plots. Slurry has a total solids
conteot of about 8 per cent, so 92 per cent is water, which is bulky and
heavy to carry over long distances. A large volume is required to get all
adequate quantity of fertiliser.
Tbc rsual practice in India and Nepal is to collect ttre effluent in shallow
ponds and allow it to dry in the sun. This reduces its weight and volume
considcrably. Any toxic substances, such as hydrogen sulphide, evaporate
and any remaining harmfirl bacteria are killed. However, ammonia is also
lost by evaporation inio the air and by leeching, as water drains into the
sdl. Thc loss of nimogen from dried slurry (7 per cent to 15 per cent)26
8ppesrs to bc less than from drying raw cattle dung (20 per cent to 45 per
ccnt).6 However, sun drying takes up a lot of space and is difficult in the
rainy season.
4.9
4l
CHAPTER 5
5.1
Tlrcre are many different designs of biogas plant available.r'2'3 Some have
been madc only as prototypes, to test an idea; others have becn made in
thousands in extension programmes. A biogas plant must perform a basic
set of functions: it must contain the slurry for a suitable length of time; it
must keep out air and light; it nrust keep the slurry at a reasonable
temperature and it must collect and store the biogas irntil it is required.
There arc several criteria against which different designs nray be considered, when choosing one to act as the basis of an extension programme.
I
2
3
4
Strong
Leat-tight
Built of local materials
Cheap to build
5
6
7
8
Easy to use
Easy to maintain
Easy to insulate and heat
Reliable
A large volume of slurry (5m3 to 1000m3) exerts high pressure on the walls
of is container, depending on the depth. The eusiest way to support the
ontainer walls is to place them in a pit in the ground. The space between
the walls and the undug earth nrust be filled with hard-packcd earth for
strength.
Some of the above criteria are linked; a plant built of local materials,
such as those used to build local houscs. will be nruch chcapcr tlran onc
made from imported materials. Some are in conflict: a biogas plant built of
welded steel sheet will be strong and leak+ight, but will be expensive. The
cheapest building materials: mud, wood, banrboo etc. are not suitable, as
slurry and biogas will leak through them. Mud can be used to add weight
42
winter.
The most successful biogas plant designs are shaped as a cylinder or
as
part of a sphcre, as thcsc shapes are stronger and easiet to make leak'tig)tt '
Corners are very difficult to seal against slurry or gas leaks. If components'
such as gas storage drums, are lo be made in a workshop, the tramportation
s.2
While there is a wide range of plant designs available, only three will be
considered for use in extension programmes: the floating drum, the fixed
dome and the flexible bag digesters. These are the mo6t used desigrs and
many other plants are only variations of them. Both the floating drum and
the fixed dome designs are built in Nepal and they are vcrsions of the
original designs adapted to local conditions. The Nepalese versions also
incorporate improvements to the original designs that make them cheapcr
to build and casicr and more reliable to use.
5.3
The floating steel drum design has formed the basis of the Khadi and
Villagc Inclustrics Commissio n proglamme in India sinct the 1950s. It
was originally developed in Bombay by Mr J.J. Patel, who called it the
Gramalaxmi III design.a It is now more commonly alled ttrc Indian &ign43
n*
pit.
lllrlng plt
Slurrv
outlcl
Plan vlcw
octlon
Figure 5.1 Sraight design of steel drum biogas plant
4.1
t--1500
M|llng plt
-----r
tr
,.
Gas I
,y','J"'""tffirysect|on
V
o
l_
Slurry
outtct
Plan vlew
make the best use of materials. A shallower, wider pit (the deph being
about the same as the diameter) should be cheapr to build.6 Th problem
of digging deep pits in the plains (Terai) of Nepal, where the un&rground
water tabfe is often near the surface, inspired the taryr design (fig. 5.2).7
Thc intcrnal volume of this plant is the same as the straight version of thc
corresponding size and both use the same number of bricks and size of gas
drum (see Appendix I). The tapered version requires a much shallower
hole. A central dividing wall is used to stop new feed slurry coming out of
the outlet pipe before it is digested.
A second improvement made to the Nepal version by DCS is in tbe way
the gas is removed. The KVIC design has a gas tap fitted to tlre top of the
gas drum and a ffexible plastic pipe hose links this to the prmanent gzs
pipeline. This plastic pipe needs to be replaced regularly (once or Mce a
year) as it degrades in the sunlight, gets brittle and cracks. The drum used
in Nepal has holes leading into the central guide-pipc, which is scaled to
atmosphere. The gas is removed under the sid of the drum (rc fig.5,3).
'I'he drum can be rotated more easily and
maintenan e, is redtced.-As the
central guide pipe is closed to the air, it is less likely to an& than th
KVIC vcrsion, which has a typical lifetime ol only five years.s
Other versions of the floating drum design include rectangular digesters
and drums (used in Korea and Taiwan), but these are more difficult io seal
against fcaks. KVIC have a shallow version of their de$gn, which uses a
rectangular slurry chamber built slightly inclined to the horizontal. The
drum floats in a circular hole at the higher end of the chamber.
45
Gas holdel
Gac
:it
sys tenr
for
ocs
drun
design
GI drums are very tight, so require weights on top to give enough gas
pr$sure. Any snall scratches in the zinc costing can allow galvanic cor'
rcion rhat quickly creates holes in the drum.
An carly version of the KVIC design used a steel drum supported by
ropcs passing over pulleys and attached to counter-balance weights. The
reduced gas pressurc was supposed to improve gas production; but the
cxtra 'bioges; was actually carbon dioxide conring out of solution. This
design was very dangerous, as air could leak into the drum and form an
explosive mixture with the biogas. Some of these plants have blown up.
Other drums designs, without the counterweights, are much safer to use.
5.4
Over 800 plants to the DCS version of this design have been madc in Nepal
of their
5.5
The fixed dome design is the basic design used in China. It is an underground digester pit, lined with brick or concrete, with a dome-shaped
cover, also made from brick or concrete, placed over it. The cover is fixed
and hcld in place with earth piled over the top to resist the pressure of the
gas inside. A second pit, the slurry reservoir, is built above and to the side
of the digester. As gas is given off by the slurry, it collects in the dome and
displaces some of the slurry into the reservoir. As gas is used, the slurry
flows back into the digester to replacn, it (Fig. 5.a). This system of gas
storage is called the displacement principle.
The Chinese use a range of different shapes for their digesters ranging
from a fully spherical container to a flat-roofed rectangtlar one.ll'ln The
re!otvolr
Domo plsnt
full ol gar
rcarngutar slrapc was uscd early in the Chinese Programme' but proved
unreliable, as thc cornen were difficult to make leak-tight. The most
courmonly used shape has a roof and a floor made as segments of a sphere,
joined by a cylindrical or conical section (Fig. 5'5). If the included angle
at the centre of the spherical segment is less than llf the material of the
Mlrlng plt
Ger pl
Slurry ro.orvolr
'/i;;
7///'
Dlgostor plt
//i7)
7
safcty, no-one should enter a digester pit until every tracn of 6ogas ard
slurry have been removed and flushed out, as it is possible to be suffocarcd
by any biogas left in the pit.)
The gas pressure inside a dome plant can be as high as 1200rnm of alatat
and can exert a force of several tonnes upwards from under the dorne- A
mass of soil, about one metre deep, is placed over the dome to hold it
<lown. Some of the Chinese versions have a man'holc in the czntre of thedome, to allow the digester to be emptied easily: a concrete plug is sealed
in the man-hole with thick clay which is kept moist with a pool of water The plug must be held in place against the gas pressure with heavy rocls. If
the plug leaks gas, bubbles can be seen in the pool above itPRAD in India also have a version of the 'Chinese desigt', called tbe
Janata (people's) plant.rs They claim it is much cheapr than the drurn
design, but gas leakage through the dome seems to be a problem.
5.6
At least 10,000 plants have been built to various versiong of this design in
China, but most have been of poor quality. Ttte average lifetime has been
fess than five years. While the cost of the Plant can be cnverc'd in less than
this time, through the saving of other fuels and the sale of fenililxr,r6 a
failed plant in the back garden brings loss of face and embarrassment to tbe
owners. A biogas plant is not a throw-away item of consum er l*hnology,
The present approach in China puts emphasis on high quality, despite
higher msts. The oldest Chinese plants have lasted 50 yean, so bngJasing
plants do have potential in China.
Over 1,100 plants have been made to the Nepal version of this dcsigp
and surveys have shown few problems' However, manons need more
careful training to make this design than the drum plants, especially in the
shaping of the mud mould for the dome and in making a gas-tight Plaster
49
scal imide it. The feu plants that did fail in Nepal had faults caused by poor
uorkmanship, such as the use of stale cement. Minor design changes made
the shape of the plant easier to measure and check. The owncr of one plant
put slurry in the digester before the dome had been covered with soil. The
dome rqe out of the ground with thc pressure of gas inside it. Once the
slurry had been removed, the dome was put back in place, the cracks
plestoed over and the plant worked as well as any other.
The main problem with the dome design is that concrete and brick
masonry ar porous to biogas unless they are very carcfully scaled. The
Chincsc bio-gas manufacturers mainly use a cenrent and lime plaster inside
the dome,r3 although polymer-based paints such as vinyl emuision are also
reommended.lT'tE Coatings that are dissolved in a volatite solvent, such as
chlor-nrbber, epoxy and polyurethane paints, cannot be used in the
enclced space inside a digester, as the fumes are toxic, both to the painters
and the methanogenic bacteria. Many paints cannot be applied until the
inside of the dome is completely free of moisture.
In Nepal, the bqst coating was found to be an acrylic plastic emulsion
mixed into a thin cement plaster applied to the inside of thc domc. 'I'he
cement provides strength, while the polymer paint fills in the pores in the
plaster. The emulsion is water based, so there is no toxicity problem and
the plaster layer can (and should) be applied over danrp concrete. Acrylic
emulsion is the most stable of the polymer paints (more so than vinyl), so
this coating should have a long lifetime. The first plant built in Nepai using
this technique is seven years old and is still working well.
5.7
Extended donndesign
they are made in the same area. Consideration has been given to the use of
'permanent formwork' sections made from lightweight, fibre-reinforced
cement. Thes act as forms for the casting of the dome and are left in place.
Thc insides of these sections are plastered with ccnrent nrortar mixcd with
acrylic emulsion as usual.
Mlxlng plt
Slurry rerervolr
800
5.8
The flexible bag digester was developed in Taiwan in the 1960s and is now
crcating interest in mainland China.m'2\ The original design uses a tong
cylindrical bag (shaped like a sausage) made of plastic, supported in a
trench lined with masonry, concrete or compacted sand or mud. The slurry
lills tlrc ltrwcr two-tlrirds portion of thc bag an<J thc gas collecls ab/)veit. At
the biogas is used the bag collapses, like a balloon being emptied of air
(Fig. s.7.).
A variant uscs a masonry or concrete-lined trench to contain the slurry,
with a flexible tent-like roof. The edges of the roof are held down to the
edgcs of the trench with clips or poles passing through loopo in the plastic.
'l'his tent design has been exhaustively tested at Crrnell University in
USA.22 It has been built for farmers in the lvory Coast and is becoming
more popular in Taiwan.23
The tunnel plant, which has been made and tested by DCS in Nepal,
could be considered a version of the bag digester. It has a roof made of
concrete arch pieces, lined with plastic sheeting. The gas storage system
uses the displacement principle so the plastic lining is kept inflated against
the concrete roof.
51
Slurry outltt
Fl.xlbl. tent
Sllrly Inl.t
ot
llnl ng
5.9 Pr.ctkd
Over
2,ffi
""
;;;:::;""t
The
arc sctiing UuS na tcn$ ready-nrsdc for installation in a trench'
neoprene
original ,i"t"id uscd for this design was a nylon-reinforced
present success of
;ti*, but this proved expensive ant did not last' The(RMP)'
a polyvinyl
tbc dcsigp depend. on nCw material: red nrud plastic
"
.tf"riO""CpVtl plastic whictr uses a byproduct from.aluminium refining as
afiller.Itisgverystronsandflexiblematerialwhichisresistanttosunlight.
Tbe manufacturers claim a ten-year life-time'
O"fy O, tunnel digesters have been made in Nepal for customers' They
aI woh we[, but ti" b,.ita"t reported difficulties with the PVC lining'
of
ft" Uf""t pVb [ning used is stiff and brittle and the workers we re afraid
the
to
fastened
and
digester
the
into
cracting or puncturing it as it was Put
rof.
duces extra problems: the bag or tent can rub on this pipe-when it deflates.
In addition, slurry can easily inter this pipe and block it.z
5.10
The gas pressures from the three designs of digester are different. The
displaccmcnt principle means that a dome digester produces gns pressures
up to l000mm water gauge (the height of water in a pipe the pressure will
support) or more, although it varies (down to about 200mm water) as gas is
53
The pressures from bag and tent digesten arc -inherently low, unless
weigtrts art placed on the bags. Thc weights nrust bc placed on a snrooth
paif in a *ay that does not ailow the plastic sheet to be punctured' Care
must Ue taken when designing the slurry inlet and outlet pipes for these
digesters, to ensure that they are long enough-, ottcrwisc, slurry may come
plants can be used to
ou-t of them when the gas pressure is increased. These
gas
is drawn into the
as
weights,
of
use
the
supply biogas engines-witihout
carburettor by suction.
such
Biogas plants do have to be cleaned, especially if woody material'
nray
w.'stes
vcgctablc
with
fed
are
atol*', is added to them. Plants that
".
need to be cleaned once or twice
The issue of stirring the slurry in rural digesters has concerned many
do work bettcr if thcy arc stirrcd' but the
designers. High-mte dig.tt"o
-from
using a stirrer in.rural. digesters do not justify
g"d it gas pioduction
c.ntrin stirrer 5itrs. althouglr only thc
it .*to -it. Steel ,Jrunrs
'l'heir nrain job is to brcak
'sulliy
"
of the sturry can be stirretl in this wiry.
surfacie
up any scum that may form on the surface'
'l-hcr cotlstant
'Displa,-.em..nt
tJigestc.n sccltr t(l suffcr lcss frottt scutlr.
movement of rhe slurry surface in and out of the dome reduces the tendency
for scum to form ' Many of the early DCS dome digesters had scum
brea\ers firterl, but owneru dirl not tind nruch lrcnelit fronr thcir usc.'l'hc
motion of the slurry also ensures it is well mixed' Scum formation can be a
5{
problcnl in bag and tcnt digestcrs, as they have a latget surfac area to the
slurry, which is fairly stagnant. One design of digester, which used a
concrete 'bag' but which worked on a similar principle, suffered very badly
from scum,25
In cold climates the insulation and heating of biogas digesters has to b
considered. Drum digesters are very difficult to insulate, as the stel drum
allows heat to escape. Some community plants in India have been enclosed
in a plastic 'greenhouse' that improves solar heating and reduces heat
loss;26 but this is an expensive approach. Dome digesters can easily be
insulatcd by placing a thick layer of straw on top. Storing straw or haystack
over the roof cf the digester during the winter should be recommended to
owners. Bag and tent digesters could be covered with straw in a similar
way, although the straw would tcnd to move as the plastic inflated and
deflated.
5.1
Plant sizes
All these biogas plant designs are available in a range of sizes, chosen to
supply gas for different purposes. The smallest units have a working
volume of between 5m3 and 10m3 and supply between lm3 and 2m3 of
biogas cach day from 8kg to 12kg of dry feed (4Okg to 60 kg of wet cattle or
pig dung). If dung is the main feed, this amount can be obtained from four
to eight animals. 2m3 of gas is considered to be the amount required by a
family of four to eight pcople each day for cooking.
In Nepal, the smallest drum plant (SDlm) had a working volume of
7.1m3 (Tablc 5.1). For a drum plant, the working volume is the capacity of
the digcster pit.'lhe plant produced enough gas in the summer (ambient
temperatures between 30'C and atrC) to run two cooking burners and two
lights for a family (five to eight people). This plant had a retention time of
59 days. In thc winter when gas production was reduced (temperatures
down to 18'C), some owners complained of a lack of gas.
The working volume of a dome plant is more difficult to determine, as
some of the slurry moves in and out of the digester. One definition is the
volume of the 'permanent' slurry plus half the volume of the gas storage
dome. A simple mathematical simulation of the average amount of slurry
that is producing gas over a whole day mnfirms this assumption. DCS took
account of the fact that owners need to have sufficient gas during the winter
and nradc thc smallcst rJomc plant with a total volume of l0m3 (gving a
working volume of 9m3 and a retention time of 75 days).
The working volume of a bag or tent digester is the amount of slurry that
it will hold.'I'his is normally about two-thirds of the total intemal volume
of a bag; or the total volume of the trench of a tent digester. The mecfianism
for gus production is slightly differcnt for 'plug-flow' reactors, which are
not stirred. The populations of bacteria in the slurry vary along the lengh
55
of the trcnch. The hrcultltivr' blctcril $rc' nl(rsl ilctivc nc$r thc inlct cntl,
while the methanogens predonrinate in a scction fronr aroutrd the centre
to*ards the outlet. The plug-flow principle is sonrewhat nrorc eflicicnt than
a stirred reactor and should prulucc 15 per cent ttl 20 per ccnt morc gas
hom the same input of feed with the same retention time.27
The tunnel digester is not a plug-flow reactor as the displacemcnt principle
Tabb
funt
5.1
Digester Stonge
Tvpe
wl.
rnJ
sDr00
vol.
nl3
sD200 r3.0
sD350 24.0
sD500 34.0
1.7
3.4
6.0
8.5
cPlo
cPlS
cP20
3.3
5.6
7.'l
7.3
9,7
14.1
EP50 39.9
EP65 51.r
EP95 73.5
5.6
Work Dry
vol. feed
rn3
7.1
12
5:'
13.0
24
54
24.0
34.0
42
60
58
57
9.0
tt
12.5
16.9
18
69
z+
70
bU
78
76
14.6 47.2
19.3 60.7
28.5 87.7
80
120
1.4
2.1
2.8
7.4
8.5
1.9
2.7
3.7
14.5
3.1
4.5
6.
9.4 15.5
9.7 12.5 20.6
14.3 lB.5
30.6
'l'hc fargcst clornc plant that can casily bc made has an internal volume of
20mr (CPt0 with a working volume of 17m37. The extended dome design
can bc built with a working volume of 80m3, or even larger ' The transPort
problcm is much rcduced, as there are no large components' Bag and tent
diqesters can be made to any size. A typical large-volume bag plant has a
toLl volume of 100m3, but tent plants have been made with a working
volume of
5,12
540m3 .22
Biogas salesmen and technicians who are responsible for installing plans
n"".1 to b" trained to select the right sites. The soil must be of good quality;
if it is loose and san<Jy or waterloggcd, the digester pit may collapsc whilc
it is being dug. However, the Chinese do have a special spherical desigt
that can bc uscrJ in thcsc conditions. lf the ground is hard and rocky
excavation will be time consuming and expensive.
There are several other factors that affect the choice of site, such as the
fength of the gas pipeline as gas pipe is expensive and the distance dung
and other feetlstocks have to be carried. There must be room not only for
the plant, but also for the mixing pit and slurry storage pits to be dug'-If
trccs arc too near the digcster roots may grow into it and crack the walls'
'I'he digcster must bc at least 15m away from any drinking water snurce , in
case of contamination.
r^ *i I lCattle rhedl
g{gl+.Gas
iii
llj;
*$
f#
n*"fb
"
Plpe
atos)i{tant
4
iir
l,l
Road
ptul!'to
In China farmers are encouraged to link latrines to biogas
tltc fcrtiliser
ffui* nigt t-.oil has a high nitrogen content'.so it inrprovcs
of
the fecd is
ratio
C:N
the
where
of tie emuent. ln many cases'
production'
""fo"
gas
will
improve
high, the extra nitrogen from night-soil
-The
practie.
58
CHAPTER 6
Ancillary Equipment
Although the plant is the major part of a biogas system, it cannot exist by
itsclf. A biogas plant must bc fcd, usually daily, with suitable lee(, spent
slurry must be removed and the biogas taken to where it is required.
Suitable equipment must be provided to allow customers to us the gas,
cithcr in domcstic applianccs, such as stoves and lights, or in engines that
drive useful machinery.
In Nepal and India a biogas plant is usually supplied as a'package',
which includes the appropriate ancillary equipment to fulfill the task for
which it was purchased. When Chinese pasants were responsible for
setting up their own plants, they usually had to make their own stoves and
lights, often of poor quality and low efficiency. The present emphasis on
higher standards means that designs for more efficient and reliable stoves
arc bccoming availablc.
6.1
Slurry handling
The feedstock must be mixed with water into a smooth slurry before it is
put into thc digcstcr. Thc bactcria cannot easily reach foodstuffs at the
centre of lumps of animal dung or vegetable matter. A masonry pit is
usually provided at the entrance of the slurry inlet pipe, where this mixing
can bc donc. A plug, made of wood or concrete, is used to close the pipe
handle
tal for
rnA'rirg s/rrrrf
in inlct pit
wlth
- Trough
sloplng f loor
leve
-Bator
Central wall
Figure 6.2 Machine
for
into
Vegetable matter needs to be chopped up bcforc bcing conrpresscd
to a
than
rather
slurry'
the
of
surface
to
the
fed
a bioias plant. It is best
fed
plants
with
is
conrnton
as
digcster,
rhe
of
p*i,i-o" .l*. ,o the floor
the
down
nrattcr
vcgctable
push
to
be
used
can
mainly on dung. A plunger
to
pump'
similar
a.'screw
to
use
is
yet
tried,
intet iipe.3 On-e suggesti,on ' not
thcm
push
to
and
tibres
chop
to
both
domJic food mincer,
r".*:."",.
"into
a digester.
removed,
The ehuent slurry is usually stored in shallow pits until it can be
unlined,
lcft
usually
pits
are
The
usrally for use on tire fields as a fertitiscr.
nrasonry'
fronr
trrudc
bc
can
walls
unless'the soil is of poor quality. when
The size of the pits depends on the daily output from the plant and the
rccolllnunrber of duls for rrhich slurrv is to trc storcd' Dccp pits arc ttot
to
danger
a
also
are
They
then cannot dry effectively'
mended,
"..Iu.ry
animals and children.
52
Gas gi5ing
where it is
Pipes must be used to convey the biogas produced in the plant to
way
and also
the
out
of
be
to
pipes are often iaid underground
o..a.
"..
60
for protcction. Biogas contains moisture which condenses in the gas pipes
and must be removed, or it blocks the gas flow.'fhe pipes should be laid so
they slope towards one or more drain points (Fig. 6.3). The slope should be
at least I :100.
To gar
a ppll a ncer
Short run
Long run
Slope
Slope
Stralght papa
Hlllsldo
Above ground
Figure 6.3 Location of d.rain points in typical
gas
lines
Galvanised stecl gas pipe (GI pipe) is often used, as it is resistent to the
corrosive effects of biogas, but it is expensive. It comes in straight lengths
(2 nrctrcs) that arc joincd by scrcwing the threadect ends into sockla.
Different types of fittings are available. The screwed joints must be sealed
Table
6.1
pipe sizes
10
73
215
589
looc
20
30
31
lz
107
71
294
196
6Jl
555
4A
26
100
416
6l
50
16
59
237
with paint or puttl'. with the help of a filler, such as string' Special tools are
required to thread the pipes and to bend them.
Plastic pipe. madc fronr HDPE (high dcnsity polycthylenc) or PVC (grlyit
rin1,l drloride) can also be used. Low-quatity plastic piping is not suitable as
joints
and
rolls
long
in
can cract and leak gas. Plastic pipe is usually available
can be made by heat welding. Pipe fittings arc also avrilnblc, which arc
pstred into the en,ls of the pipe atier it has bcen sottcncd lry hcating. Plastic
It should be prolipe is more easily damaged than GI, but is often cheaper'
i"i.a m* sunlight if used above ground' and frorrt sharp stotrcs and hcavy
ueighs if used untJerground. A layer of sand around the pipe (about 300nm
.*na) *U protect it from damage by rodens (mice, rats' porcupines) which
may gnaw ii. Tools for heating and welding the pipe arc rcquircd'
ili size of pipe required in any installation depends on the length of the
pipetine, the voiume flor" rate of the gas and the permissible prcssure drop
atong the pipe. The pressure drrrp is causcd by thc friction of thc gas
flo*i-ng along the pipe and can easily be calculated (Appendix II)' Thegas
pro.,li" froir a drum plant is low (40mm to 80mnr walcr'gauge) so only a
i."tt pto.ot drop ii acceptablc (l0nrm WG; 'I'able 6'l)"1'he higher
pt"o*" from a displacement digester (l00mm to l200mm WG) means a
i..g"t p*,tt drop can be allowed (50mm WG; Table 6'2)' so longer
lengths of smaller, cheaper pipe can be used.
Tabb
62
10
20
30
l6rnm lD {%in.
C.+
60
1073
536
254
2932
1466
o11
JO
Gl}
40
33
130
497
50
22
81
295
all the apptiancx served by the pipe (table 6.3).'lhe pipe length is measured
from thJ gas plant to the point the pipe divides to the different places
wherc gas is used. In a sinrple systenr allowancc can bc r adc for prcssure
lost in gas fittings by adding 5 per cent extra to the length' The correct gas
or by using Appendix IL
pipe
- size to use-can be read fronr thesetotables
t5e watcr th't condcnses in
catch
be
used
can
bifferent water traps
pipe
in a 'T' fitting at the lowest
of
length
is
a
short
rhe pipe. The simplest
water when required'
to
release
be
used
can
tap
point bt *re tine. A simple
arrangement to
'U'
bucket
and
tube
with
a
fitted
be
Deepcr pipe linqs must
II)'
(see
Appendix
pipe
in
the
otcl, th. water condensed
62
Table
6.3
Biogas appliance
litre/min
2.4
2.4
6.3
4 to 15
20 to 50
q
1.5
m3/hour
0.14
0.14
0.2 to 0.9
3
0.56
ff/hour
5
8ro
32
lto
40 to 100
0.7
zo
Gas valves
Valves are used to turn the gas supply on and off. A main gas valve is
nceded ncar the plant, as well as gas taps for each applianc*. Water tzps
(globe valves) are not suitable, as they require fluid pressure to lift the
washer. Gate valves can be used, with a metal 'gate' that is pushed into a
slot by a rotating spindle (Figure 6.4), but they arc not reliable. Users can
over-tighten and break them and the gate wears out and leaks.
Plug cocks, or quarter-tum gas taps (Figure 6.4), work well at low
pressurcs. The tapercd plug has a slot in it that can be aligned with the
pipe. The plug can wear and bemme loose in the body, but a spring can b
used to keep the fit tight. This design tends to leak when used with the
highcr prcssurcs from displacement digester.2
The best design of tap is the ball valve (Fig. 6.4). This uses a ball with a
hole in it, which can be aligned with the pipe. Round seals press against the
ball and prevent gas leaks, This type of valve tends to be more expensive,
as the ball is usually made from stainless steel.
Acccssories for biogas systems, such as valves, need to be made from
matcrials that are resistant to corrosion. Unprotected steel quickly russ if
it is used with biogas. Galvanised steel can be used, if the zinc coating is not
rubbed off. Stainless steel is good, but expensive and difficult to machine.
Brass is a suitable material, as long as the lead content is low (l pr cnt).
Plastic and aluminium are resistant to biogas, but are not usually strong
cnough to stand hard usage.
Casting is a quick and cheap way of making large numbers of small
itcms, but it must be of good quality. A poor casting can be porous to
biogas. Metal-to-metal seals are unreliable at higher pressures. Rubbcr or
plastic seals such as'O'rings are more reliable, as long as the metal parts
are accurately made.
There are many other designs of gas taps available. Several designs were
made and tested by DCS.2 A biogas programme needs to find good valve
63
Gate
andlo
40-I
Sprlng
Ball
Plug cock
Ball valve
5.4
Bkrgas stoves
rsto
Mlxlng
ir
DCS.
64
Gobar Gas Company for the Nepal biogas programme.: It works wetl and
is about 55 per cent efficient, similar to the best of the Indian desigts.
The DCS stove (Fig. 6.5) illustrates the different aspects of a stove that
have to be considered when it is being designed (Appendix II) or when
diffcrcnt stove designs are compared. A burner mixes gas and air in the
correct proportions and feeds the mixture to a burner head, which supports
the flame under the vessel to be heated. The ffow of gas into the bumer is
controllcd by the size of the main jet, as well as the gas pressure. Moet
stoves are designed for a standard pressure of 75mm WG, the pressure
from a drum plant. Thc most popular siz.e of domestic burnerg u$s about
450/ of gas per hour, at this pressure, giving a heat output of !l680kJ per
hour. This would heat I litre of water from WC to boiling point in about
four minutes, assuming a 55 per cent efficiency.
The'primary' air supply that is drawn in by the jet is controlled by an air
control. This can be opened or closed down, to adjust the efficienry of the
burner. A 'lazy' flame, with reduced air supply, is easier to light and the
flame can then be adjusted by opening the air supply to give maximum
heat, once a pot has been placed on the stove. The mixing is done in the
pipe that leads to the burner ports; the length of the pipe should be about
ten times its diameter.
'f'hc burncr ports arc usually arranged in a circle, so that the undersi& ol
a pot is evenly heated. Free circulation must be allowed for the'secondary'
air that the flame requires and for combustion products to ffow away.from
the flame. 1'he cap containing the burner ports must be easy to clean, in
case food and grease are spilled on it.
The distance bctween the burner ports and the bottom of the pot
is important. lf thc pot is too low, the flame is 'quenched' and burns
inefficiently. If the pot is too high, much of the heat is lost. The frame and
grate of the stove must be carefully designed to ensure this height is
correct. I'he DCS stove has a cast-iron grate that can be inverted for use
with either round-bottomed or flat-bottomed pans, as both shapes are used
in Nepal. The frame must be stable, so it does not wobble or fall over when
food is being stirred during cooking.
Some stoves are supplied with a gas tap attached, while othen use a gas
tap fixed to the supply pipe at the wall. Usually a rubber tube is used to
connect the stove to the supply. A wall-mounted tap is much safer, as it can
be turned off if the rubber pipe pulls away or splis.
A rnuch largcr prototype biogas was also designed and made in DCS,
which uses a 450llhr burner at the centre, with a XXJllhr burner around it.a
The two burners have separate jets and supply pipes, so can be oprarcd
independently to give good control over cooking large amounts of food.
Over 4,000 stoves to the DCS 450//hr design have been made and sold in
Nepal. The production from Patel Gas Crafters and other manufacturers in
India is much larger. These stoves are now well-established technology,
65
althouglr tlrcy arc still fairly expensive, as they are usually made of a metal
such ai cast iron. Ceramic stove designs are irls. bcing nradc, although
most are 8t a prototype stage, such as the one made at Reading Univcrsity
II).5
(Appendix
'
An alternative approach adopted in China is to use a simple biogas
burner in the g*t" of a tradirionul wood-burni'g stovc. Whilc thc burner is
less efficient than a welldesigned biogas stove, much less heat is lost, as it
is absorbcd by the thick mud walls of the wood stove'
55
Ebgrs lights
Where there is no etectricity, as in most parts of rural Nepal and many
parts of India and China, biogas can be used to give light. While biogas
igt s at" inefficient, erpensive and need regular servicing, they give as
good a light as a kerosene pressure lamp and are easier to use' A gas lamp
lves thJ same illumination as a 40 to 60W electric light bulb and uses
between 901 and 1801 of gas an hour.
Differcnt designs of biogas light are also available from manufacturers in
India and China. The Indian designs are usually made mainly of metal,
such as cast iron. brass, alurninium and crrilrncllcd stccl, arrd are fairly
expensive. The designs available from China are often made mainly of
ceramic and are much cheaper' These designs are lcss reliable, however,
and can be difficult to use.
An example of an Indian-made lamp (Fig. 6.6) can be used to illustrate
how a biogas-powered lanrp works. It uses incandcscent mantles which
glow brighrly when heated. The gas supply is controlled by the size of the
mai" let and by the control valve. The Indian jet is of brass (it is made of
glass in the Chinese lamp), with a steel needle partially closing it to adjust
the gas flow. The primary air is drawn into a'venturi', a tapered tube in
which the gas and air mix. The air supply can be controlled by means of an
Jet adJuster
9'Needle
Vontur y
Fof
.?
-.-
Mantle
loctol
Nozzle
Glaso globe
Figurc 6.6 Biogas ligtu (made in India)
66
air control or by moving the gas jet to the best position within the venturi
(as in lamps made in China). The flamc is supported on a'nozzle', usually
madc rrf ccramic. 'Ihis nozzle is usually composed of one main flame pofi,
surroundcd with a ring of much smaller ports, which gSve the flame stability
(Appendix II).
Thc mantlc is hcld around rhe nozzle in the hottest part of the flam. The
mantle is made of a silk mesh soaked in a solution of rare earth salts
(thorium and cerium).6 When the mantle is first lit the silk burns away
lcaving a fragilc matrix of thcsc salts, which glow brightly in the flame. The
flame must be carefully adjusted to give the best light. A 'reflector' above
the mantle deflects the heat and burnt gass away from the air inlet and
controls.
A glass shield (or globe) is usually supplied with many Indian-made
lamps, to protect the mantle from draughts and insects. The mantle is very
fragile and breaks if the lamp is knocked or if an insect flies into it. New
mantles are fairly cheap. The most common problem with biogas lights is a
blocked venturi. Insects make webs in the pipe, which collect dirt. The
webs are easy to clean out, although the mantle is tsually broken while it is
being done.
6.6
CHAPTER 7
Biogas in Engines
Biogas is a'high-grade' fuel. becnuse it burns at a fairly high tentpcrature.
Biogas can therefore be used for purposes other than just cooking and
lighting, such as a fuel for running intemal combustion engines for smallscale cottage industries.
Derrclopment &pends partly on energr; people who want a more advanced
life.style than is available in a village tend to nrove to places where energy
is available. These are usually areas such as main towns and cities' as
energy is produced by large power stations, based on central supplies of
coal. oil or natural gas. Electric lines and gas pipes are easy to install in
factories and houses that are close together. It is much more expensive to
supply the same sort of energy to villages that are widely scattered and
7.1
Spatk
Valvo a
lnductlon
stroko
Co m pre
Powsr ltrokc
lalon
Erhsurt ttroks
atrokc
Jon" rotio
to corrode
sulphur d'loxide in the engine and this tends
"exhaust
valves and manifold'
the diesl cycle, the
biogas is used in a dual-fuel engine, based on
wt
the fuel is used
t igf,"r".ompression ratio (14:l to- 21:1) means,that
ru"f, "n
just 20 per cent of diesel-only oPeration'
more efficicntly. The power loss L
thereis little difference'3 There serns
i"u"it
at full power. At other po'""i
due to- its far
io U" lt".ft less corrosion in a dual-fuel engine'- probably
approach is that the
heavier construction. An advantage of the dual-fuel
inadequate'
are
biogas
of
run on diesel alone if supplies
;;;ir;.;"
on an Otto cycle'
work
to
engine
i ,t irO alternative is to adapt a dilset
of engine has the
ptug''.4:
uyi"fio"ing tt e dicsel injector by o spark
lvp"
and heavy-con'
efficiency
good
uluui,"ges"or the high comp,.,iion tatio,
of diescl are
supplies
no
but
struction associated with a iual-fuel engine,
As well as a
skills'
requires good enginee.ring
"""ifrU[
u"i"i a
;;;;;;y.
Such a conversion
a sm all gerrcrator
af,e spark plug, the engine must be fitted with
r.""ii"g f.t
'
of
"ngin" "unnot
7.2
69
Corrug
ted
steel sheet
Engl ne
ntrol
Blog
ar
By paes
valve
Figurc 7.2
bling
ryp'tt""
tirl engine, or a small water pump may be needed to circulate water
llrrough a radiirtor'
fnJ not cooling water from an engine can be pumped around a heat
exchanger in theilurry pit, to warm the slurry to improve gas prodlction. A-by-pass value and a water cooler must also be providea' t9 ".1-19*
both the Lngine and biogas plant temPeratures to be set correctly (Fig'
't.2).
lf the use of engines is to be made part of a biogas proglamme then
villagers must be trained to operate and main_tain the engines that they
buy.Theremustbetrainedmechanicsavailabletovisitthevillagesto
seivicc the engines an6 to make repairs. Most failures of engines in rural
situations have simple causes. Operators forget to toPuP or change, the
engine oil; bolts shake loose, allowing parts to crack or gaskets to blow;
to
lif t-crs arc not changctl in timc or are left out. If villagers are ltainea,
last
should
engines
right,
them
to
and
faults
recognise these simple
Put
much longer.
.3
7l
o
E
l'
----"'--
tr
o
o
\--.
o3
CJ
6O
cra
CCL
ttE
g5
l! cl
-\\
Y-,
.,
-i\U/.
7.4
Biogas can also be used in cottage industries that require heat. several such
indJstries have been considered, such as making soap from vegetable oils
and caustic soda, extracting medicinal oils such as menthol, making jam
and other preseryes and roasting coffee beans, but few have becn set up' In
Nepal a c-heese plant was built by the Swiss Association for Technical
Asiistance (SATA), that was to be powered by a mixture of solar energy
and biogas.8
Tbe Pauwa dreese plant was at an altitude of 1800 metres in the Himalayas.
Solar heaters preheated the water which was thcn ntadc into stcunt in a
biogas boilcr. The biogas plants, also hcutcd with solar energy, were fcd
with dung from pigs that u,ere fed on the whey from the cheese plant. Local
fermen supplied the milk and also owned the pigs. This approach proved
very expensive. Ill-health among the pigs has been a recurring problem and
the entibiotics used to cure them has resulted in poor biogas production.
Ideally, thc cattle that provide the milk to process into cheese would also
pmvide enough dung to give biogas to process the milk. However, the
Dairy Development Crrporation in Nepal tend to build centralised cheese
plans that can process 10001 of milk a day. If such a plant were run on
bbgas the dung from 150 cattle would be required. While farmers are
willing to carry milk to the cheese plant each day (often an hour's walk)
thcy uould not csrry dung thut far.
If biogas is to be used in this type of village industry a different approach
must bc used. Several very small processing units (such as cheese plants pro-
essing 100 or 2001 of milk together with a biogas plant) should be sold or
rcnted to farmers, who do the processing thenrselves. A central office
would supen'ise the farmers and offer quality control, marketing and maintenance hcilities. This approach, of using a service centre to help villagebased indr.rstries and workshops, has proved successful in other contexts.e
The potentid of biogas in a range of cottage industrial activities is
immense. To realise this potential biogas programmes need to be linked to
other rural development programmes in order to share expertise. The
experience and skills to develop biogas-based rural industries already exist
in organisations such as KVIC in India, ADB/1.,1 in Nepal and in many
communes in China, as they are involved in a range of other rural development prognmmes alongside their work with biogas. All that is necded is a
willingness on the part of specialists in the different progranrmes to discuss
ideas together and to discover how biogas can be used as a rural energy
re$)un:e within rhase other programmes.
7.5
One of the earliest uses of anaerobic digestion wls in the reduction of the
ptrllution load of municip:ll witslcs such ls scwagc. -l'hc sculc ol rnunicipal
plans is usually much larger than nrost rural digesters and the technology is
well established. The Indian biogas programme was inspired by the building of such a plant in Bombay in the 1930s. Most buildcrs of nrunicipal
waste digesters rely on specialists in the subject, but scientists from biogas
extension programmes may be asked for advice. DCS was asked to build a
nightsoil digaster to cope with waste from latrines in a local jail in Nepal.
The biogas programme in China, especially, has been involved in building
small urban digesten.
75
CHAPTER B
&l
Sterting a digester
Moct new owners will need advice on and help with starting their continuors digester, once it is complete. The digester pit (of a drum, dome or
Uag Oaign) Oo.td be filled with digestible feedstock within as short a time
-psiute (us"ally within a week). Feedstuff can be collected before and
as
whilc thc digester'is being built' but it must not be allowcd to dry out' If
cattle dung L used as the, main feed the digestion process should start by
itself wirhin a few weeks (depending on temperature). If other feedstocks
arc used, srrch as pig or other animal dung, or vegetable m'rtter' a starter is
rEquirEd. Between 5 per cent and 30 per cent by volume of effluent slurry'
fmm a working biogas plant should be mixed with the ncw fecd' The more
the starter, OJt".tJt ttt. digestion process will start.: A starter can also be
used to specd up the initial operation of cattle-dung digesters, especially if
thc temperature is low.
The feedsruffs should be mixed with water to give a total solids content
of between 8 per cent and 12 per cent. The TS can be measured (see
Appendix IlI) Lr it can be estimated from the slurry consistency' It should
U. L ti"t as possible, like a thick lentil soup, while allowing it to flow
down rhe inlet pipe. Vegetable matter should be chopped as small as
psible and any hbrous material, such as stalks, should be removed'
$wdust, rice husk, moss and pond weed tend to float on the surface of the
slurry and qluse scum, so they should be avoided.
The new feed can be put in a drum plant before the drunr is placed on
top. If this type of plant has a central wall, both sides of the wall must be
filied equally, otherwise the wall might coll:rpsc. Thc gas outlct valvcs on
dome and bag plans should be left open to allow air and initial gases to
escape. They strould not be overfilled; the reservoir pit of a dome plant
should only just have its floor covered.
76
Once a plant is full of slurry it should be left until gas formation starts.
Thc gas valvcs can bc closed and the gitlr storage volume allowed to fill up.
A floating drum will rise up out of the slurry until gas escapes under its
sides. A full dome plant or bag is indicated by bubbles coming from the
slurry outlct' 'lhe first two or three plant-fulls of gas must be allowed to
escape
it
dioxide, which will not burn, it also contains the air that was p,resnt in the
plant while it was being fiiled. If enough methane were present it could
form an explosive mixture with this air. For the same reason, all pipework
must be.flushcd with gas before any light is applied to gas appliar:rr:t. Thc
its'bad eggs'smell.
The main tasks required to keep the digester running, after it has
succcssfully startcd, are to feed it with the correct amount of
-ix"d rlurr"
each day (see Table 8.1) and to remove the water from the gas-line traps
each. week. It is important to be consistent in feeding a biogas ptant.
Sudden changes in feeding practicn can unsettle the bacteria ind caur
reductions in gas production. If a change in the amount of daily feed or in
the slurry consistency is to be made it should be done slowly, a bit at a
time. It does seem possible, however, to reduce the fend to athnt, when
less gas is required, and to add the stored feedstock when more gas is
Tabfe
8.1
Plant
type
Recommended feed
Work.
vol.
m3
sDl00
7.1
sD200 13.0
sD350 24.3
sD500 34.0
cP10
cP15
cP20
EP50
EP80
EP95
l:l
Betn.
time
day
Dung
Kg
59
60
54
120
210
5B
300
Mix
Water
Gas
lit
60
120
210
300
m3
1.7
3.4
6.0
8.5
Dung
kg
80
160
t/z
Mix
Water
lit
Gas
m3
280
40
80
144
2.3
4.5
8.0
400
2@
1't.4
80
120
2.5
3.6
4.9
9.0
75
OU
OU
1.9
12.5
16.9
71
120
73
tzu
120
120
2.7
3.7
160
40
60
80
42.5
71
9.4
trnn
4N
2@
12.6
74
300
500
600
300
74.1
81.1
15.5
670
800
330
20.7
24.7
6B
600
U.C
4N
Notes: The daily gas production is calculated from a theory based on data
from Nepalese trials (Appendix lV)3
77
In
8:
Cmtrcl of temPerature
Sinct both the rate of gas production and the gas production efficiency are
reduced at lower temperatures (less than 30'C), attention should be given
to methods of insulating anrl heating biogas ptants whcrc thc antbicnt
temperature is low. While rural biogas plants in the tropics and subt opiot areas of the world are seldom heated, records suggest that soil
tempeBtures can drop during winter months (to 20"C in the plains of
Nepal). In colder climates soil temperatures can go.below freezing point'
so ihe heating of biogas plants is essential irt thcse placcs'
Dome and bag plans can be insulated and heated by covering them with
a layer of composiing .tta* and other vegetable matter' The compost heap
.rJas to be more ths; lm thick and rrw cow dung and biogas plant cf{lucnt
can be added. Facultative bacteria can produce heat by hydrolising food
materials in the presence of oxygen. The compost must be kept slightly
damp, but not trx) \r'et, to produce thc right ratc of hcating' In rainy
weather it should be covered with a plastic sheet'
Steel drum plants are more difficult to insulate' A woven straw mat may
bemadetocoverthedrunr,althoughitwouldbewcttcdbythc.slurry'The
whole plant can be enclosed in a plistic tent, like a greenhousea, but this is
er?ensive and unlikely to lust lorrg.
Thesturrytempraturecanbereducedifcoldwaterisusedtomixthe
input.Themixingwatercanbeleftinthesunforafewhours,inablackpaintea drum, orilse the slurry can be solar heatcd_after it is nrixed. If the
.f"r.y it held in a shallow mixing pit (about ?0mm deep), which is covered
by a ilastic street during the hottest part of the day, its tempcrature can rise
by as much as fC ({.5'C on a cloudy day).
Thecoolingwaterfromanenginecanalsobeusedtoheatabiogasplant
(Fig. S.D. A-heat exchanger for an SD500 biogas plant was made from 10
*.Lo oi 35.. OD pipe' Water at ?0"C was punrped round it at l 'Zllmin'
The heat exchanger was placed in the bottom of the digester pit, so that con-
rrcctirt flow in the slurry would circulate the heat. Extra heat can be obtained
from thc engine by mating another heat exchanger to absorb.heat from the
exhaust gases. Tess indicated that the heat available from such a system
*zs adeq=uate to heat the biogas plant: in warmer weather, it was excessive
and a system for cooling the water had to be devised (see Chapter 7)'
Ifthebiogasisusedforpurposesotherthanfuellingengines,aseparate
heating unii and pump and required if the plant is to be run in cold
wathJr. Where eiectriiity is available, a donrestic-typc water heater and
78
I
I
Heat erchanger
Englne
rhaurt plpo
Inrulatlon
t'ypatt
tor
coolol
W8
vatvo
Blogar plant
Water pump
Heat oxchanger
Figure 8.1 I leating plant with engine wakr
pump can be used, suitably adapted for biogas (by changing the size of the
main jct and air ports). Domcstic scnsors and control valves can be used to
regulate the water and slurry temperatures. If the plant is well insulated,
about one-third of the gas production may be required to keep the slurry
tcmpcraturc b,otwccn 3{fC and 35oC at ambient temperatures below trerang.
A self-actuating steam displacement pump was developed at Leicester
Polytechnic in Britain.s This can be used both to heat and pump water
using a fuel gas such as biogas. As a pump it is not efficient, but the waste
heat goes to heat the water, so the overall efficiency of the pump/heater is
good. A secondary boiler, controlled by simple pressure-actuated control
valves, can be used to ensure water and slurry temperatures are regulated.
If a biogas plant is being heated by any of these methods, more e-ffective
insulation than a compost or straw covering may be required. Blocks of
polystyrene foam are fairly rigid and can be incorporated into the walls and
roof of dome, extended dome and tent digesters. The tent plant tested at
Corncll Univcrsity was insulated in this way and procluced plenty of sas
even when covered with snow.6
8.3
Stirring digester slurry has two functions: the breaking up of surface scum
and thc agitation of thc bulk of the liquicl to assist bac.eriz to reach
79
,{
t
:
:l
'.
i
I
t
!
i
I
I
foodstuft. Desigrren of high-rate digesters put a lot of emphasis on stirring, as methanogenic bacteria move very slowly. The value of bulk stirring
for low-ratc nrrd digesters is questionable, especially as they arc expensive
to male and give extra maintenance problems. Bag and tent digesters
strould not be stirred at all, as they are plug-flow digesters.
Gas dnrms of ffoating drum digesters usually have scum-brcakcr bars
fined inside them. The drum should be rotated for about five minutes each
day to break up any scum that miSht be forming. This rotation will also
causc a mild agitation of the bulk slurry. Displac:ment digesters are
effectively self-stirring, since the slurry moves in and out of the slurry
rcscrroir as gas is produced and used. Any scum on the slurry surface will
be broken up as it moves within the domed roof. DCS did put stirrers into
the 6rst dome digesters made in Nepal, but owners saw little value in using
them. They often broke and they caused a few gas leaks.
&{
Solvingdi$sterpoblems
Biogas plants strould have few problems if they are well made and
run correctly. Most problems are caused by faults in construction, which
should be discovered during the final inspection before a plant is filled or
dudng the initial follow-up visit by progmmme technicians. Construction
hults, sudr as cracts in digester walls, are the responsibility of the organisation building the plant and must be put right at its expense.
The mct ommon fault in biogas digesters is gas leaks, either from the
gas pipelinc, especially around valves, or from the gas storqge volume. All
tbe jcins in a gas pipeline should be checked before it is finally buried. Gas
sltould be put in the line, usually from the plant once it starts working.
Soap solution is then brushed around the joints and gas lcaks show up as
bubbles. Plastic pipe can be cracked where it goes round sharp corners and
it can be cut or broken by ploughs and hoes or by animals and machines
passing orrcr it, so it must be carefully checked and protected where these
things are likely to happen (see Appendix II).
Steel gas drums can leak gas through porous or cracked welds or through
holes caused by corrosion. Small holes can be sealed with epoxy glue, but
larger holes may need to be rewelded. Large areas of corrosion mean that
thc rtole dnrm must be replaced. If the fault is due to bad worknranship,
thcn the constnrction organisation must put it right at its expense. Some
fauls can arise from the owncr's neglect: welds can crack if the drum is
dmpped and comosion will oc.cur if the paint is scratched. New owners
need to be warned of the dangers of mishandling their drums.
Dome plants can leak gas through the donre, if it has not bccn properly
plastered and sealed. Cracks or rough patches of plaster may be visible
during the final inspcction, but plaster leaks are not always easy to see. If a
dome plant appean to produce little gas, despite careful checks that the
80
pipeline is leak-tight and the slurry is producing gas, then the plant xill
have to be emptied and the plastering redone. The use of acryiic plastic
emulsion mixed with the final plaster layer improves its scaling propertie.
Bag and tent digesters can leak gas through cracks or tears in ihe plastic.
Small holes in PVC and RMp can be repaired by gluing patches over them
with PVC solution, preferably on the inside of the digirter. Larger tearc
may need to have a patch welded over them, using a high-fre4uency
electronic welding machine. whire the removal of the plastic -cov irotent digester is not a major job, a bag digester would need to be complercly
"t
^
emptied and cleaned out before it could be welded.
A less serious problem is thc leakage of slurry through the walls and
_
floor of the digester pit, which can occur if the lining is porous to water.
Poor quality bricks or cracks in cement mortar liniigs can cause leaks,
especially in the reservoir pits of dome prants. SmaI reaks are often
setfsealing, as the slurry dries within them. If leakage continues thc plant must
be emptied and the inside riplastered with a good cement mortar.
Anothcr cause of a sudden loss of gas suppty is a blockage in the gas
pipeline. As biogas flows through relatively cool-pipes underglound, *alr
condenses out and can stop the flow if anangements for is iemovar
have
not been made. All gas pipelines should slope'(l:100) towards on or more
water traps, from where condensate can periodically be removed.
Blockages can also occur in the gas outlets from dome, bag
or tent
digesters, if slurry, scum or froth enters this pipe . Dome planls can
be
overfilled if gas production is low or g"s usag" is high, so thl dome never
gets more than half full of gas. A screw top is often provided in
the gas
outlet, which can be removed to allow a rod to be pushed in to criar
blockages. Care must be taken when cleaning the gas outlet of
a dome
plant as slurry can be ejected from the pipe under tie relatively high gas
Pressure.
8.5
Microbiologicalproblems
Irr).
If a new digester fails to start at all, then the correct bacterial population
may not,bc prescnt. lf the slurry temperature is reasonable (beiween
WC
and 35'C), the lirst response is to leave the plant, without 'feeding
it, tor
another week or two. If gas is stilr not being pioduced, then a startei
can be
added: l0 per cent to 30 per cent of slurry irom a working digester.
If the
81
cootcnts of thc plant hare become acidic (ii the pH is below 6'5)' then
chalk or lime can be added as well. Tests should be done by titrating a
snall sample of slurry against the chrlk or lime to dcternritte the correct
amount to add..
If the plant is still not producing gas a month later, then the slurry has
pmbably becn poisoned by a toxic substance. Samples of the slurry, the
origind feedstock and the source of mixing water should be tested in the
laboratory. Attempts can be made to digest these samples in small bench
rurctors, while the samples can also be analysed to try to identify the
poisons. The plant will probably have to be emptied and cleaned out
thoroughly before being refilled with fresh feedstock, starter and water, all
from sources that have been checked for frecdorn frollr contaminatiotr.
Prroblems with plant start-up are more likely to be encountered if unconrrcntional feedstocks are used, such as different vegetable materials or
io,rrl-proess waste. Laboratory tcsts of thc digcstibility of thcsc fccclstocks
should be made before they are used in full-scale plants. Some of these
feedstocks may be more easily digested if a plant is started on aninral dung
and the new feedstock introduced with the dung in gradually increasing
oncentrations.
Ifa plant that has been working well suddenly fails thc nrost likely rcason
is poisoning by toxic substances.T Sudden changes in temperature, fced
rate or feed composition may cause a temporary reduction in gas production, but the plant should recover within a week or two, especially if the
ctrange is slowly oorrected. A reduction in feed rate will help the bacterial
population to stablise. A plant that is poisoned will fail and not recover.
The pH will probably drop and the slurry will accumulate noxious-smelling
fary
acids.
Thc soure of the poison should be identificd beforc the plant is rcstartcd.
Passible sources are: animals being given antibiotics, chenrical sprays used
on crops or in animal houses against insect pests or fungal infections,
disinfectants being washed into the digester or pollutants in the water used
to mir the slurry. Chlorinated hydrocarbons, found in many solvents, are
particularly toxic to methanogens and could cause contamination by being
spilled into rivers or irrigation canals. Heavy nrctal salts, such as copper,
zinc, lead or nickel are toxic in high concentrations, such as may be found
in *'astes from some industrial processes like galvanising.
Attemps can be made to restlrt the pllnt. by ltlding chulk or linlc to
@rrecl the pH and by adding a starter to provide the correct bacteria.
Ho*'ever, if the poisons are still present in the plant it may not restart and
the whole plant will have to be emptied, cleaned out and lilled with slurry
that is free from contamination.
This type of problem is not usual; it occurs less than once a year among
the 2,00 plants that are being followed-up regularly in Nepal. It is more
8.6
Apart from the rcmoval of dried effluent slurry from places where it tends
to build up, there is little regular servicing necssary on most biogas plants.
Cas valvcs should bc oiled monthly to keep them from getting stiff.
Steel drums should be painted each year to prevent rust. The gas supply
should be turned off for 24 hours, so the drum fills up and rises in the
slurry. It should be carefully washed of dried slurry betore a new coat of
paint is applied. The same paint should be used as was applied during
manufacture (usually a bituminous paint, such as high-build black). The
paint needs to bc dry bcfore the supply valve is opened and the drum
allowed to sink again.
Surface scum may build up in a digester, especially if the feeds contain
straw or othcr vcgetable matter. Animal hair and gr.eare. fpnl dung can
accumulate over several years. Mud and sand can also be introduced into
the plant with the feed. They accumulate below the inlet pipe and reduce
the digester volume. The interval between cleanings depends very much on
the type of feed. Many Chinese plant owners use a lot of vegetable matter
in their feed and clean their plants every six months to a year. Most Indian
and Nepali owners do not clean out their plants for five years or longer.
Dome and bag plants will need to be emptied completely to remove both
scum and dirt accumulation. The gas holders of drum and tent plants can
be removed to allow access to surface scum, but they, too, will need to be
emptied completely if dirt accumulation is to be removed. Great care must
be taken during cleaning operations as biogas will escape. No naked flames
or lighted cigarettes must be nearby, as there will be a risk of explosion.
When a biogas plant is emptidd all the slurry should be removed from
the digcstcr pit bcfore anyone attempts to enter, as it will continue to
produce biogas. Removal can be done with a bucket on a rope, or a slurry
pump can bc uscd. Thc slurry can be stored in a pit in the ground or caried
dircctf y f<rr usc on thc ficlds as fertiliscr. Up to 30 per cent may be used as a
starter to get the plant working again with a new feed, if the old slurry has
not bccn poisoned.
it
it.
83
to see if it has difficulty in breathing. The gas can be removed by using a fan
or a winnowi4g rnrchine or even bailed out with a bucket. If a person goes
into a digester pit a friend must always be available outside, in casi of
noublc. A ropc can bc tied aruund the pcrson entcring the pit, so they can
quft*ly be p,ulled out if they have difficulties in breathing.
In China, some of the new biogas building teams offei a digester cleaning scwice.t They have slurry pumps and aii blowers driven b-y small twowhccled mctors, so the slurry and remaining biogas can be removed
quickly and easily. Many farmen are prepared to pay a fee to save themselrrcs a tedious and messy job.
&7
Safety of
l*ryis
will only burn if mixed with air in the right proporrions (between
l, biogas: air or 9 pcr cent to l7 per cent biogis in air). it is safer
than most other fuel gases, which have wider flammabiiity lirniti. since the
Blogas
l0:l
and 5:
pressurc of the gas in the pipeline is higher than atnrospheric, thcre is little
clnnce of air entering the line or the gas store to form an explosive
mixture. The only times that this is possible is when a biogas plant ii being
stanted or after cleaning or repair work. Extra care must be t"ken at thesi
times to ensure no flames are near while the pipes are flushed with gas.
Flamc traps in gas lines are considered unnec"isary, although they-are
rcommended by some extension groups.
Gas leals during operation can be detected by the smell. Owners should
F
laught how to recognise leaks and to take the appropriate action. If a
lea\ occurs within a confined space, such as a buikling, ihe risk of explosinn is^greater. Gas taps should be closed, all 6res and flames extinguis'hed
and all doors and windows opened. The leak slrould be found usiig soap
solution, and repaircd.
8.{
CHAPTER 9
project lifetime.
Three indicators are used to measure the economic
results of a projea.
The 'bcnclit: cost ratio' (B:c) is the present worth of
benefit divided by the
present worth of costs, while the ,net presnt worth, (NpW)
is the difference
85
of these tso \?lues. The 'internal rnte of return' (lRR) is thc discount rate
that must be applicd to the bcnelits to give a PWB ligurc close to thc PWC.
It is an attempt to measure the earning power of the investment the owner
msde in the project. The calculation of IRR is usullly donc by trial and
error, looking up different discount factors in the tables to multiply with
the benefit figures. In order to use cost-hneRt nnalysis, suitablc valucs for
a base discount rate and a project lifetinrc nL'cd to lrc clxrscn. In Ncpal a
discount rate of 15 per cent, spread over ten yean, seemed to be reasonable.s
A more complex approach attempts to define the costs and benefits of a
projer't to $e \ociety around the people who purchase biogas plants.'l'hesc
'seondary' or 'social' costs and benefits must be given financial value. For
example, the time employed by a family without a biogas systcnr and by the
same family with a biogas s!6tem can be estimatid and costed. 'I'he value
(at a suitable wage rate) of this saving on time, or the extra time required,
can be included as a benefit or a cost.
Many secondary crsts and benelits are very diflicult to quantify.o For
example, the use of a biogas-fuelled rice-hulling rnill will save the women
of a village from a very laborious job (taking perhaps arr hour a day). The
mechanical huller, though, may polish the rice, removing nutritious bran
with the
9.1
Thcre have been many eonomic analyses of domestic biogas plants, especially in India.z't't Th"]' all suffer from sinrilnr problcnrs,s hut nll reirch a
similar oonclusion: that domestic biogas is only nrarginally economic,
especially for the owner. As in most economic analyses of rural activities,
many issumptions have to be ntldc'to obtuin uscful figurcs. 1'hc lccuracy
of these assumptions is very diflicult to test and sonre of the parameters,
sudr as the cost of alternative fuels, are very variablc. both with place and
time of y'ear.
If biogas is used for cooking and lighting in a rural area it replaces fuels
such as firewood. crop residues and kerosenc. The capital costs of buitding
a family-.sized digester can easily tre delincd, cspccillly if ligurcs arc avail-
The bcnefits from biogas are much more difficult to define. Biogas as a
- cannot
lucl
bc sold on the open market, so its value must be defined in
terms of other fuels. If biogas is valued according to its replacement of
commcrcial fucls, such as kcrosene or coal, then its financlal bcnefit is
relatively high and the economics look very good.8 However, it is usually
used to rcplace firewood or crop resi<tues, which have a much lower
markei
by rhe
9,2
an<J
Milling systems
Rs.(NC) f
6 000 250
4720
050
16
197
169
72
730
500
688
456
100
556
2578
23
107
876
37
790
158
336
3
19
5
14
Loan Repayment
Rs. (N/C)
Assuming 7 years' repayment and I 1 per cent interest.
Yearfu cost of loan:
3 517 146
Savings each year:
J ZJ4
IJ5
Analysis
Rs.(NC) [
costofCPl5plant
t65OO 688
Discounted running costs (l S per cent, 1O yrs)
2 790 16
Presenr Worth Costs (pWC)
19 290 804
Present Worth Benefits (pWB, t 5 per cent, 10 vrs) 19 021 793
Nen Present Wonh (PWB - pWC)
269_ 11
Benefit: Cost Ratio (n/t/B/pWC)
0.99
Intemal Rate of Retum
l S%
Cost: Benefit
Capital
Notes
l.
2.
l5
Nepal.
3.
holder and central guide pipes.2 The addition of Rs.2 b00 after 5
years to the costs to allow lor this make the economics look
mucn worse.
The results arc very sensitive to the cost of firewood..2'5
Firewood
cost Rs/kg
1.2
1.0
0.8
AIPW
Rs.(NC)
2 319
- zoJ
-2
857
8:C
IRB
-/o
97
- tl
119
1.12
18
nqq
r5
0.85
11
for milling, so a markel survey needs to be done beforc such a projcct is set
up. If there are other mills in the locality and conrperition brings the price
for milling do*n, then a biogas ntill may have a low return. However, if
local peoplc must take thcir grain sontc distancc to gct it nrillcr.l ihcy wi bc
prepared to pay extra for the time and effort saved.
Both biogas and diesel systems look better if the volume of grain processed is increased. The nrills considcrcd in thc survcy wcrc in arcls wlcre
there *as competition from both diesel and electric mills. Also. these mills
do not use heat exchangers, so the gas production in winter is reduced.
although this is ths' tinre whcn dcnrand is highcst. In r'.rc rcrrotc .rcas,
without an electricity supply, and using a welf-designed system (with a heai
eldranger), the amount of grain processed could be highcr and the finan_
cial return improved.
The conclusions of this analysis are supported by the attitude of villagers
using biogas milling slstems. The tirst one sct up in Ncprl (Tikutigarh)ias
run for scven yc'un and the ownes are still vcry kccn o. showin! it off to
visitors. over forty more similar systems have been installed In Nepal
(both hmily and groupowned), 2 despite the high capital cost, ancl interest
r
seems to be growing in the idea. Greater prorits can be earned from an oil-
expeller, but the engine must be larger (lOkW to 15kW), the mill must be
sited in an area where oil-seed crops are grown and there must be a market
for the oil.
93
|rrigrtion systems
In a monsoon climate, such as that of many parts of India and Nepal, crop
production can be greatly increased using irrigation. During the diy season
*ater is often available underground or in streams ancr rivers fed Lv snow
melt and by springs of water from mountain aquifers. If this water can be
pumped up on to villagen' 6elds a rvhole extra crop u ycar, such as whcat,
can be gro*n. Also a pumped water supply allows crops grown during the
monsoon season (especially early paddy and nraizc) to bc irrigatcrJ at
opumlm rimes, especially if the rain fails to arrive o.
Crop,
grown by irrigation allow food to be produced during the time
"*p""t"d.
of year when
it is normally scarce. so it has a high nrarket vrlue.
A water pump can be driven by a dual-tuel engine, supplierJ with gas
from a biogas plant, in the same way as the engines used in giain mills (iee
chapter 7). The crrsrs are sinrilar ro rhose for ulrain nriil, alihough thc iuct
use is even more seasonal, depending on when water is required for
the
different crops (Appendix V). The analysis (Exanrple 9.3) is based on a
done to study the feasibility of a conrmunity biogas irrigation system
lurvey
lor
\ladhubasa village (see Chapter l0). The village ii on rhe edge ;f the
Terai (plains) of Nepal, near Janakpur, and underground water is ivailabre
for pumping all the year round. The tigurcs foithe analysis have been
adjusted to 1986 prices (assuming 15 per cent intlation per year).
90
An SD500 biogas plant with a 5kW engin e, a rice huller and a flour
mill, supplied in Butwal in 1 986 would cost;
SD500 plant, with accessories
SkW dual-fuel engine (f rom India)
Rice huller (f rom India)
Flour mill (f rom India)
Heat exchanger (locally ma<je)
The yearly costs for running the mill are:
Labour to run the biogas plant
Labour to run the milling machinery
Maintenance for all equipment (assumed)
Diesel used wirh the biogas (20o/ol
Lubricating oil (6s5urns61
The yearly benef its are:
Income from milling operations (App. V)
Saving from gas used domestically (App. V)
Saving in fertiliser ( 20kg (@ Rs. )
Loan Repayment
Assuming 7 years' repayment and 1l per cent interest,
Yearly cost of loan:
Savings each year:
which makes a profit of Rs.53B5 lf224l per year tor the
owner or, alternatively, the loan could be paid off in 5
Rs.(NC) t
487ffi 2032
18000 7fi
4
000
000
167
167
2
82
76 760 3 198
000
475
20
192
125
86
32
456
600
3 000
4
2070
800
10
945
24
7
000
1 000
500
1120
313
47
32620 1359
Rs.(NC)
16290 679
21675 903
vears.
Rs.(NC)
nl
690 S 4g7
163712 6g21
32 022 1 3U
1.24
21Vo
Notes
1
76 760 3 19g
54 g3O 2 2N
Mill cturye
NPW
Rs.(NQ
6.0
5.0
56 112 2 338
32022 r334
932
1.02; IRR
6:L
8s6(9 r'ire
4.0
= t6%)
IRR
330
'l
.43
1.24
1.06
25.5
21
o[ watcr usc and crop productivity are done in carefully controlled agricultural ccntres, such as the Japancse-funded Janakpur Agricultural Develop
ment Projcct near Madhubasa, which provided the pumpse t and ga.ve very
valuable hclp and advice. Despite the apparent economic advantages of a
biogas irrigation system the villagers in Madhubasa did not appear to be
earning enough money from the sale of wheat to cover the cost of the loan
repayments. They were rescued from potential economic problems by the
decision to ask the village to set up a tree nursery. To grow well, tree
seedlings need a constant supply of small amounts of water most of the
ycar round.'l'hc irrigation systcm secms more able to supply this need, but
it does not seem capable of providing the large quantities of water required
by grain crops at critical times.
Rs.(NC)
48160 2032
475 20
000 26
UUU
I6C
IZ3
800
JJ
33
--mT60---7Tg
The extra costs for the extra crops are:
Sced lor new crops
Fertrliser for improved productivity
Labour for exlra croos
The yearly benef its are:
Income from sale of crops (App. V)
Saving from gas used domestically (App. V)
Saving in fertiliser p20 kg @ Rs.a)
Loan Repayment
Assuming 7 years' repayment and 11oh interest,
Yearly cost of loan:
Savings each year:
27ffi
970
9 230
13
115
582
385
--36T20-T507
67
700
15
335
2822
10265 428
1120 41
--79T65-2s6Rs. (NC) f.
43
065
639
1794
which makes a profit of Rs.27730 (e 1155) per year for the owners
or, alternatively the loan could be paid off in 2 vears.
93
Rs.(NC)
72 260 3 011
180 776 7 532
253 036 10 543
296 909 16 538
143 873
t.o
29Yo
Notes
l. The remarks about lifetimes of pro.lect components in Example
9.2 also apply to this analysis.
2. The results may be compared to those for a dieselonly system
inigating the same areas of crops.
(giving: NAN Rs.122 120, t5088, B:C = 1.6, tRR = 29%)
3. The results are sensitive to the prices of grain in the local market
4.
Grain price
NfuV
8:C
IRR
Rslt. rbe
Rs.(NC)
2 700
t.b
I.O
ZY
r 800
t.J
23
22fi
Yo
. S-yty.yr in India suggest that many pump-sets there are also op.rated
incflicicntly (a 4.5kw enginc is .ften ust<J t' irrigate onry 2.4harici
from a
5-metre-deep well, less than half the area suggested by this
analysis).ra
Somc farmcrs cvcn find thc usc <-rf-<-ricsel or elJctric pump
for iri,gaiion
results in an overall loss of income..In Nepal, despite
t'he wide publicity for
y.]ulb,y,communiry irrigation scheme (see C)raprcr A), the idea
ll-:
nas nor altracte<l the keen interest that biogas
milling has done. in contrrst,
one of the top businessmen_ in Nepal ur". i bioga, irrigation
system on hi,
111! nc1 Birgunj and has bc-en impresse<t by iis
etfeitiveness and profirability. He can, however, afford to employ weil-trained
technicians and
farm managers who know how to make thebest
use of the system.
'I'hc.answcr to thc problcm
of inclu<ting irrigation schemes in a bioga-<
exJension programme appears to be to tint ttrim
into agricultural extin_
sron p. rogram mes, employi ng
agronomists
and iri,gation
.
.experienczd
spccialists who can advisc on the
best use of ihe water. A rotatign of a
wider variety of crops, ensuring a more euen water dernand
throughout the
year, allows a much more effective use of the
system.13
9.4
Economic conclusions
pi.i
oi.,
frii
nigh.
toilunt a"r"
nr"*ioa crof
95
CHAPTER 1O
Community Biogas
one of the main criticisms directed against biogas technology is that onry
the richer furmers can afford to use it. In Nepil and India]for example,
betwecn l0 per cent and 20 per cent of thc population can afford to tok. u
loan- for a family biogas plant and to repay iti cost, even with 50 per
cent
ybsidy. The concept of community biogas is based on the idea thai poorer
furmers can mme together and nratch in ternrs of nroncy and lifcstocl what
the rich can pmvide on their own.
This idea is based on rhree assumptions:
larger biogas plant will mean that the effective cost per cubic metre
1\,
of biogas is lower.
The biogas from such a plrnt cln lre uscd in such a way ihat all the
people in the community will benefit fronr it.
The people in the community will be willing to coopcratc with each
other in order to share in these benetirs.
villagers.
Scvcral plants had tcchnicar pr'blcms. c)ne of the prants buirt in Nepal
used night-soil as a feedstock, from latrines serving 300 low-caste toorin.
The gas would not burn, bccause the bacterial population, withour a
startcr, lackcd mcthanogcns and the galvanised steel gas drum rapidly
corroded. The latrines proved very popular at first, so they became quickly
overloadcd and dirty. The rwo systems built by pRAD in Uttah piadesir
uscd scvcral 3om3 domc plants. 'Ihese were rargei thanpRAD had attempted
to build previously and the plans had not been properly prepared. The site
surveys had also been inadequate and the builders discovered unexpeaed
problcms: a high water table on one site and a high level of vibration
from a railway line on another. These technical diffrculties quickly led to
disillusionment by thc field staff, who felt they were poorly iupported by
their engineers, and rejection by the villagers
The relationships between the imprementing organisation and the vilage
conrnrunity dctcrioratcd with timc. During the planning stage, the villageis
wcre kecn to cooperate and macle many promises. However, they tended
to see the biogas plant as the responsibility of the aid group *ho ,""r.
paying for it. 'l'hcy dcmanded high wages for the labouring work an<! hig)t
prices lbr supplying dung, while expecting low fees for the gas and fertiliir
produced. In many cases KVIC had to bring labour and dung in from
oulside thc village to ensure the project worked. This in turn -upset the
villagers, who were expecting an immediate financial benefit fiom the
project, so they became even less cooperative.
97
These attitudcs werc the result of r wrouS npprolch: lhc villagcrs saw
tlre community plants as projects set up by the implementing organisations.
Thereforc the people felt no commitment to the projects and were not
intcrcsted in their success. Their only concern was to get as nruch out of the
pmject for themselves as they could.
A further root cause of these problems appeared to be a lack of will to
make dccisions, both uithin the aid groups and the villagcs.'l'hc pronriscs
made by villagen to the staff who came to do surveys and make plans were
not based on a carcful consideration of the problems involved. Instead,
they tended to give the answers they thought the planners wantcd to hcar.
Mthin the organisations many decisions were passed up the line to the
l0:
When DCS and ADBA.I agreed jointly that the Nepal biogas programme
should irrclude community biogas they carefully considered the sociological
fecton involved. Several questions had to be asked.
An important question involved the motives for considering community
biogas. Such prcgrammes tend to be fashionable and often attract funding,
but both ftstrion und nroncy crrn distort trthcrwisc wcll-plunncd progra[tntcs.
Thc main purpose had to be to help the people with whom DCS intended
to work. They had to see things from the villagers' point of view, which
mcant DCS staff being preparcd to stay with thenr, sharing their language,
culture and food.
A project must belong to the people for whom it is intended. This means
that the villagers need to have a linancial conrnritnrent to the project, as
well as supplying local materials (such as sand) and labour. Poor communitiqs do not have the capital to pay for such a project, so they must take
loans. The project, therefore, must generate enough income to cover loan
repayments and interest. In Nepal ADB/N made a policy decision to give a
50 pcr ent subsidy towards conrmunity biogas projects, but to expect the
groups of farmers involved in such projects to take loans for the rest. The
98
witl
the pcople. Initial visits will be formal, but they should be low key. One
person walking into a village is much less threatening than a team arriving
by jeep or helicopter. Great care should be taken thit the villagers are noi
given false expectations. They will be suspicious of a stranger asking
hare to train people in committee prrredures, all the decisions about the
prcject should be made by this committee. with the agrccnrcnt of the rest
of rhe crrmmunity.
The rillagen must understand all the implications of the projcct. Members
of the committee can be taken to visit other community biogas projects;
pictures and nrodels can hc used for trlining courses for thcnr. 'l'his proccss
may take several months or even yean, but it should not be rushed,
otlrerwise the villagen may not be able to cope with the projcct.
103
Also
pa_st tensions
projcct.5
10,4
lr
biogas plant ncarby and werc interestecl in it. DCS was asked to make
a
survey of the village.3
Five of the houses in the village of Kusongodai, in Tikuligarh panchayat,
wcre very close together, so the piping of biogas to these houses would
be easy. All the people in the village were Brahmins and related to
each other. They traditionaly worked together and had been involved
in thc SFDP group for several years. In l9g0 they were spending about
Rsl,500 per household on wood and kerosene foi cooking and l-ighting,
and cxpcctcd thcsc priccs to incrcasc. Four of the famiries iad sinirir
raii
holdings and livesrock and they were keen on the project. The head
of the
fifth family, a respected elderly priest, disagreed. The four families had
twcnty-scvcn cattlc bctwccn thcm, just cnough t<r fee<l an SD500 biogas
plant.
An sD500 biogas prant was builr for the four famiries in l9gl. sFDp
providcd a 50 pcr ccnt subsidy and thc villagers took a loan for
the rest
from ADB/N. Each of the houses was supplied with two ring burners and
a
biogas lamp. The farmcrs bccame concernecl about repaying their
loan to
ADll/N. Early in l9B2 thcy werc persua<.red to test the use of a 4kw rJuarfuel engine with a rice-huller (supplied by DCS), using biogas from their
plant. Aftcr six months, when the Gobar Gas Company removed the
engine, the villagers took a second loan (without subsidy) fiom ADBA.J
to
buy a 5kW engine and a flour mill. They later purchased the rice
huller
from DCS.
The villagers have carefu y organised themselves to ensure that the
biogas system works fairly. Each house sends a person to
bring three
buckels of cattle dung each day and to help mix thi slurry. The
m-ain gas
valve is opened at fixed times during the day, for cooking and lighting.
ire
nrill is uscd whcncvcr there is a cremand for its servicei. In winter jwhen
thcre is lcss gas, the villagers must use firewood for cooking the
evening
meal. customers come to the village to have their grain
morning. If all the gas has been used they will run the engine on diesel
alonc.
Each
101
The mill is operated by two people. The driver is hired from outside the
village and is paid a fixed salary of RS.300 (fl4) per month, whether he
worls thrce hours a day in the slack season or eightecn hours a day after
harrest. He collects die.sel fmnr R nclrtr)' torvn on l bicyclc (3() litrcs n tirrrc
frrrm 7\m away). He d<xs all the repair and nraintcnancc work rcquirod on
the mill. Staff from 'the Gobar Gas Company are called in if there is a
problcrn that he cannot solvc.
The cashier is one the people from the four households. He issues slips
of papcr to the people waiting to have their grain nrilled. These indicate the
order in which they are to be served and how nruch nrust be paid, in nroney
or in grain. Records are kept of these amounts. The cashier's job is taken
been lower and local people prefer to come to a small rfiill, which will
proes small quantities, than go to a larger one, wherc they nray have to
*?it. As elecnicity @mes to tle area electric mills are being set up, which
charge lower pricas. This may have an effect on thc prolitability of the
Tiluligarh mill in the future.
f
0.5
The village of Madhubasa (on the Terai in Janakpur zone) had set up their
own cooperative srxiety in 196t. Thc villlge wus choscn as I place lor a
SFDG in 1979 (number 37). There are thirty-seven fanrilies (187 people in
l9B3), all of whom belong to the Magar tribe and are farmers. The Magar
tribe arc rDled fiDr their oJmnrunity spirit and .in Madhubasa this is conrbined
with I strong but open leadership (also Magar) that enables the people to
join in cooperative ventures. SFDP suggested the village as a site for a
ommunity biogas project and DCS did a survey in 1980.
The village lies at the base of the foothills of the Himalayan range,
between two rivers. These rivers are usually dry, but they are subject to
Eash 0ooding in the monsoons, when water runs off the hills to the north.
102
Inca
Blogat plant
ap.
Houges
(1)
Housot (2
Wate
tan(
I
)
Gablons
--
Rlver
dryl
m:0
t00
200
fruit trces, to build up the soil and to provide a cash crop. This projert
permanent
nn
is operation.
While the biogas plant was seen as an answer to one of the villagers' felt
needs, that for irrigation, other uses of the biogas were considered. The
villagcrs wanted gas lamps, so they could hold village meetings by gas light.
TSo gas burners werc placed in the community house, for use in making
tee for meetings and for guests in the village. Irrigation is seasonal, so the
gas crn be used for other purposes at tinres of the year when water is not
uscd to
it ould be piped to the village. Ir was also nble to punrp irrigation watcr.
The site of the biogas plant was another issue. From a technical point of
view the plant should have been near the pump-set, but the cattle dung
uould have had to be carried for 500 merres (300 or 4tDkg/rtay). 't'hc
villagen wanted the biogas plant in the village, near the cattle sheds. They
\rrcre also @ncrned about security, being as much afraid of attacks from
evil spiris as of po.ssible human interference. One of the village leaders
contributed land for the plant. The gas was piped the 500 metres from the
villagc to the pump by plastic pipe. Such a pipeline proved expensive and
there were fears about the plastic being chewed by rats.
A 50 per ent subsidy for community biogas schenres is now government
policl, s.l DCS made this available to the projecr. The rest of the cost had
to be taken as a loan from ADB/i{, and application was made in the name
of SFDG number 37. Not all members of the cooperative socicty were
membcrs of this group; thc two village leaden owned too much land to be
onsidercd as small farmers. These people would pay their contributions to
the members of SFDG 37 when loan repayments had to be rnade.
The watcr was to be pumped fronr the wells into an existing irrigation
cand thst had been built to take water from the Jalad river, when iiflows
during the monsoon. Only twenty-two families had land in the arca scrved
by this canal. Another ten families had land in other places, while five
bouseholds had no land at all. If the nrain benefit of the scheme came from
the profit from the sale of a winter wheat crop, these fifteen families had to
bcnefit, too.
l&
Discussions took a ycar; the idea of 'gas right*', where the people using
the gas paid a fee to those who did not, w.N rejected. l-and w.as available
for sale in the irrigated area, owned by an outsider, but no money could be
lound to buy it, Thc twenty-two land-owners were challenged about sharing their land, but the committee (ten of whom were land-ownen) werc
not keen. Aftcr they were asked to imagine themselves in the role of thos
without land in tlrc arca, they agrced to leurc a portion of their land on a
'Bathya' system. This traditional arrangement allows the farmer and the
land owner to share the crop on a 50:50 basis. An agreement was drawn up
and all partics signed it.
The biogas plant and engine shed were built in Madhubasa in 1983 and
were running by early 1984. The rota system for putting cattle dung into
the plant was slow to get going. The engine (purchased from JADp and
adapted for dual-fuel use) runs well on biogas and is being used to pump
water to the drinking water tank and for irrigating a winter wheat crop.
'I'he initial income from the sale of wheat proved disappointing: the crop
yields were much lower than expected, mainly because the villagers were
not uscd to growing wheat. However, the village has become invotved in
another development project: growing tree seedlings for a joint HMG/aid
agency reafforestation project. Part of the water pumped for the drinking
watcr supply is bcing used to irrigate these seedlings, which eam a good
income for the village. There is enough money from the sale of thes
seedlings to repay the loan and interest as well as improving the living
standard of everyone living there. Few people in the village now have to
cut firewood to sell to gain extra income.
10.6
Whilc a larger biogas plant does g.ive some economy of scale, it is insufficient
to reduce the price per m3 of biogas to that which a poor farmer can afford.
Evcn with a 50 per cent subsidy the villagers of Tikuligarh were concerned
about rcpaying their loan while they were only using biogas for domestic
purposes. The real value of a community biogas plant comes when it is
uscd to earn an income for the group or the village. Biogas used to fuel a
dual-fuel engine offers real financial benefits, an important new dimension
in the concept of community biogas.
Pcoplc's commitment to a cooperative projeA depends on the benefit
thcy rcccivc from it. If the project is earninga cagh income in which all thc
members of the community can share, they will work to keep the project
going. the benefits from a domestic biogas plant are not valuable enough
to offer a high incentive.
Once people dismver the benefits they can gain from working togethr
they are more likely to try other projects. Madhubasa was chosen as the
village in which to set up a tree nursery because of the way in which
105
they had worked to8,e(her on the biog:rs schcnrc. lloth Mudhubasa and
Tikuligarh are places to which other groups are brought to dcnlonstratc the
idea of community biogas. The King of Nepll visitcd Madhubasa in 1985,
(altbough he only had rine ro look lt the project fronr a hclicoptcr). All
6ese things lead to a growth in people's status and confidence in themselves.
The seond factor which encouraged success in the Nepal conrnrunity
bi<4as programme was the close cooperation of SFDp and JADp. Technical
expertise was readily available to train villagers in the use and maintenance
of engines, the most effective use of irrigation water and the best way to
grow wlrcat. Mechanisms were also available for giving low-interest loans
and subsidies for cooperative projects, and the villagers were used to using
them. They had learnt to trust the officiats of ADB/N and were prcpared tJ
'"lre thc risk of a much larger debt to pay for the biogas projects. This trust
had been built up over several preceding years by the GO/ARFs, who had
been trained and motivated through thc FAO schenre.
The experienoe from Nepal demonstrates that community biogas can
uork if the right approaches are used within the biogas progranrruc. An
cftective ommunity progr:rmme denands involrrenrent fronr people with
many skills. A sociologist or anthropologist is needed to choose ihe area
106
CHAPTER 11
u. .J"pi"o to
rocar conditions
1.'l
ii
ft"."nt"
lW
themslves
s,ere engaged
and cheaper <lesigns of biogus plunts. While this infornrll approach was
inefficient and wasteful, with menrbers of many different communes facing
the same problems and making the same nristakes, it did work. Peasant
farmen were able to mrke cheap biogas planis thrt produccd suflicicnt gas
to provide ooking fuel for a Chinese family.
I
l:
The early Indian and Chinese npproachcs (o biogus R & D werc vcry
different. The Indian approach started with institutions and moved via
semi-government organisations to local labourers building plants for
farmen, The Chinese approach startcd with thc f rnlcrs, with rcscarch and
extension organisations being formed to meet the needs of the farmers.
Now, both programmes seem to be moving towards nriddlc ways that are
very similar.
t:
took the results of the institutional R & D work without a clcar understanding of their implications for the designs they wcrc making. When local
labourers started to build these designs for farmers in villages, they, in
tum, did not understand what they were building or how thc plnnts wcrc
supposed to work. A lack of eft'ective communication between researchers,
designers, builders and farmers meant that when problems occurred with
new plans there was no-one available whtl could put thcnt right. Also
farmen were not trained in the correct use of their plants or in basic
maintenanc.
For erample. an c';rrly Indian dcsign uscd a countcr-bulirnccd gas drunr,e
to reduce the gas pressure to below atmospheric, as the R & D results
suggested that reduced pressure increased gas production. A nrore careful
e-taninrtion of this rc.sult shos's thc cxtrr 'biogas' wirs curbt-rrr dioxitlc
corning out of solution from the slurry. This design was also very dangerous,
as air could be drawn into the low pressure in thc drunr, nraking an
erplosive mixture. Poor c,r:nrnruniciltion also lcd to a singlc dcsign (the
KVIC floating drum design) being used for a wide range of different
applications. There was very little flexibility in thc systcnr.
One more research and extension organisations became involved in the
biogas programme the approach became more flexible. The 'Janata' (fixed
dome) plant was introduced into the extension progranrnc (originally by
PRAD) and taken up by these other organisations. Floating ferrocement
drums (introduced by SERC) also became available.13
Prx>r oommunications with builden and owners leads to high failure
rates for plans. Many biogas technicians are only taught to follow a set
procedure, without being given an explanation of why tlrc diffcrent tasks
need to be done. Where conditions exist that are not nornral, such as poor
108
soif or a high water tabre, the technician cannot adapt his approach to suit
thcsc conditions. rf farmers do not have an underitanding of the
biogas
process they are likely to make mistakes in operating the plant,
srich
digester.
Aqtn,
_
Food
,popular,
thrusts in the Chlncse bi<tgus programme, in the
_^1," r*? m:rin
1950s and 1970s, were based firmly in Chinese viiiage
communes, wirh
to
lt0
how to look for solutions. Their work, however, must bc done in the
context in which the results are to be applied. They must seek to solve the
real problems faced by the farmers using biogas tichnology. The answers
devised by these scientists must be tested by normal biogas usen in
the
Iield, to cnsure they work we and do not intioriuce further probrems.
1
1.3
in
Bombay to make them. Other companies also made their own, cheapr
versions, which werc uscd by othcr extcnsion agencies, such as PRAD.
Kirloskar Oil Engine Company,r8 pune, produced a design of dual_fuel
enginc, bascd on their standard diesel engines with a mixing--chamber-type
gas carburettor fitted to the air-inlet ma^nifold. This engine
was extensively
tested in Kirloskar's own laboratories.l0
In China the peasant farmers made their own gas stoves and lighs, from
tins packe<J with stones or using simple firecl_clay designs.ta The -gas
piping
was made from soft PVC tube, closed off with simple Jips tt
at
pin.led
tl!
tubc- r') J'hcsc clcsigns wcrc not vcry cfficicnt, but tirey worked
satisf:rctorily.
Again' official standards have been issued for thi design of stoves and
lights, using the best of the peasant designs with improvements based
on
scicntific principlcs. | |
DCS was concerned about biogas equipment development from
early in
tlre. biogas programme. Supplies couh be obtained from India,
but ihe
dcsryns wcrc eithcr r:xpcnsivc or unrcliable. -I'he stan<Jard plug
cack, made
in.Calcutta, was adapted by itting a tensioning spring tb frold the plug
tightfy in the body even when it was worn do*n. Euen this design teaXiA
i
tfrc lriglrcr gas prcssurc from <tisplaccmcnt digestcrs. Attcmpts were
ma<Je
to find better designs.2o A cheaper, but reliable gas stove was developed
by DCS and was madc in workshops in Nepal. Att-empts were alx>macle
to
develop a cheap, reliable gas light.
111
l..l
and 5/ in
rolume. Plastic flasks muld be used, but they are very difficult to make gastight. The rcacton need to be kept at a constant tenrpcrature, either in a
temperature'@ntrolled room or in water baths. water baths are usuallv
dteaper and easier to set up as well as being more Ilexible, in that several
small systems can be run at ditferent tenrpcratures at the same time
(Appendix III).
L:boratory reactors can bc eithcr brrtch .r sc.ri-c.ntinu<lus, contiruouslv
or intermittently mixed. The biogas given off needs to be colrected and
measured and samples of slurry need to be removed so that parameters
such as pH and volutile solids and COD contcnt can bc ntcasurctl. Gas is
us'ally collected in a bottle containing water that is displaced into a second
bortle by the gas. The second bottle is usually placed liigher than the first,
allowing rhe gas ro be collected under a positive prcssurc (Appendix III).
Tl1 :r9 of rhe sampling pipe, used ro remove and add slurry, should dip
well below the surface of the slurry to prevent air entering tire gas space.
Thc positive pressure also makes mixing difticult (Appenclix tit;. if tne
low-rate rurar digesters, then an occasional
ffif:l"T:"tr.{lpTn1if
I
lJ
ll2
plants that may bc hcatcd would bc those which have been designed for
cold-climate usc and are being tested in a cold region.
Tlrcrc arc lwo aspects to lhe measurement of the gas produaion from a
lull-scalc bi<rgas plant: thc gas uscd and the gas remaining in the plant.
When plants are run on a test site the gas is usually retained in the plant
arrd rclcasctl thrcugh a ga$ mctcr (Appcndix III) twics a day, The gat it
either lost or collected in a secondary store. The testing of plants on a
customer's site means that the gas used each 24 hours, as measured by a
metcr, needs to be corrccted according to the volume left in the plant at
the bcginning and end of each measuring period (Appendix III). Despirc
the greater difficulty of field tests the results are very valuable as a
sample of different plants to the same design can be tested. The effects of
peculiarities in individual plants and the ways different owners run them
can be statistically removed. Operating mistakes by different owners can
also be idcntificd and the effects measured, so that advice on the best way
to run plants can be given to all customers.
1
1.6
An
glassware (Appendix
and traincd tcchnicians are required. Gas burners are useful as the chemifor COD measurement and biogas from a test site
plant can bc uscd to run thcm.
BOD, total phosphorous, potassium and nitrogen and C:N ratio measurenrcnts rcquirc morc spccialiscd apparatus and training. Tltey are best done
by university or government research laboratories specialising in soil science
or wastc disposal wr>rk.
cals need to be boiled
11.7
la{
rn nrst order kinetic model
to be
1.8
:*.^.lT:,
tion
curve-s
;ui
;il;-
at
lt4
suggested that the high rate was due to the break-down of easily digested
material, and the low (background) rate from the digestion of malerials,
such as cellulose, for which the rate-limiting process is hydrolysis.a
Both Chowdhury and Maramba found that the lag time appeared to be
vcry short (about one day), probably because they were both using a
startcr, so the bacteria were able to start biogas production immediately on
encountering a ncw source of feedstock. Chowdhury also noticed sharp
oscillations in the daily gas-production curve (Fig. I l. I ).
1.4
't.3
1.2
1.1
1.0
c
o
0.9
0.8
J
E
o
o.7
CL
0.6
o
a6
Ct)
0.5
o.4
o
o
0.3
g,
o.2
CL
0.1
0510
152025303540
Tlme
da
ys,
lV).
ll5
ll.9
this typ of work and staff can be rotated between the rcscarch and
extension programmes as necessary.
116
CHAPTER 12
Thc United Nations and its specialist groufx, such as ESCAP, FAO,
UNDP and the World Bank, also became interested in alternative energy,
it appeared to offer the possibility of help towards the solution of these
as
econonric pr<-rblcms. I
Biogas technology was unable to provide an immediate answer as it was
poorly dcveloped and nrore related to the needs of rural families than to
thosc <rf the new industrial areas lhat were demanding rnorc energt!.
However, despite the fall in the oil price in the mid-1980s, biogas technolcgy
fras rcrnaincd, along with other altcrnative energses, on the agenda of
government and United Nations' planners and in the political arena.
Planners and administrators in a biogas programme need to recognise
tlrc political infiucnccs on thcir programme, not only at the international
and government levels, but also among the customers with whom the
programme is working and the staff of the programme. The arguments
for
government help
12.1
Biogas is a resource for rural areas, so does not have the immediate
priority for government ministers demanded by other energy sources such
as liquid fuels. Politically, the needs of the urban elite for fuel for transport
and industry tend to gain precedence, as they have a powerful voice. Civil
servants and journalists, especially, belong to this group and can make
their needs known to politicians with a much greater urgency than the poor
majority in their distant villages. Biogas cannot easily be used in urban
areas as it requires space, which is expensive, and the transport of waste
117
products. sudl as night soil and animal dung, which are bulky and obnoxious
tu
l2J
The most important argument for the value of biogas techqology is that of
the crisis in domestic fuel supply. The world is facing an energy crisis that
has nothing to do with the supply or price of oil. The drop in oil prices in
the mid-1980s has not helped this second energy crisis at all, because it is to
do with the supply and demand for firewood. As populations grori in most
parts of the world, people need more wood to build houses and to cook
food. They also need more land on which to grow food, so they clear
foress and reduce thc wood supply even further. As lcss wood is availablc,
people begin to burn agriculural wastes, such as dried animal dung and
crop rcsidues, which could otherwirie h:rve been crrnrJxrstcd to nrakc fcrtiliser.
Thesc fuels are also inefficient, giving smokey flames.
ll8
fertiliser from the same animal dung and crop residues. Because biogas is a
lrigf r gr rrdc lucl tntl carr bc uscd irr rrlovcr of lrigh cflicicncy, a lixc<! nt.atr ol
residues will produce more usable energy if digested, than if it were dried
and burnt on an open fire. The value of the fertiliser from a biogas plant is
also higher than that produced if the same wastes were composted in
traditional ways.
Biogas-fuelled irrigation schemes, where underglound water is available, mean that crops can be grown in the dry season, without having to cut
down forest to create more agricultural land. Cottage industries, powered
by bkrgas, could also mcan that fcwer people would have to cut firewood to
sell, as they could earn extra cash in other ways through village cooperatives.
This would cause the price of firewood to rise, making domestic biogas
plants look morc cconomic.
Theoretically, biogas technology does have rhe potenrial for making an
impact on these problems in a country such as Nepal. It has been calculated
that threc-quartcrs of the fuel wood used in Nepal could be replzced, if all
the available cattle dung were digested to biogas.2 However, such calculations ignore the cost of all these biogas plants and the resources, in
manpowcr and matcrials, such as cement, that they would require. At the
present rate of construction, it would take centuries before the biogas
programme begins to make an impact on these problems. The problems
themselves are likely to reach crisis dimensions within decades!
12,3
ll9
technologr, they usually like it very much. It saves thenr the hard work and
timc requircd ro collect and prepare other fuels, such as cutting firewood or
moulding cattle dung and crop wastes into lumps for drying. Biogas is also
mudr clcaner to usc: cooking utensils, clothes and the whole kitchen are
fr,ee from soot and smoke and the smell of burning. A few people complain
that some foods lack the characteristic flavour that is imparted when they
arc @oked over burning cattle dung,3 but, in gcneral, biogas tcchnology is
seen by nrral women :rs a real benefit to them in their hard lives.
Ttre main reason for many farmers wanting to build a biogas plant is
persuasion by extension workers. In China, especially, nrany pcoplc had
beome so used to following the lead of the revolutionary cadres that they
agrecd to build biogas plants, too. In India, the biogas extension workers
arr often involved in other extension work. Many farnrers wanting hclp in
other areas, such as getting supplies of fertiliser or high-quality seed, agree
to build a biogas plant ro help the extension agenr fulfil his quota for plant
sales.
12.4
Staff motivation
One of the problems faced bv extension agencies with sraff working nrainly
in the field is the management of these people. Unsupervised young field
agents c:rn spend time sitting in tea shops rather than making the effort to
go out to inaccessible villages lo meet farmers, who are probably away
uorking in their 6elds. Even highly motivated agents can achicve very little
if they have to travel long distances to meet the relatively few peopie who
are able to afford loans for domestic plants.
Many agencie.s have incentive schemes, such as the offer of a bonus for
eacft biogas plant sold. These need to be crrefully ndnrinistcrcd, cspccially
to aroid jerlousy between different groups of staft. Construction staff can
also be oftered incentives to sell plants to people conring to visit new plants
out of crrriosity. In Nepal, these bonuses were even extcnded to bankstaff.
as they often had to visit farmers in connection with loans for other
projects.
Money should not be the only bonus for staff. Effective training in
bi<rgas strould include all the arguments for the use of biogas technotogy, so
that people are inspired by a concern for the environnrent and a conviction
that their work could have a beneficial effect. The organisational structure
should allow staff to see different aspects of the work and include prospects
for advanement for those who work hard and effectivelv.
120
12.5
,fr.
.."*p,
"f should 6e
they
C.";r"ti;
in"oti.J."
121
APPENDIX
fts
Most biogas plants are built in a hole in the ground. If the soil is strong the
digester pit can be dug and lined with masonry or cement plaster. Building
gauges and templates are helpful to define the shape accurately. A simple
building gauge to check the diameter of a circular hole is a length of rope
looped around a pipe held in the cenrre of the hole with rope and pegs
p.gr
held vertlcal
strlng and pogs
r=
l
r='l
|+-.'rin.lrr-r-;rr.l1r1rl+zf
'7 i--7"7777-7'.,
/'',/' /',/,/
Figure I.l.Bzrldra g gauge
used
- Ra
dlus
'
.,
// ,/ /'/ t//
8ug
lf
thc soil is weak and liable to fall into the hole the sides need to be
supported as it is dug. A technique used in building wells can be adopted
f.r lloati'g drurn and fixcd d.mc plants. the lining of the pit is made il<xe
to where the pit is to be dug, usually of reinforced concrete or ferrocement
rings. Altcrnativcly spun concretc pipes can be purchascd. These rings
are
placcd, onc by'ne, above the hole, which is excavated from within the
Iining. As earth is removed, the lining sinks into the hole, supporting
the
walls. Long troughs, for extencled dome, bag and tent digestlis .oul-d
b"
made in a similar way, using precast concrete sections sunk into the ground
to form walls. Internal struts of steel or reinforced concrete would be
required to support these walrs, when the earth is removed from inside
the
digester pit.
Building materials
The main building materials for a biogas plant are brick or stone masonry
and concrete.. Sheets of plastic or rubbei are also used in bag and
teni
plants. Materials affected by moisture, such as unbumt brick ind wood.
are not suitable.
Bricks should be fired and of good quality. porous bricks may leak
slurry, so a wall built of them may need to be coated with cement pi".t"r.
Slonc walls nccd m.rc ccment mortar, but can be used where briiks are
not available. The stones should be free from soil.
Sand used in mortar and concrete must be free from vegetable matter
and ntud. Dirty sand can bc washed before it is used. Each batch of
sand is
placed in a container (eg. a wheelbanow) and water ffushed
through it. If
the sand is fine, or has mica in it, more cement may have to be used
to
cnsurc a strong mortar. e ,bagl of sand (usually an empty cement
bag)
Mlxlng plt
Gao holder
gulde plpe
Outlet
lvster outlet
t,/
let
plpe
O ut
Se6tlon
L-
.--_- J
Plan vlew
Figure
design SDI00,
2M,
J50
of 1:6,1:4
litl::gJ1.:!'::,layerc,
{lvery.- rr rhe sorl ls poor the
1^
fcrroccmcnt). Thc mcsh is hcld to.the s.il surface with
wire stapfes, wfrlie
n":: o.f. rhc floating drum clesign can bc made of brick or concrete
Jl"
(rrg. l.z). I he Intet and outlet
pipes (l00mm diameter) are usually made
::^1_?f
crcanfng,
Table
lo
of paint
Let.
Dimension (mm)
Digester Volume
Drum Volume
Mixing Pit Volume
Depth of Digester
(m3)
(m3)
(mt)
A
B
2520
1 030
910
580
D
E
600
2500
1
a mixing
3 090
3 300
1270
1 270
910
910
1 220
810
34.0
8.5
3 770
500
220
050
2 900
2000 2 600
2900 3 900 4 230
-."t
in".
the
A pilot hole is usually 6rst dug in the ground and covered with boards
before the mud mould for the dome is made (Fig. I.3). A template made
Gag plpe
Mlxlng plt
Slurry
ro sorv ol
utlet
Sectlon
*1800 -(2460)
Over f low
from welded steel rod is used to shape the mould. If the soil is weak the
fioundstions for the crcllar of the donrc should bc incrcascd in arca to
spread the load. Sizes and typical material quantities used in Nepali designs
The radii of the dome and floor are chosen so that they can each be
dected with a gauge made from a length of string attached at the centre of
the other. The gas outlet pipe can have holes drilled in the bottom edge to
allow this string gauge to be fastened to it.
The sizes and typical material quantities for extended dome plants are
given in Tables I.5 and I.6 (Fig. I.a).
t26
Table
Plant Type
sDt00
Cement kg (bags)
Sand / (bags)
Bricks
Drum Weight
Cement Pipe
(ks)
(m)
SD2OO
SD350
sD500
5.000 7,500
246 392
IA
132
4.8
7.1
4U
7.4
is
Dimension (mm)
Let. CP70
'ta
9.0
??
t.J
Q.22
800
3,100
2,000
OU
250
780
2,100
2.900
580
24
LI
560
'1,060
Cpts
cP20
5.6
5.6
9.7 14.1
12.5 16.9
2.1
2.9
0.34 0.43
920 920
4,000 4,000
2,800 2.WO
80
80
300 300
270 785
1,090 875
1,2N zW
3.800 3,8@
160 120
680 630
630 1.195
'o
li-
:I
!l
o
o
=llll)ao
O
ll
=o@
,,']-
'
.)'l I o
.///
lli l'-No -------t
O //t/
l-
tt
I
I
/l
,/
l''
i_ _
iti
tl
o
rt
qt
\\-lE;
\\l
\\\"{a
g
5
o
a
a!
\\\.1 3 0
FJJg
't r::1;
F
'r.-.-.i-fl
iI
I
l=
\ il O
:\\E
_1
,i
..\\-il !
,..\\l-q
r'r
'
E
9.
G
lo
Irl
t;
lo
.:
lo
lo
ri
lot---'-
00
I
I
*s\:
=
J
loo
l@
l-'i',--'t2
NiN rS
o
3
6
5
N__
c,
N
o
r28
a
qJ
o0
Table
Type
ol Plant
CPIO
Cement
Sand
Aggregate
Bricks
1,300
2.5
(m)
(6mm)
il)
Cement Pipe
Steel Rod
Acrylic Paint
Table
L (m)
1,500
J.U
(m)
EPsO
trroJ
EPBO
EP95
75m
dorne plants
Dome
B (m)
Vol.
2,000
4,000
6,000
8,000
10,000
3.0
50m
Type
EP20
EP35
1,900
40m
Plant
CP2O
(m3)
Digester
Vot. (m3)
q,A
0
1,000
1,800
10.0
17.5
28.7
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
1,400
1,400
1,400
1,400
14.6
39.9
19.3
51 .1
23.9
28.5
62.3
. Thc rcservoir pit is large and deep enough for an animal or a child to
drown in so it must be covered. Reinforced concrete pieces or wooden
boards or slats can be used. These covers also prevent water
evaporating
from thc slurry, which may otherwise become too dry.
Table
Materials
EP20
Bricks
Cement
Sand
Aggreg
Steel Rod
Cement Pipe
Kg
I
m
m
Plant
2m
Tunnel EpS7
ff)
Eres
3,000
1,100
950 (221
2,400 (7Ol
1,400 (411
'130
0
0
2.7
129
5,200
100
2.7
8,500
100
2.7
r-9
o:
.'.:
E-
9-v
EO
oE
o.o
'
q,
tt
uJ
CL
CL
o
tr
(!
e
q,
o
I
3
o
o
o
o
o
o,
o
o
o
E
c,
.!.t
t
.:p
o
t
ao
RI
5
q)
at
IJ.
130
A bag digcster nccds a smooth trench in which to lie, that will support the
sitfcs,[ tlrc lrirg.rrd thc wcight rf slurry within it (I.ig. 1.5).'Ihewailsof the
trcnch sh<ruld bc lrcc from stoncs or any sharp objccts that may punciture
the bag. A smooth cement-praster-wailed trench is suitabre, arthough wire
nrcsh rcinforcomcnt would be required if the soir were weak. The shape
of
the trench can be checked using a template made to the shape that the bag
shccting.a's
Gap In plastlc
PVC
Metal cllp
: wel
'- Tu
Groove
Inlng
dlgestar
t3l
APPENDIX
11
Gas lines need to be fitted with water drains at appropriate points (see
Chapter 5). Two designs were used in Nepal, the 'T' trap (Fig. II.l) for
shallow gas lines and the'U'trap for pipes laid deeper in the soil (Fig. II.2)
Gar llne
Tee
_lGr plpo
16
Plug
-Stope
t
50
Wlrc handle
Figure
II.l 'T
8."""
""."r"
The pressure drop along a gas line can be calculated using the following
equations.r If a pipe of diameter: D (rnetrcs) has a gas flowing down it at i
rate : Q (m3/sec = l/min/60,00)), the velocity of the gas. (u, nrlsec) is:
: {r
rr,/....
(rr.1)
If the gas pressures at two points along the pipe (L metres apart) are:
and: p. (mm WG), the pressure difference (Ap = p, - p,) is given by:
r32
pi
cap
alvg
bow
2 '2/
rlck
,",]l
t/
llned bor
Plpe
U^r(,
Tee
wol dad
/'.
Buckot
AP
fl
= ::"-^.u'.0
LJ.B.
(rr.2)
where: p
F
p.P.
(rr.3)
t-64
'-R"
(Hagen-Poiseulle formula)2
" 0,316
VVRe
(Blasius formula).2
l=-
(rr.4)
(rr-5)
In the transition region, with a Reynolds number between 2,000 and 4,ffi,
f has a value bctween those given above.
Graphs of flow for two values of Ap (10mm WG-for a drum plantand 50mm WG-for a dome plant) are shown in Figures lI.3 and 11.4.
133
200
180
r60
E
s
o
c
s
o
CI
o.
aP '10mm
t40
t20
r00
WG
lnternal plpe
dlam,(mm)
80
60
r[0
20
0
Gos
flow rau
200
180
160
E
120
CT
100
o
a
o,
aP
l{o
50mm wG
Internal plpe
dlam. (mm)
80
60
/t0
20
0
2.41/
4x12.3x10-3
,,
u_
= -_-=-;j-.-6
1.02mlsec.
x 0.016 x r.0L
1.29i, 1c.'_ _
Re < 2000,sof = 64/Re =
Re
|' _
-
1.099
.,n.,"
,.+t1
0.045
2x10x.016x9.81
x l ^OZz x l^09% -- o l.u melres
.,045
Since 61m is longer than 3Bm, a .l 6mm pipe can be used for
the
pipeline.
Example
ll.l
Q = 3.eo.Co.A".
/e
r oo,ooo
(rr.6)
H:
3900. C.1.A".W../p
(n.7)
Deslgn polnt
p - 75mm WG
80
5.0
70
E
=60
=50
a
4.0
(t
=40
o
3.5
=o 30
l
l.20
5
3.0
2.5
2.0
;10
IL
0
1.5
1.0
500
Table
ll.1
Gas
fow
vs gts presswe
for various
jets
Properties of biogas.3'''6
Si2glas; assumed 8%o CHa and 42% CO2 saturated with water
uapur at 30T and standard prcssure. (Range of values)
(20.1 to 25.9)
Calorific value
Eff ective molecular weig ht
21.skJil
27.35t
Density
Specific gravity
\riscosity
Optimum air to fuel ratio
Fhmrnability limits
Wobbe number
Buming velocity
(24 to 29)
9o/o
stove designed for natural gas is to be used for biogas, the area of the jef
must be almost doubled (50.7122.2). A stove designed for bottled gas musr
have a jet area about 3.6 times (8022.2)larger.
A" = + x
4,
0.00252
4.91
l0m2
The value for the discharge a,etfiaent (Co = 0.73) was found by
experiment. This value may vary between different jets of the same
dcsign, if burrs and surface irregularities atfect the shape of thc
hole.
Biogas must be mixed with air to burn. For complete combustion, the
'sl<richiomctric air rcquircmcnt' is 5.5 volumes of air to one volume of
biogas. One volume of methane requires 2 volumes ol oxygen-.
CH4
2l
pl
cent oxygen
in air.
The gas stream, as it comes from the jet, enters a'throat', where it
entrains primary air through the air holes. The'entrainment ratio'(r), the
number of volumes of air entrained by one volume of gas, is:
,=
',,,,JoO"
r) =
*.q{-
rl
(Priggs formula)
(IL8)
137
l6
r=,'0.94x('
2.5
l) =5.2.
Adlutta
bl o
throst
gas burner
The mixing tube between the throat and the flame ports should be long
enough ro allow the gas and air to mix thoroughly (at least l0 times d,).
The mixing tube can taper outwards towards tlte tlame ports, nraking a
which can be shorter than a straight tube (6 x d,).
A gas flame mnsists of several regions (Fig. II.7)' The preheat rcgion,
lenturi',
Soc onda
resctlon
ry
Prlmary air
Figure
II.7 Deuils of
gos
fame
Auxlllary llames
f^t-t:137
Gas-'--'
Plattlc'drlP'valve
Rubbol tube
WIre tramo
Alr holer
Glaae Jet
Fleme portt
gas
lamp-made in China
r39
Pot stand
:entral hole fol
rcondery rlr
updv
n ame ports
G as lnlet
(made from brass
gas stove
Rod
Mlxlng chamber
Sectlon
To
tlt
onglne
Gas supplY
Figure II.10 Mixing chamber type of cafiurenor
- "--5
' -25.
Gas aupply
Sectlon
A-A
Figurc
ff.l I
Trbb
4
f
s
H
I
oRe
r
s
u
v9
W
p
tt
of gas jet
-Diameter of throat
-Diameterfactor
-Fdction
due to gravity (9.81)
-acceleration
delivery rate for burner
-Heat of pipe
-Length
pressure at a Point in the PiPe
-Gas flow rate down PiPe
-Gas rate of gas/air mixture
-Flow
Reynolds number
-Entrainment
gravity of biogas (wrt. air)
-specific
flow velocity
-Gas
of mixture through flame
-Velocity
ports
number of gas
-Wobbe of biogas
-Density of biogas
-Mscosity
t 11
(m')
(m'
(m2)
(10332 mm WG)
(-)
(m)
(m)
(m)
(-)
(m/sec2)
(kw)
(m)
(mmWG)
(m3/sec)
(m3/sec)
(-)
(-)
(-)
(m/sec)
(m/secl
t-,
(kg/m3)
(kg/m.sec)
APPENDIX III
Research Techniques
Apparatus for laboratory and full-scale tests on biogas reactors will often
need to be purchased, although some can be made in local workshops.
Some less-developed countries (such as India) do have their own scientific
cquipment supplicrs, fr<lm which much of the apparatus is available. Otlrer,
more specialised, equipment must be obtained from a developed country,
such as Britain or thc USA.
Water baths
Suitable water baths for laboratory reactors are available from many rientific
suppliers, but simple versions can be made in a local workshop.l Suitable
containcrs arc rcquircd in which to place the reactors: washing-up bowls
are cheap and convenient. Pumps are required to circulate the water and
heaters to raise the temperature (Fig. III.I). The heaters are switched
on and off by thermostats, usually obtained from a developed country.
A mercury-in-glass thermometer that has an adjustable wire that makes
contact with the mcrcury to complete an electrical circuit is an effe4ive and
accurate device. An electronic amplifier and relay is required to allow the
small current that can flow in the mercury to switch the power to the heater
(usually around I kW).
Most water-bath controllers (purchased or home-made) need a tempe rature difference of about 5"C between the water in the bath and the ambient
tcmpcraturc to work cffcctively. If the ambient temperature is high or tests
are required at low temperatures, a water moler is also needed. An old
refrigerator is the best solution; the water can be circulated through the ice
box, or the compressor and heat exchanges can be removed from the
cabinet and used to cool the bath directlv.
Laboratory-scale reactors
Lab<rratory biogas rcactors are usually glass flasks of between 1 an<! 5t
capacity. Plastic flasks can be used, but they are difficult to make gas-tight.
Special digestion bottles are available from specialist supplien, but thes
arc cxpcnsivc. Suitablc conical flasks can be obtained from suppliers in
many countries. The neck of the flask must be wide enough to allow at least
two or three access pipes to pass through the bung closing it. A gas outlet is
143
Adlurtrblc contsct
thgr momeler
plpo
F..d
Slurry
pump
Figure
lII.l
required
as
syslent
Schanuic diagrant of a tenrperature'controlled
well
as a sampling.tube through
whi"l::,::i
slurrv
:ll1""T,:ve
if meiha-nl:il
ilft. ; ;:'d e,e" i' ;.q*red bottre
.1''.11'1t:,"0:,;$
over water *"ti:dl'tiT",1l::::
t!.T;;i;;ffiJfu
(:,",*I
shourd have
JhHil"tri:'mt:-rh"
idd"d :1:.
'""ter
i"ii t'ivJi*uoric or surphuric) '" :9-f :'*JiJl:::::
ffiH";il
;iires
e'11:'*:::l
:d";;;iil,il
a
ruilL
'.*'t-.
:'*
can each
P"
*,
;T;;;Ju3t tr"' i'on' "111"1
".
ffi "J";;;
i:1
*1':
l3il'
il "3; fl
(Fig' ur'2)''t'n! :'11':lJ.:T
ilfiff"
ft;;;J11'rinder connected
ro
t,, the tttom
"1Y
.1
;G
::iili.fi #;";;
:':':11il1.L-"lttl:or
of the gai in the cylinrJer cun bc adjusted by raising
il;**;
144
Water reservolr
Water dlEplaco mont
bottle
Gar mcaturlng
cyllnder
Acl dula te d
brlno
a8 plpe
Flagk
S
lurr
Water bath
system'
Figure III.2 Schematic diagram of a digesting
gauge
t45
(20mm to 500rnm water gauge). The pipe through which slurry santples
a."r.*oueo'andarlrledinthe.u..ofscnli.ctrntitlutlusrcactors,should
when
it erefore be sealed against this pressure' Samples are taken or added
Thc
takcn'
lrc
gils
nrcirsurcnrcnts
when
ina p*a"t.r* is renroi'ed, such as
to
slurry
the
of
the
surface
.nALt,t i. o.pling pipe should dip well below
is
usual
it
rcactors
prevent air enterin! ihe gas space. Forscmi-continuous
io ,"n,ou" a fixerl volunre of slurry t'.-forc rcplacing it with thc slntc
lnd
amount of fresh, the exact volunre being related to the fccding rute
regularly
rctendon time defined for the reactor. If slurry samples are being
removed from a batch reactor the total volunre of slurry in the reactor
will obviousty decrease and allowance for must be made for this in the
calculations.
ThepositivePressurealsonrakesnrixingdifticult.Astirrcrdrivenbya
rotatini *"gn.i is not very effective, especially if- the slurry is thick and
gas or
viscousl The shaft of a mechanical stirrer nceds to be sealcd agirinst
slurryleakage.Ifthereactorsareusedtosimulatelow.rateruraldigestcrs,
to four
then'an dsional shake by hand is sufficient (2 to 3 minutes one
times a day.t
At highir reactor temperatures (30"C and above) water vapour may be
bc absorbed
carried iver with the gas. To ensure accuracy, this watcr may
addcd
watcr
frcsh
in tube of dryiig agent) and the sanrc wcight of
i.S.
"
each day.
.i;..r-
.t.
Strlng
Welghted tid
H
Top vlew --
@
Pl
Ertenslon rods
Figure
pe
Sectlon
'13-
Ingo
'I'here are two aspects to the measurement of the gas production from a
futl-scale biogas plant: the gas used and the gas remaining in the plant'
Cumulative wet-type gas meters are very acturate and can be made of
materials that are unaffected by biogas (obtainable from suppliers in India
and the developed world). Normal domestic gas meters usually contain
parts made of plated steel, which are quickly corroded by the hydrogen
sulphide in biogas. Most wet-type gas meters are.not designed to coP
with the higher pressures from a displacement digester' The gas may
bc passcd titurgtt a pressure regulator before its.volume is measured '
OC'S, in Nepal, designed their own gas meter, made from acrylic plastic
(pcrspcx or plexiglasi) and capable of withstanding these pressures (Fig'
III.4).3
The gas remaining in a drum plant is easy to measure: it is the height at
which tlhe tlrum is floating in the slurry times the cross-ectional area of the
drum. 'l'hc gas rcmaining in a dome plant can be estimated from its
pressure anJthe position of the slurry surface in-the reseryoir (Figure
.J.n"
detcrmination of the gas in a bag plant is very difficult, unless
ill.S;.0
the bag is full.
Gas analysis
Instruments for gas analysis are used extensively by the oil industry, so are
available in many parts of the world. More sophisticated aPParatus must be
obtained from a supplier in a developed country.
The best way to analyse biogas samples is to use a gas chromatograph,
although thcsc are cxpen.';ive and delicate instruments, acatrate lo betler
than 011 per cent. A column designed for the separation of permanent
gases shoultl be used with a thermal conductivity detedet ' The supplier
ihould bc approachecl for aclvice about the correct column to us' A
o
5
3(,
x'o
-o
s.'
tO
:t
oa
ag I
P9r
F't
<--ol
o
o
3.
:t
t
.tl
'E
o
0
.D
!
I
o
o
E
@l-
sd
o
o
=
o =
o
3 !to
tt CI
o
o
CI
Manoms tor
Gae plpe
Overllow
Gag
volum
luJ?y
ratcaYolr
Dlgestor
,z
-
11
and
12
pll mesurement
The simplest way to measure pH is using indicator papers, which can be
dipped into a sample of slurry removed from a digester. A set of papers for
the rcgion amund neutral is very cheap and easy to usc. Howevcr, slurry
.d
allalbity rneasureapnts
Theoretically
150
APPENDIX IV
S = -k.s
(rv.1)
dt
of substrate destrcyed:
G = C.V.(S.-S)
(Iv.2a)
g:
(rv.2b)
C.v.(S"-S)
= S".exp{-k.(t-t")},
(rv.3)
l"(*)=-k.r+k.r,,.
(rv.4)
l5l
G = C.V.(S"-S)
= C.v.\.[l - exp{-k.(t -
r.,)}],
(rv.s)
h (l - aft-")
: -k.r + k.r".
(rv.6)
If the yield constant: C is known (see equation IV. 15), a regression analysis
g ves rlre kinetic constant: k and the lag time: t". In principle, the values for
thesc constants should be the same as those found from the results for the
substrate concentration data.
For continuous reactors, the rate at which the substrate is consumed by
thc becteria depends on the volunrc feeding rltc (v, I slurry pcr day).
This is related to the retention time (R, days) and the loading rate (r,
kg.VS./m3/day):
v.1S.VS.l000 'l'S.VS.lm0
(rv.7)
wherc V is the reactor volume and rs and vs are the total and volatile solid
@ntents of the feed
s=
and: g
k.S.R,
fit*
(rv.8)
= C.V.S.,.f +---\-kR(fromlv.2b).
(rv.e)
$:r.n.+r
and: R
(rv.l0)
.*-i
(rv.ll)
analysis of retention time (R) plotted against (V.SJg) should give a slope
of: C and an intercept ofl. - llV .
/E\
k=A.c;<p- {-l
\RT/
where
(rv.r2)
constant
(:
In(k) =
-f,+
(rv.13)
rn1ay.
The yield constant: C also appears to vary with temperature, but in a less
prcdictablc way.
ln order to use the batch model, the gas production of a batch plant
should be measured daily and the feedstock concentration at least once a
week. The fcedstock concentration can be measured in kg. TS, VS, COD
or BOD, but the volatile solids measurement is easiest to us.
For batch reactors:
...(rv.14)
so a graph of cumulative specific gas production
The cumulative gas production and the volatile solids and COD
degradatbn curves with time are shown in Fig. lV.1 for data from the
dQestion of cattle dung at 33.5'C in the UK.z Fig. lV.2 shows the gas
production against VS and COD digested, giving values <lf C, of 828
Itg.VS digested and C" of 578 //kg.COD digested (compared to the
theoretical value of 583 //kg.COD digested, assuming 60 per cent
rnethane in the gas). Fig. lV.3 gives the logarithmic plot of the gas
production equation, showing the two rate constants at different
times. The initial rate constant (k,) is 0.00961 //day using the VS
lVl
Analysis
of
25
8^
=20
c
o
6b
515
!t
o
q
U'
:r0
o
4o
:s
:
'%VS In dlgester
'%COD In dlgestr
o0
10
Frgure
o
o
30 40
20
IV.l Cuuiative
50
Tlme (days
gas
prdrction,
60
2y
---70
80
90
constants can be found for this series of reactors. Again,s there is evidence
154
=25
__- Volatlle Sollde
.---. Chemlcal Orygen
tu
o
E
I
J
De
E15
mand
EL
glo
o
gs
J
E
{)O
%VS or GOD In dlgestor
Figure IV.2 Gas produced agairct substrale concentration
Tlme (daye)
10
20 30 40 50 60
70
-0.1
o
a
c -o.2
c
o
()
:
It
-0.3
o
CL
o
(l
-0.4
('l
tt -0.5
o
Figure IV.3 Logrithmic plot of the
gas
production equation
155
80
90
_-J
values
semi-continuous
60
50
a
c{0
II
so
3
E20
.._
Ero
COD data
VS dats
t
o
60
CE
-10
50
100
150
-20
Figure IV.4 Plot of semi<ontint ous digester data
These equations and data can be used to predict the performance
of fulFsize biogas digesters using the similar feedstocks to the
experiments. A CD10 plant, run as a semi<ontinuous digester, is fed
daily with 6O / of water mixed with 60 kg of cattle dung from the
same source as the experiments in Example 1V.2. lf the slurry
temperature is maintained at 33.5"C, the gas production can be
calculated:
r56
^V - a\/c
v.v.ro.
L,fi
9=
2.99 m3/day.
s=
1.10 m3lday.
Tablo
lV.1
Temp.
fc)
(1
.d)
Ref.
V.S.
0.018
578
895
25
16
Rate Constant
829
ctJ
525
514
0.0022
157
Tabb
lV2
Temp
Ref .
rcl
33.5
30.r
Vol.Sol.
CQD
Vol.Sol.
COD
402
450
310
347
0.081
289
250
237
0.083
0.052
0.044
0.069
27.5
25
24.4
20.3
310
l6
r78
1;
2
1
1
.)
o.oza
U,UJO
0.022
'|
0.033
o.ozo
Type
Cattle Dung
S{ont
Energy
(E/R)
10s
77BO
S{ont
x
3.6 x
10s
4610
Batch
1.6
107
6430
.8
1010
8460
(Nepal)
Cattle Dung
Fregu.Fact.(A)
7.5
(UK)
Canle Dung
(uK) v.s.
Cattle Dung
(UK) COD
Batch
158
Ref.
Table
lV.4
A
E
u
k
I
R
t
to
(-)
(m3/kg)
(J/ksl
(m3tdayl
(m3)
(Udayl
(kg.VS/day)
(JAs.
K)
(kg/m3)
(k/m3)
(days)
(days)
{K)
(m3tday!
(m3)
r59
APPENDIX V
Economic Assumptions
Bask equatkrns
The amonization factor (A) is used to calculate the yearly cost of a loan.l
The total bill includes the repaynrents of capital plus interest. .l.his is
divided into equal yearly portions
A=
where:
If:
&=AxCxN.
accrued
t-----------= r'-.
(l + J)r
:BxD.
D:5.019. If B = Rs.1,000,
NPW -- Rs.5,019 over l0 ycrn.
If the benefits or costs change from year to year:
B\
NPW-- JT
).-.........-...
ts(l
+ J)\
*'here: B5 is the Benefit or Cost for thc Ktl'vcar.
160
it
plant
replaces (Table
V.l),
V,1
Heat
MJ
Fuel
Val.
Biogas
Burner
Fuel/
Effic.
Year
'19.4/m3
Firewood 18.0/kg
Kerosene 37 .7 ll
9'l
15o/o
1m3
2,578k9
50%
146t
Heat
MJ/yr
Biogas
Value
Equiv.
f'gr.
9705
6956
2749
91
1m3 144
1oj
258m3 37
653m3
Running a biogas plant is assumed to take about an hour a day. This job
is donc cithcr by a member of thc houschold (unpaid) or by a domestic
servant or a farm worker. A typical unskilled labourer's wage of Rs.l0 per
day is assumed. The maintenance cost of Rs.100 per year is arbitrary.
Table
V.2
(wet)
(dtY)
32.850k9
6,570k9
1lSkg
66kg
105k9
39kg
84kg
Rs.332
f.l4
Assumplions for milling syslems
The milling year in Nepal is split into three main seasons: the rice hulling
scason (Novcmbcr to March), after the main rice crop is harvested, the
161
*'heat milling scason (April to July), and the slack scason (August to
Ocrober). During the last season, most people mill only enough stored
grain to satis$ their domestic needs, although some early rice and maize is
also milled. The income for these thrcc scasous is givcn in 'l'ablc V.3,
which is based on the limited survey of two biogas mills near Butwal.
The amount and value of diesel used in both a 5kW diesel-only nrill and a
dual-fuel mill is given in Table V.4 for the same three seasons. It is
assrrrn64t that only ?fr%" of diesel is used in a dual-fuel engine, the rest of
the fuel being biogas. In practice, mill drivers seem to often usi less than
the optimum of 80% biogas. Possibly the engine runs nrore smoothly with
more diesel, or else the wives of the mill owners want enough biogas ieft to
oot the evening meal. The analysis also assunres that, using the heat
erchanger, the slurry can be kept at 30.C all the year round. so the
m-axim31 gas production (14.5m3/day) is available from the feed of 300kg
of cattle- dung or cquivalent per day. The spare gas (valucd at Rs.3.g/mi) ii
assumed to bc used for domestic purposes.
V.3
Teblc
Rice
Nov/Mar
Apr/Jul
Aug/Oct
lncome
Day
151
122
92
Wheat
Rs(NC)
26
13,200
9,200
1,600
550
383
24,000
1,000
750
600
50
4
4
1
32
26
Toul
67
V.rf
Tabb
Mottths
Saasons
DOrday DF
Novfvlar
5.6
5.6
1,4
Apr/Jul
Augoct
of
1.2
1.2
0.3
l,&0
9,840
Rs.(NC)
410
t(uK)
Note:
Do:
Diesel Only, DF
11
Totals
Values
Gas
345
3,290
1,976
2,070
7,770
86
324
7,500
313
DuaLFuel Mill.
162
RS.(NC)
5kW diesel f uel engine (lrom India)
Milling machinery
26,000
The yearly costs for running the mill are:
Labour to run the milling machinery
Maintenance for all equipment (assumed)
Diesel used
Lubricating oil (assumed)
18,000 jfi
8,000 3u
1.084
4,600 193
3,000 125
9.840 410
800 32
18,240 7ffi
V) 24,N0 1,000
f
Analysis
project
10yrs)
(PWC)
(PWB-PWC) 2,908
(PWB/PWC)
Return
Rs.(NC)
Cost:Benefit
26,000 1,0U
Capital cost of
Discounted running costs (15%,
91,92 3,814
117,542 4.898
Present Worth Costs
Presont Worth Benef its (l\ilB, 15%, 1 0yrs) 1 20,450 5,019
121
Nett Present Worth
1.02
Benefit:Cost Ratio
16%
lnternal Rate of
Example V.1 Economic analysis of a diesel milling system.
Assumptions for irrigation systems.
P =-
H'Q'g'P
11
where
P
H
O
g
P
I
:
:
=
=
=
=
(watts)
(metres)
(litreVsec)
(9.8r
n/*)
0kgr)
Assuming a pump efficiency of 50 per cent, this formula suggests that 45.9 /
pcr second is available, or 165m3 per hour. The biogas usage per hour is
2.52mi, plus 0.3 litres of diesel fuel. It is assumed that the limit to the area
to be irrigated is defined by the water available, which, in tum, depends on
163
the biogas available. In Madhubasa, the biogas plant is sited about 500
metres awav from the engine. so cngine-cooling watcr cannot bc uscd to
hear the plant. This means rhe biogas production is limited during the
winter months (Table V.5). The water requirement of the two crops is very
rariable during the growing se&sons and is llso inllucnccd by thc watcr
available from rain (table V.5). These water requirement figures are based
on a study of crops on the Ganges plain in India,3 assuming a normal year
frrr rainfall. The critical nlonth for ricr. is Novcnrtrcr. whcrr thc nlonsoons
have finished, but u'arer is needed to help the grains to fill. If ail the
available bio-uts is used to pump wller in this nronth, thcn 5.2 hcctarcs can
be planted uith paddv. For rvhcat. the critical nronth is Fcbruary, allowing
8.3 hectares to be planted. The figures for water requirement are corrected
for losses, such as water leaching out of thc soil and through canal lranks
and evaprration (using a factor of ().-12 for rice and 0.55 for wheat).3
Teble
V.Sa Water,
June
o
J.J
IJ
July
25.2
Zt-O
J.O
0 18.7
0
0.1
14 5
14.5
0
0.3
14.5 14.2
0
0.9
0
5.4
1,650
1,674
16.0
11
10.0
1.0
10.6
6.0
24.z to.a
0 1.2
0 62.4
0 0.4
'14.5 11.5
0 1.0
14.5 10.5
0 3.6
0 21.6
1,705
40
520
550
'7A
1.5
8.5
8.5
'1
1
.6
B.'r
3.4
29.8
179
13
30.6
184
The crop production and value tigures (Trblc V.6) nrc trlscd on <iataa
fronr thc Junl\pur .\griculrural Dclc'lopnrcnr projcct (JADp), a Japancscfunded programme, abour l0km away from Madhubasa. An analysis can
also be ntade for a drought vear. whcn rlinfall is nruch lcss (Tablc V.7).
-Ite area so$n to crops
is nruch reduccd, but it carr trc assunrcd (hat thc
crop prices *ill rise. An analysis can also be made for a diesel-only system,
prrrriding irrigation for the same arcas of hnd.
I64
Table
schemo
Mar.
APr
MaY
Z+,J
Table
V.6
1,980
2,7ffi
4,460
780
9,510
8,450
13,970
3.0-2.Orlha
2.5tlha
1,700
56,000
Income-sale of crop
Total
9,230
67.7W
Notes: The costs and profits for paddy are the extra ones resulting from
an irrigated crop instead of a rainJed one.
165
June July'
Aug.
sep.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Jan. Feb.'
Mar.
166
Apr.
May
00
00
00
00
00
11,5 14.5
00
.5 14.5
00
00
1,31 1 1,705
11
Glossary
Abbreviations
Ram
Nepal.
Shah Path, Kathmandu,
AFPRO Action for Food Production, C17 Community Centre, Safdarjang
De vclopment Area, New Delhi 1 10 017 ,lndia.
AICB All India Committee on Biogas, Dept. of Science and Technology,
Delhi, India.
BORDA Bremen Overseas Research and Development Association,
Hoffnungstrasse 30, D2800 Bremen l, West Germany.
BTI Butwal Technical Institute, Butwal, Lumbini Zone, Nepal.
DC,S Development and Consulting Services, PO Box 8, Butwal, Lumbini
Zone, Nepal.
FAO Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations, Head
Office, Rome, Italy.
GOIARF Group Organiser/Action Research Fellow--aeople employed by
the SFDP as community motivators.
GOBAR GAS CO. Cobar Gas tatha Krishi Yantr Bikash (P) Ltd., Head
Office, Kupondol, Kathmandu, Nepal.
IIMGIN FIis Majcsty's Govcrnment of Nepal (Nepal is a constitutional
monarchy).
India.
Etavsh, U.P.,India).
PEACE CORPS An organisation, based in USA, which sends short-term
roluntecrs (usually for two yeun) to work in developing countrics.
R & D Rescarch and Development.
RCUP Resource C-onservation and Utilization project, run undcr the
direction of USAID in Nepal.
RMP Red Mud Plastic, a PVC (Poly-Vinyl Chloride) plastic that uses a
*raste product from aluminium smelting as a fillcr.
SERC Structural Engineering Research Centre, Roorkee, U.p.. India.
SFDP Small Farmen' Development Project, a progranrnrc sct up by FAO,
in co-operation uith ADBN in Nepal.
UMN United Mission to Nepal, PO Box 126, Kathmandu, Nepal.
UNDP United Nations Developnrent Progranrme, Head Office, Ncw york,
USA.
USIID United States Agency for Inremarional Developnrcnt, Washington,
USA.
Speci.list lerms
a measure of the
*?ste.
it firnr.
polluting potential of
*lNte.
CP- Concrete Dome-the design of biogas piant that uses a fixed, partly
spheritxl gas storage volune (the nunrber refers to the total inicrnal
rolume in m3).
CARBURETTOR A device for mixing fuel and air in the correct proponions for combustion in an engine.
168
FERROCEMENT A building material made from cement plaster reinforccd with wire mesh.
FIBRE-CEMENI A building material made from cment Plaster reinforced with plastic or natural fibres.
I;LIJME A channcl madc for irrigation water, usually lined with @ncrele.
GAUGE A rod (or rope) of a fixed length, used to check the main
dimcnsions of a construction.
G/ Galvanised lron--+;teel or cast iron coated with zinc as protection
against corrosion.
digester.
SD-
cross-sc<tional arca.
IOXIC
fS
feedstocl.
UENTURI A tube that tapers from both ends to a narrower region
between
them.
II/ORKING VOLUME The volume of slurry in a biogas digester that
effectively contributs to g,as productkrn.
170
l.
Moulik (1985)
2. Cui(1985)
3. Eggling (1979)
4. Hollingdale (1979)
5. Stuckey (1984)
6. da Silva (1985)
7. Moulik (1982)
8. Roy (1981)
9. Tam (1982)
10.
11.
12.
13.
Fry (1974)
Bell(1973)
Nyns (1984)
van den Berg (1983)
6.
7.
8.
9.
NSPRC (1984)
ldnani (194\
Moulik (1982)
Sathianathan
(195)
ll.
Patankar (1977)
McGrath (1978),Oxtam
ons)
Kijne (198a)
J. For example: Beenhahker
2.
(ltflat, N1/hl&(|rff4s
Clnglcr 2
l, (,u(lt/l't
(t.
2. M<tultk (1./65)
3. McCarry (1V78)
4. I luang (l9tt5)
5. Stuckcy (1982)
Wa& (lytlt
Mtatht
(|fi1
on8)
t7l
Onpter4
l.
Gunnerson (1986)
2. Mah (1983)
3. Zhao, Y.H. (1985)
a. Speecc (1985)
5. Spc<cc (1983)
6. Yawalkcr (ath ed. 197'l)
7. Murphy (1986)
8. McFarlane (1981)
9. Maramba (1978)
10. NAs (le8l)
I
l.
Makhijani (1976)
Chapter 6
l.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
2s.
f6.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
House (1978)
Gopal (1981)
Od (198s)
McGarry (1978)
Hobson (1979)
Cui(1985)
Finlay (l97ti)
Lichtman (1933)
Bulmer (1985)
Abdullahi (1986)
House (1978)
Chapter 7
l. Maramba (1978)
2. Mosey (1979)
3. Picken (-)
a.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
FAO4l
(1e78)
Idnani (2nd ed. 1974)
Fry (197a)
Kirloskar (-)
llollingdalc (1979)
Chen (1982)
Meier (1978)
Garg
(-)
l.
2. |le (1e79)
3- Gunnerson
{.
s.
Chaptcr 8
l.
6. Reddy(1980)
7. Finlay (1978)
S. Itoulik (198!)
9. Srinivasan (t978)
10. Raman (1979)
ll. Finlay (19$)
12. Stafford (1980)
13. NSPRC(1984)
l{. van Buren (1979)
15. Ghate (-)
16. Huang (1985)
Finlay (1978)
2. Maramba (1978)
3. Lau-Wong (1985)
a. Reddy (1980)
5. Picken (-)
6. Jewell (1980)
7. Speccc (1985)
8. Chen (1982)
(1986)
Sathianathan (1975)
Kvrc (1975)
Chapter 9
l.
2.
3.
4.
5.
r72
Bulmer (1979)
Moulik (1982)
Barneu (1978)
Little (1974)
Lau-Wong (1984)
6. Lichtman (1983)
7. Makhijani (1976)
ti. Gunncrson (1986)
9. Pang (1978)
1. UNESCO (1983)
Chcn (1982)
12. BajracharYa (1983)
2. E!.DG 0n6)
3. Bulmer (199)
4. Moulik (1985)
tl.
Apperdix I
1. Merrit (19?8)
2. CAr (1969, 1n2)
3. Bulmer (1985)
2. Cui(1985)
3. Bulmer (1980)
4. Moulik (1984)
5. Roy (le8l)
6. RAFE (1e78)
4. liao
5. l*e
6. Tentscher
1. Clark(1977)
8. Bajracharya (1983)
9. Fulford (1984)
Chapler
11
1.
2. Patankar (1971)
3. Singh (1973,1974)
a. Reddy (1980)
Idnani (1974)
Lichtman (1983)
tt. Kijnc ( l9tt4)
9. Sathianathan
(1975)
re. FAO4l
(1978)
(1985)
20. Bulmcr
21. Pfeffer (1974a and b)
22. Lau-Wong (1985)
L5. Chowdhury (1987)
1A Gunnerson (1986)
Appendix
(1986)
ll
1. Bird (1960)
2. Streeter (191)
Pntchard (1977)
Perry (193)
Weast (199)
6. Amat (192)
3.
4.
5.
7. Lichtman
Appendix
(1983)
lll
1. Chowdhury (19&7)
2. Reddy (1980)
3. Bulmer (1985)
4. Lau-Wong (1985)
5. Rogers (1980)
6. HMSO (19?7)
Appendix lV
1. Lau-Wong (1984)
2. ChowdhurY (19&7)
3. Ptefter (1974)
4. Maramba(198)
AryrdixV
l.
Little (1E74\
2. Rice (1986)
3. Bhatia (1985)
4. Lau-Wong (1984)
173
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184
Index
Acid formation by bacteria: 3l
Acrylic emulsion paint: 50, 53, 110
Acration in biogas burners:65, | 35-9
Alkalinity: 32, 150
Alternative ener g;,y : 4, 1 17
Anacrobic bacteria: 30
Analysis of gas: ll3, 147-9
Anti-biotics toxic to biogas digestion:
33.74.82
Appf ianccs to usc biogas: 55, U-7
68-74,lll-12
tsactcria: 30-2
Bag digesters: 51-3, 56, 130-l
Ball valve: 63
llarch typc plants: 3G7, lt4-16, t5l4
Bencfit: cost ratio: 4, 85, 8&-9, 91, 93-4
Biogas burncrs: &4,1ll-12, l35_l9
Biogas plant dcsign criteria: 42-3
Biological Oxygen Demand: 34, 35,
llutfcring: 32
r09-110,
8,42,5T5,
123_31
42-55
Diesel cycle: 6
Di gestability of feeds tc*k:
l,
47-51,
t0t
5X,
,6-7,
n, lrc,
Dry matter in slurry: 34, 35, *,76,ll3,
Drum design: 43-7,
1254
I t8
5t4,
76,
150, 151
Communication:
344,
112-13,152-8
66-7,111,13WJ
t5t-8
China: lf, 8-10, 20-5,
16
95
Brazil
ll ,zx-l
27-S -
162
185
lll,
l4{>2,
Dung
J5,36,77 ,
98-9,lu2,104.
160_5
- u*. of brogat'wirha
1,
c7-s5.140-2
g-74,
1354
Equations
Equations
Europ.
16,u-6.67
150
M,49,16, ll0
1 ,38-4, CI , ltL19, 161
47-51,
on
5A,
rrc. n5-6
84
l6l
Lagtime:37,115
rt6, 6l
l1l-12,
91
. 93.
l5l-9
Motivation: l$,106,'119-20
Nep-af :
7|
-3'
87
3, 12-l 4, 19,
tw6.
9G8,
1m-113. tt,l
Net Prcsnr Worth: 8t-2, 83-4, u5-6,
l!-14. lg,2I,
bioBas:
l, 71-3,87-m,
101-2,161-3
Mixing of slurry: 59-(fi , 54, 58, 7 6, 1 lz
Modelling of biogas process: I lul-I6,
T.A.67.tm
lOt ,
8l-3
GI (Galvanised lron):
*fr$rlj):,T,:',bY
,8G7,88,
3U
ll&19
Kerosene: 1,27
l@,
Fuel crisis:
6l-2
6j4
n.
Joints in Pipes:
9H
139
Fertiliser:
Frlling a digester: 7G7
finance for biogas: 15, l7 ,26-7, gif
Frrewcnd: |,27, Wi,95, l0l. t6l
namc
11,
&me daign:
1264
Insufation:55.7&:9
Korea:1
FrxeA
Hydrolysis:31
Evaluation724
Ferrocnrent:
lndia:
884
-.xr' Night soif (human
5't, 83.97 .
186
tltl
faeces):
4,354,39,
7,l4t.19-29
Otto cyclc: 68
{}7.
77. r2.r{
Stirring of a biogas plant: 54. D..t$.
l.$-6
Pfanning:7,15,224
Substrate:
Plastcr: 49-50, 80
Plastic pipcs: 62
Plastic used in biogas plants: 46.51-2,
nlu! Cocts:
l-s
l5l
USA
biogas in: 2
ll8
l0-l l
n3.
l_sO.
7G7, t13_16,
63
Publicity: 16, l8
3H.
l-r-s....\
lOt. l0r
Supervisors: 15. 16
Survey of biogas plants: !l$-8
I-9
l-ll.
Wash-out: 38. I l6
\Yastes: 10, 39
Water hyacinth: 3.l
Water pumping with biogas: 72. 73,
90-s, lm-s, 163-6
l6l
t50
187
l0l, ll8.