INVESTIGATORY

PROJECT IN PHYSICS
STUDY AND WORKING
OF C.E AMPLIFIER

PROPOSED BY
BY
MR. EDWIN T.J
MRS. SARITA ANIL
(LECTURER)

SUBMITTED
ANKIT VERMA
XII
REG. NO:

AN
INVESTIGATORY

PROJECT
IN
PHYSICS

CERTIFICATE
THIS IS TO CERTIFY THAT INVESTIGATORY

PROJECT ENTITLED
C. E. AMPLIFIER
IS AN ORIGINAL WORK DONE BY
ANKIT VERMA
DURING
2005-06 UNDER MY SUPERVISION & GUIDANCE

Mr. Edwin T. J.

Place:
Date:

Mrs. Sarita Anil

DECLARATION
I here by declare that the project entitled
C.E. AMPLIFIER
is an original work done by me during the year 2005-06
under the guidance and supervision of
Mr. Edwin.T.C and Mrs. Sarita Anil.
Anil

Signature of the guide.

1. .
2. .....

ANKIT VERMA

ACKNOWLEGEMENT
I ANKIT VERMA of standard XII of Science Stream, ST.
MARYS INTER COLLEGE ETAWAH is genuinely thankful to my
teacher MR. EDWIN T.C AND SARITA ANIL for their help and able
guidance which I received for the completion of this project.

C.E.AMPLIFIER
I am also thankful to the principal, my co-student and parents
who have always given me their support which was of immense help
towards the completion of this project.

INTRORDUCTION:
The common emitter amplifier is the device which is
used to amplify voltage signal. This type of amplifier is said
to be common emitter amplifier as it has got common emitter
for both input as well as output signals. This type of
amplification is widely use in wide range in he field of
electronics.

AIM:
To construct and study the working of the common
emitter amplifier.

MATARIALS REQUIRED:
For the construction of C.E.AMPLIFIER an npn
transistor of value B.C.547 is used .Three capacitor of value
0.01F, 010F and 10F are required. Four resistance of
value 6.8k, 4.8k, 1.2k and 1.2k are required.

CONSTRUCTION DIAGRAM:

CIRCUIT DETAILS:
1. NPN TRANSISTOR :
A transistor is a device used for amplifying the
signals. A transistor can be produced by adding another
junction to the PN Junction diode. Based upon the junction
added to the PN Diode the transistor are broadly divided
in to two types.

i) NPN Transistor
ii) PNP Transistor
The NPN Transistor is the produced by adding an N
Junction to a PN Junction Diode
The PNP Transistor is the produced by adding a P
Junction to a PN Junction Diode
Normally , N-P-N Transistor are used as the common emitter
amplifier in the circuit in which either of two N- type
semiconductor can act as emitter or collector respectively and
P-type semiconductor act as base.

WORKING OF N-P-N TRANSISTOR

The working of N-P-N Transistor can be studied with the
help of the finger. The working of Transistor can be studied
by connecting the emitter base circuit as input in forward bias
that is by connecting positive terminal of battery with base
and negative terminal with emitter of the transistor.
DIAGRAM OF N-P-N TRANSISTOR
Ie

n-p-n

Ic

Ib
+
Ie = Ib + Ic

And the output circuit (BC Circuit) is reversed biased by

connection the positive terminal of the battery with collector
and negative terminal with base. The voltage of battery used
for the output circuit is less that the voltage of battery used
for input circuit.
The forward bias of the emitterbase circuit help the movement of electrons (majority carrier)
in the emitter and (majority carrier) in the base towards the
junction between the emitter and the base. The depletion
layer of the emitter base junction is reduced on the other hand
the reverse. On the other hand, the reverse bias of the
collector- Base circuit fortrids the movement of majority
carrier towards the collection base junction. In other hand
words the depletion layer of the collector base junction. In
other words the depletion layer of the collector base junction
is increased.
The electron in the emitter is pushed in
to the base by the electrostatic influence of the negative
terminal of the emitter box batter. Since the base is thin and
only slight doped , therefore a very small fraction (Say, 1%)
of the incoming electrons combine with the hole . More over
the electrons are reaching towards the collection under the
electrostatic influence of the positive terminal of the collector
base battery.
The electron collected by the collector Moves
towards the positive terminal of the collector base battery.
The deficiency of the collector base battery. The deficiency of
these electrons is made up by the electrons released fro the
negative terminal of the current is carried by the electrons
both from the external as well as from the internal of the
terminal of the transistor.

Let the current through emitter be Ie , through base be IB and

through collector be IC
Then by Kirchoffs law

Ie = Ib+Ic

CAPACITOR:Capacitor is an electronic device which is used to store

electric charge. The capacitor can be spherical, cylindrical
capacitor and Parallel plate capacitor.

PRINCIPLE:
To understand the principle of capacitor consider an isolated
metal plate A. Suppose it is given positive charge till its
potential becomes minimum. The metal plate will not hold
any more charge over it. If charge is given to the metal plate
A it will leak to surroundings. Now place another metallic
plate B while positive charge on its further face. The induced
negative charge on B is near to the metal plate A then the
induced positive charge on B, therefore, on the whole
potential of the metal plate A is lowered of the metallic plate.
Again the some small amount of more charge has to be given.
It indicates the capacitance of a conductor increase by a small
amount when conductor increase by a small amount when
another is placed near it. Now connect the metal plate B to
the earth. The induced positive charge on B will immediately

flows to earth, as it is repelled by positive charge on A,

however the induced negative charge on B will stay on it,
does not flow to earth as it is attracted by positive charge on
A. Thus metal plate B will have only negative charge on it
after being connected to earth. Due to the induced negative
charge on the metal plate B the potential of A will get
lowered by a large amount. In order to raise the metal plate A
to again the same potential a large amount of charge has to be
given, it from the principle of capacitors.
Capacitors are used to increase power factor, to store the
charge and energy in electric field wow plate to produce
electrical oscillation.

Resistors: Generally, carbon resistors are used in electric

circuits. These are made from mixtures of carbon black, a
conducting material, day and resin as winder which is a nonconductor the mixture is pressed hand and moulded into rods
of appropriate diameter (depending upon their current
carrying capacity) by heating . The resistivity of the mixture
is governed by the relative proportion of carbon black, which
is only conducting material.
The carbon resistors are usually
available with power ratings (1/2, 1 & 2w). The value of
resistance of these resistors is indicated by coloured bonds or
dots.

SEMICONDUCTOR
Semi-conductors are crystalline solids whose electrical
conductivity lies between that of metallic conductor &
insulator. Charge carriers in a semi conductor are free
electrons & holes. The semi conductor are of two types.

1. Intrinsic semi conductor

2. Entrinsic semi conductor

INTRINSIC SEMI CONDUCTOR

The semi conductor which are insulator in pure state are
called intrinsic semi conduction.

E
XTRINSIC SEMI CONDUCTOR
The semiconductor becomes conductors by doping are said to
be extrinsic semi conductors. The extrinsic semi conductors
are of two types:
1. N-type semi conductors
2. P-type semi conductor

N-type semi conductor

Doping a pure semi conductor with pentavalent impurity
atoms such as phosphorus, arsenic, yield N-type semi
conductors. In N-type electrons are majority charges carriers
and holes are minority charge carriers.

P-Type Semi-Conductors
Doping a pure semi-conductor with trivalent impurity atoms
such as Bismuth, aluminium, indium etc., yield P-type semiconductors. Holes are majority charge carriers & free
electrons are minority charge carriers.

P-N-junction

When a P-type semi-conductor is brought into a close contact

with N type semiconductor crystal the resulting arrangement
is called P-N junction.

DEPLETION REGION:
The region in which free charge carriers are not available is
called a depletion regions.
There are 2 methods of biasing the P-N junction.

a) Forward biasing:
When the positive terminal is connected to p-type semiconductor and negative terminal to the n-type semi-conductor
of the P-N junction.

b) Reserve biasing:
In reverse biasing the positive terminal of the battery is
connected to N side & negative terminal top side of the P-N
junction.

DIAGRAM OF C.E. AMPLIFIER

1C

Input

Output
1b
n-p-n

1e

Veb

vce

Working of C.E. Amplifier

The emitter is common to both input & output circuits. The
emitter is forward based by using base-emitter battery EBF
and is in forward bias, the resistance of input circuit is low.
The collector emitter circuit is reverse biased by using
collector emitter battery ECF. The low input voltage signal is
applied in base emitter circuit(input circuit) and the amplified
output is obtained across the collector and emitter. The arrow
represents the pole current or the conventional current.
The emitter current, base current & collector are related
to each other by the equation
1e = 1b +1c ( by kirchoffs law). Also, corresponding to
collector current 1c, the collection voltage will be,
Vc = Vce 1cRC
eq..1
The variation in input signal voltage cause variation in
emitter current, which inturn provides charges in collector
voltage & appear as amplified output voltage. The input
voltage signal & obtained across emitter and collector are out
of phase with each other in common emitter amplifies as
explained below.
Suppose that first half cycle of A.C. input voltage is
positive, refreshing to figure, or base is connected to positive
pole ECF battery, it will make base more positive. Thus
negative forward bias of emitter will increase. It will increase
the collector current which will increase potential drop across
resistance and then according to equation (1), the collector
voltage means the collector will become less positive, i.e.
negative output signal will be obtained.
Similarly, we can prove that corresponding to negative
half cycle of A.C. input positive half cycle will be obtained.

Therefore, input as shown, from the operation of common

emitter amplifier.

DEPLETION REGION :
The region in which free charge carriers are not available is
called is called a depletion region.
There are two methods of liasing the P-N junction.
A) Forward Biasing: When the positive terminal is
connected top type semi-conductor and negative
terminal to the n-type semi-conductor of the P-N
junction.
B) Reversed Biasing: In reverse biasing the positive
terminal of the battery is connected to N side and
negative terminal top side of the P-N junction.

VARIOUS GAINS IN C-E-AMPLIFIER

1. Current gain: At depends on whether the current
following is D.C and A.C in nature.
A.C Current gain: It is defined as the ratio of
change in
collector current to the change in
base current at constant current voltage. It is
denoted by
a.c = Ic/Ib

(a)

(b)
D.C Current gain: It is defined as the ratio of
collector current to the base current. It is denoted
by
= Ic/Ib.

2. From Conductance (gm): It is defined as the ratio

of change in collector current to the change in base
emitter voltage. (Vi)
Gm
Gm
S.I unit

= Ic/Vi/
= Ic/Ib * Ib/VI
= a.c * RI
= -1

A.C Voltage Gain

It is defined as the ratio of output voltage to
the change in input voltage
Av = Vc/Vi
= Ic * Ro / I6*RI
= a.c * Ro/Rii
Av = a.c * Resistance gain
A.C power Gain
It indefined as the ratio of change in output power
to change in input power
A.C power gain = change in output power/change
in input power
=( Ic2 *I62 )*(Ro/ Ri)
= 2a.c* R gain
= a.c*(a.c *R gain)
A.C power gain = a.c * Av
Reiation Between &

 = Ic / I6
= Ic / Ie Ic(Ic =I6)
Dividing both Numerator and Denominator by Ie
= Ic/IE
Ie/Ie-Ic/Ic
[ = Ic/Ie]

PRECAUTION:i)

The current voltage and however ratings of transistors

for its base, collector etc. must not exceed the
recommendation valves, otherwise the device would
be damaged.

ii)

At the time of making soldered connection to the

leads of a transistor the lead is held between pliers
very tightly & soldering should be done in minimum
possible time. So that much of heat cannot pass
through lead & would have the transistors from
getting damaged.

CONCLUSION:The conclusion drawn out of the project C.E

amplifier is that the current grain is maximum in the
type of amplifier. Therefore, it is of great use in
electronics.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:
1. Lali manual of physics
2. Modern ABC of Physics
3. Comprehensive Physics

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