Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
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Submitted to:
Engr. Touheed-ur-Rehman
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Submitted by:
Wajahat Hussain
Tariq Iqbal
Sajid Ali Gill
2008-EE-07
2008-EE-41
2008-EE-57
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Acknowledgment
Introduction:
Energy auditing refers to an inspection of a home with an emphasis on reviewing a home
owners current energy consumption and making recommendations on how to reduce that
consumption and save money in the most cost-effective way. There has become a newly
generated push for environmentally friendly practices or becoming green.
Energy auditing plays a roll because the reduction in energy consumption leads to a
reduction in greenhouse gases which are bad for the earth. With new and old state and
federal incentives everyone should and will want an energy audit of their home.
Energy audit is similar to medical diagnosis. During medical diagnosis, the doctor
physically examines and interviews the patient, checks the temperature and pressure of
the patient and may follow up with some laboratory tests, all in an attempt to establish
what is wrong with the patient and prescribe appropriate treatment. Similarly, energy
audit is employed as a tool for determining what measures can and should be taken to
save energy in a facility. Energy audit is the first step in understanding how a facility uses
energy and how energy could be saved in the facility. The purpose of the energy audit is
to identify, quantify, describe and prioritize cost saving measures relating to energy use in
the facility.
When the object of study is an occupied building then reducing energy consumption
while maintaining or improving human comfort, health and safety are of primary
concern. Beyond simply identifying the sources of energy use, an energy audit seeks to
prioritize the energy uses according to the greatest to least cost effective opportunities for
energy savings.
Chapter # 1
(Energy Audit and its types)
Definition:
An energy audit is an inspection, survey and analysis of energy flows for energy
conservation in a building, process or system to reduce the amount of energy input into
the system without negatively affecting the output(s).
Benefits of receiving an energy audit include:
Increased comfort
Improved quality to the home
A healthier home
Increased property value
Reduced energy bills
Lower environmental impact
Lighting
Heating, ventilation and air-conditioning (HVAC) system
Appliances (Plug loads)
Lighting. Typical lighting efficiency measures include the use of efficient lamps and
ballasts, addition of reflectors to enhance lumen output, delamping in over lit spaces, and
use of day lighting and day lighting controls.
HVAC System. Typical measures include the replacement of old equipment with new,
energy-efficient models, manually turning off appliances when not in and the use,
automatic power management devices to control HVAC.
Appliances (Plug loads). The appliances include audio-visuals, personal computers,
printers, photocopiers fax machines, etc. Typical energy efficiency measures are similar
to HVAC system.
Purpose
An energy audit is a service where the energy efficiency of a house is evaluated by a
person using professional equipment (such as blower doors and infra-red cameras), with
the aim to suggest the best ways to improve energy efficiency in heating and cooling.
An energy audit of a building may involve recording various characteristics of the
building envelope including the walls, ceilings, floors, doors, windows, and skylights.
For each of these components the area and resistance to heat flow (R-value) is measured
or estimated. The leakage rate or infiltration of air through the building envelope is of
concern which is strongly affected by window construction and quality of door seals such
as weatherstripping. The goal of this exercise is to quantify the building's overall thermal
performance. The audit may also assess the efficiency, physical condition, and
programming of mechanical systems such as the heating, ventilation, air conditioning
equipment, and thermostat.
An energy audit may include a written report estimating energy use given local climate
criteria, thermostat settings, roof overhang, and solar orientation. This could show energy
use for a given time period, say a year, and the impact of any suggested improvements
per year. The accuracy of energy estimates are greatly improved when the homeowner's
billing history is available showing the quantities of electricity, natural gas, fuel oil, or
other energy sources consumed over a one or two-year period.
Some of the greatest effects on energy use are user behavior, climate, and age of the
home. An energy audit may therefore include an interview of the homeowners to
understand their patterns of use over time. The energy billing history from the local utility
company can be calibrated using heating degree day and cooling degree day data
obtained from recent, local weather data in combination with the thermal energy model of
the building. Advances in computer-based thermal modeling can take into account many
variables affecting energy efficiency. An energy audit is often used to identify cost
effective ways to improve the comfort and efficiency of buildings. In addition, homes
may qualify for energy efficiency grants from central government.
Collect and review electricity and fuel use records for the facility; records
for the previous 16 months are preferred.
as
well
Physically
inspect
and
This
should
include, for
of
motors that are not included with equipment, record motor information
on the audit data sheet. For each motor, record sufficient information about
motor size, duty and location to uniquely identify it. Also record information
about how the motor is controlled such as simple on/off control or automatic
control. If motor is in use, obtain running amperage at motor starter using a
clip on ammeter if one is available.
Inspect and record information about all light fixtures in the facility. In each
room or area that can be uniquely identified, measure and record the light
level at working surfaces. In each area, determine the number and type of
fixtures as well as fixture age, number of lamps and fixture control.
Inspect and record information on fuel using appliances in the facility such
as boilers, domestic hot water heaters, emergency generators and kitchen
appliances. Determine appliance capacity, age condition and fuel
consumption. Check the fuel storage tanks, piping systems, pumps etc. Look
for signs of leakage or system restrictions or blockages that can reduce
efficiency.
The analysis of building and utility data, including study of the installed
equipment and analysis of energy bills;
The survey of the real operating conditions;
The understanding of the building behaviour and of the interactions with weather,
occupancy and operating schedules;
The selection and the evaluation of energy conservation measures;
The estimation of energy saving potential;
The identification of customer concerns and needs.
Preliminary Audit
The preliminary audit alternatively called a simple audit, screening audit or walk-through
audit, is the simplest and quickest type of audit. It involves minimal interviews with site
operating personnel, a brief review of facility utility bills and other operating data, and a
walk-through of the facility to become familiar with the building operation and identify
glaring areas of energy waste or inefficiency.
Typically, only major problem areas will be uncovered during this type of audit.
Corrective measures are briefly described, and quick estimates of implementation cost,
potential operating cost savings, and simple payback periods are provided. This level of
detail, while not sufficient for reaching a final decision on implementing a proposed
measures, is adequate to prioritize energy efficiency projects and determine the need for a
more detailed audit.
General Audit
The general audit alternatively called a mini-audit, site energy audit or complete site
energy audit expands on the preliminary audit described above by collecting more
detailed information about facility operation and performing a more detailed evaluation
of energy conservation measures identified. Utility bills are collected for a 12 to 36
month period to allow the auditor to evaluate the facility's energy/demand rate structures,
and energy usage profiles. Additional metering of specific energy-consuming systems is
often performed to supplement utility data. In-depth interviews with facility operating
personnel are conducted to provide a better understanding of major energy consuming
systems as well as insight into variations in daily and annual energy consumption and
demand.
This type of audit will be able to identify all energy conservation measures appropriate
for the facility given its operating parameters. A detailed financial analysis is performed
for each measure based on detailed implementation cost estimates, site-specific operating
cost savings, and the customer's investment criteria. Sufficient detail is provided to justify
project implementation.
Investment-Grade Audit
In most corporate settings, upgrades to a facility's energy infrastructure must compete
with non-energy related investments for capital funding. Both energy and non-energy
investments are rated on a single set of financial criteria that generally stress the expected
return on investment (ROI). The projected operating savings from the implementation of
energy projects must be developed such that they provide a high level of confidence. In
fact, investors often demand guaranteed savings.
The investment-grader audit alternatively called a comprehensive audit, detailed audit,
maxi audit, or technical analysis audit, expands on the general audit described above by
providing a dynamic model of energy use characteristics of both the existing facility and
all energy conservation measures identified. The building model is calibrated against
actual utility data to provide a realistic baseline against which to compute operating
savings for proposed measures. Extensive attention is given to understanding not only the
operating characteristics of all energy consuming systems, but also situations that cause
load profile variations on both an annual and daily basis. Existing utility data is
supplemented with submetering of major energy consuming systems and monitoring of
system operating characteristics.
Chapter # 2
(Energy Audit of BZU (Multan))
Energy Audit of IMS
Rooms
Ceiling
Fans
Tubes
Computers A.C
Universal
Sockets
256
32
48
Examination
Hall
Comp Lab
28
36
14
18
22
30
Teachers
Rooms
Libraries
26
24
18
16
32
80
128
47
Total
292
462
46
66
135
Total # of socket
135(each 5A)
Load
withLoad
with
Electronic Ballast Magnetic Ballast
FTL (Tube Lights) 38 W
42.5 W
= 578
= 462
= 292
19.62MWH
= 5316
= 5316
Chapter # 3
(Building insulation)
Introduction
Building insulation refers broadly to any object in a building used as insulation for any
purpose. While the majority of insulation in buildings is for thermal purposes, the term
also applies to acoustic insulation, fire insulation, and impact insulation (e.g. for
vibrations caused by industrial applications). Often an insulation material will be chosen
for its ability to perform several of these functions at once.
Building insulation materials are thermal insulation used in the construction or retrofit
of buildings. The materials are used to reduce heat transfer by conduction, radiation or
convection and are employed in varying combinations to achieve the desired outcome
(usually thermal comfort with reduced energy consumption).
Most of us spend the majority of our time in our homes (and for those of us who spend
the majority of our time at work, we wish we spent more time at home.) So, of course, we
want it to be as comfortable as possible and affordable to maintain. Insulation is one of
the most important components of a home that can help to affordably keep you and your
family comfortable year-round. In the "Insulation and Air Quality" article, we talked
about how insulation is like a home's clothes. Just like you need to bundle up on a cold
day, so your home needs to also be bundled up against the elements.
For example, if the air temperature outside the home is 95 degrees F, and you've cooled
the inside air temperature to 72 degrees F, proper insulation will help to keep the hot air
outside and the cool air inside. This keeps you comfortable and keeps the air conditioning
bill to a minimum. While the concept may sound simple, a home's insulation system is
quite complex entire books have been written about the subject. So, in this article we'll
give you the basic facts so that you can talk knowledgeably with your builder about how
your new home will be insulated. And if you're planning on remodeling the home and
want to know more about insulation, this article will give you an overview to start you
out.
Thermal Insulation:
Thermal insulation in buildings is an important factor to achieving thermal comfort for its
occupants. Insulation reduces unwanted heat loss or gain and can decrease the energy
demands of heating and cooling systems. It does not necessarily deal with issues of
adequate ventilation and may or may not affect the level of sound insulation. In a narrow
sense insulation can just refer to the insulation materials employed to slow heat loss, such
as: cellulose, glass wool, rock wool, polystyrene, urethane foam, vermiculite, perlite,
wood fibre, plant fibre (canabis, flax, cotton, cork, etc.), plant straw, animal fibre (sheeps
wool), cementitiousand earth or soil, but it can also involve a range of designs and
techniques to address the main modes of heat transfer - conduction, radiation and
convection materials.[1][2]
The effectiveness of insulation is commonly evaluated by its R-value. However, an Rvalue does not take into account the quality of construction or local environmental factors
for each building. Construction quality issues include inadequate vapour barriers, and
problems with draft-proofing. In addition, the properties and density of the insulation
material itself is critical. For example, according to Leah Twings, Quality Compliance
Manager of Textrafine Insulation, fiberglass insulation materials made from short strands
of glass layered over each other is not as durable as insulation made from long entangled
strands of glass.
How Heat Moves
The main function of insulation is to control heat flow. So in order to understand how
insulation works, you need to first understand how heat moves.
In addition to heat from the sun and burning fuel, heat is also generated by people,
animals and lights. In fact, as much as 30 percent of heat produced inside a home can be
caused by lights and appliances.
The heat generated by all of these sources moves from place to place by three basic
principles:
Radiation
Convection
Conduction
For ease of understanding, we'll discuss these concepts one at a time. In reality, however,
radiation, convection and conduction typically are working simultaneously.
Radiation
One way heat can move is by radiation. "Radiate" literally means "to send out waves; to
shine brightly." When heat moves by radiation, it's moving in the form of waves. Imagine
you're camping in the mountains. The evening air is cool, so you decide to build a
campfire. As you stand in front of your campfire, your face and arms begin to warm. The
heat you feel is moving by radiation from the flames to your body.
Convection
Another method of heat transfer is convection. Convection uses the principle that warm
air rises and cool air falls to transfer heat via the flow of air. To continue with our
camping scenario imagine it's dinner time. You begin to prepare dinner by placing a
metal pan over the campfire grill. In a few moments, the metal pan is hot, even though it's
not directly touching the flames. How has this happened? Flames have heated the air, and
the heated air has risen to heat the bottom of the pan. This heat transfer occurs via
convection (with some help from radiation).
Conduction
A third method of heat transfer is conduction. Conduction is the method heat uses to
move through a solid material. For heat to transfer from one surface to another by
conduction, the surfaces must be in direct contact with each other. Back to our camping
scenario to cook your dinner, you throw a fish into the hot metal pan over the
campfire. The heat transfers by conduction from the pan to the fish, cooking it.
Planning
How much insulation a house should have depends on building design, climate, energy
costs, budget, and personal preference. Regional climates make for different
requirements. Building codes specify only the bare minimum; insulating beyond what
code requires is often recommended.
The insulation strategy of a building needs to be based on a careful consideration of the
mode of energy transfer and the direction and intensity in which it moves. This may alter
throughout the day and from season to season. It is important to choose an appropriate
design, the correct combination of materials and building techniques to suit the particular
situation.
To determine whether you should add insulation, you first need to find out how much
insulation you already have in your home and where. A qualified home energy auditor
will include an insulation check as a routine part of a whole-house energy audit.
Climate
Cold climates
In cold conditions, the main aim is to reduce heat flow out of the building. The
components of the building envelope - windows, doors, roofs, walls, and air
infiltration barriers are all important sources of heat loss[5][6]; in an otherwise well
insulated home, windows will then become an important source of heat transfer.[7].
The resistance to conducted heat loss for standard glazing corresponds to an Rvalue of about 0.17W/m2/Ko[8] (compared to 2-4W/m2/Ko for glasswool batts[9]).
Losses can be reduced by good weatherisation, bulk insulation, and minimising
the amount of non-insulative (particularly non-solar facing) glazing. Indoor
thermal radiation can also be retarded with spectrally selective (low-e, lowemissivity) glazing. Some insulated glazing systems can double to triple R
values.
Hot climates
In hot conditions, the greatest source of heat energy is solar radiation. [10] This can enter
buildings directly through windows or it can heat the building shell to a higher
temperature than the ambient, increasing the heat transfer through the building envelope.
[11][12]
The Solar Heat Gain Co-efficient (SGHC) [13] (a measure of solar heat transmittance)
of standard single glazing can be around 78-85%. [14]. Solar gain can be reduced by
adequate shading from the sun, light coloured roofing, spectrally selective (heatreflective) paints and coatings and various types of insulation for the rest of the envelope.
Specially coated glazing can reduce SHGC to around 10%[8]. Radiant barriers are highly
effective for attic spaces in hot climates [15]. In this application, they are much more
effective in hot climates than cold climates. For downward heat flow, convection is weak
and radiation dominates heat transfer across an air space. Radiant barriers must face an
adequate air-gap to be effective.
If refrigerative air-conditioning is employed in a hot, humid climate, then it is particularly
important to seal the building envelope. Dehumidification of humid air infiltration can
waste significant energy. On the other hand, some building designs are based on effective
cross-ventilation instead of refrigerative air-conditioning to provide convective cooling
from prevailing breezes.
Construction
Building envelope
The thermal envelope defines the conditioned or living space in a house. The attic or
basement may or may not be included in this area. Reducing airflow from inside to
outside can help to reduce convective heat transfer significantly [16].
Ensuring low convective heat transfer also requires attention to building construction
(weatherization) and the correct installation of insulative materials[17][18].
The less natural airflow into a building, the more mechanical ventilation will be required
to support human comfort. High humidity can be a significant issue associated with lack
of airflow, causing condensation, rotting construction materials, and encouraging
microbial growth such as mould and bacteria. Moisture can also drastically reduce the
effectiveness of insulation by creating a thermal bridge (see below). Air exchange
systems can be actively or passively incorporated to address these problems.
Thermal bridge
Thermal bridges are points in the building envelope that allow heat conduction to occur.
Since heat flows through the path of least resistance, thermal bridges can contribute to
poor energy performance. A thermal bridge is created when materials create a continuous
path across a temperature difference, in which the heat flow is not interrupted by thermal
insulation. Common building materials that are poor insulators include glass and metal.
A building design may have limited capacity for insulation in some areas of the structure.
A common construction design is based on stud walls, in which thermal bridges are
common in wood or steel studs and joists, which are typically fastened with metal.
Notable areas that most commonly lack sufficient insulation are the corners of buildings,
and areas where insulation has been removed or displaced to make room for system
infrastructure, such as electrical boxes (outlets and light switches), plumbing, fire alarm
equipment, etc.
Thermal bridges can also be created by uncoordinated construction, for example by
closing off parts of external walls before they are fully insulated. The existence of
inaccessible voids within the wall cavity which are devoid of insulation can be a source
of thermal bridging.
Some forms of insulation transfer heat more readily when wet, and can therefore also
form a thermal bridge in this state.
The heat conduction can be minimized by any of the following: reducing the cross
sectional area of the bridges, increasing the bridge length, or decreasing the number of
thermal bridges.
One method of reducing thermal bridge effects is the installation of an insulation board
(eg. foam board EPS XPS, wood fibre board, etc) over the exterior outside wall. Another
method is using insulated lumber framing for a thermal break inside the wall.
Where to insulate
Where to insulate depends on where your living or conditioned space (the space that you
heat and air-condition) ends and where your unconditioned space begins. Treat
unconditioned space as if it were outdoors, minus the rain and snow. Insulate the living
space as if you were insulating from the outdoors. For example, if your crawlspace is
unheated, and you want it to stay that way, then make sure it has adequate ventilation,
and insulate the floor above. If your attic is unheated, and you want it to stay that way,
also make sure it has adequate ventilation, and insulate between and over the floor joists.
If you occasionally want to heat only some sections of the living space, you should
insulate the walls between the sections you want to heat and the sections you dont want
to heat.
If the basement space is unheated, it may be best to insulate between floor joists
(basement ceiling) instead of around the foundation (basement floor and walls). There is
no harm done in insulating both the ceiling, and the floor and walls.
Generally, you should insulate:
Floors above cold spaces, such as vented crawl spaces and unheated garages.
Any floor section that is cantilevered beyond the exterior wall below.
Around slab floors built directly on the ground.
Foundation walls of crawl spaces (people often insulate crawl spaces so poorly
that the insulation is ineffective).
If you are curious what kind of insulation already exists, here are some ways to inspect
your walls for insulation:
Remove electrical cover plates and look through gap on side of electrical box.
Remove piece of siding and sheathing.
Drill hole in interior or exterior wall and extract sample.
Climate
Ease of installation
Durability - resistance to degradation
decomposition, etc.
Ease of replacement at end of life
Cost effectiveness
Toxicity
Flammability
Environmental impact and sustainability
from
compression,
moisture,
Often a combination of materials is used to achieve an optimum solution and there are
products which combine different types of insulation into a single form.
gain. In hot climates, where air-conditioning bills are a major concern, choosing windows
with lower SHGC will reduce the amount of heat that comes in through your windows
from the outside.
1) Fiber Glass.
One of the cheapest and most effective types of building insulation is fiberglass. This
material is usually applied in rolls with a paper backing. For walls that have already been
completed, a small incision can be made and the fiberglass can be blown in. This is a
particularly effective method that does minimal damage to the walls.
many choose to give the ceiling special consideration, given how much energy can be
gained and lost through it.
Open-cell foam is porous, allowing water vapor and liquid water to penetrate the
insulation. Closed-cell foam is non-porous, and not moisture-penetrable, thereby
effectively forming a SEMI-permeable vapor barrier. (N.b., vapor barriers are
usually required by the Building Codes, regardless of the type of insulation used.
Check with the local authorities to find out the requirements for your area.)
Closed-cell foams are superior insulators. While open-cell foams typically have
R-values of 3 to 4 per inch (RSI-0.53 to RSI-0.70 per inch), closed-cell foams can
attain R-values of 5 to 8 per inch (RSI-0.88 to RSI-1.41 per inch). This is
important if space is limited, because it allows a thinner layer of insulation to be
used. For example, a 1-inch layer of closed-cell foam provides about the same
insulation factor as 2 inches of open-cell foam.
Closed-cell foam is very strong, and structurally reinforces the insulated surface.
By contrast, open-cell foam is soft when cured, with little structural strength.
Open-cell foam requires trimming after installation, and disposal of the waste
material. Unlike open-cell foam, closed-cell foam rarely requires any trimming,
with little or no waste.
3) Reflective insulation
Reflective insulation makes for a very good ceiling insulation. One side is a more typical
insulating material, but the insulation does not stop there. The other side is a reflective
surface, meant to reflect extremely hot or cold air back in the direction it came from.
Reflective insulation is most effective where the heat flow is in a downward direction and
the reflective portion is facing up.
For large to mid scale applications, a two component mixture comes together at the tip of
a gun, and forms an expanding foam that is sprayed onto concrete slabs, into wall cavities
of an unfinished wall, against the interior side of sheathing, or through holes drilled in
sheathing or drywall into the wall cavity of a finished wall.
Advantages
Disadvantages
Advantages
Disadvantages
Advantage
Disadvantage
Higher R-Value
fiberglass batts
than
typical