Short notes

1. Explain the distribution of terms in categorical Proposition. What are the exceptions to
the distribution of terms in 'A' Proposition?
A categorical Proposition asserts relationship between the subject term and the
predicate term. The doctrine of distribution of terms deals with the assertion of entire
denotation or to the partial denotation of these terms.
A term is said to be distributed when the reference is to all the individuals denoted
by the term. It is said to be undistributed when the reference is to a part of the denotation
of the term. Even when the denotation is not definite, the term is considered to be
undistributed. I.e, when there is explicit reference to the entire denotation, a term is said
to be distributed.
The subject term of the Proposition is distributed, when quantity sign 'all' or
'some' come before subject term. In universal Proposition, the reference is to the entire
denotation of the subject.
Eg:
1. All judges are impartial.
In the above example, the assertion is about the entire denotation of 'judges'.
2. No lemons are sweet
In above example, predicate is denied of the entire denotation of the subject.
As traditional logicians consider, singular Proposition to be universal. It is to be
added if asked in question so in singular propositions also subject term is distributed.
Distribution of predicate term is depended upon quality of Proposition.
The predicate of an affirmative Proposition is not distributed because in an affirmative
Proposition there is no explicit reference to the denotation of the predicate.
Eg: All judges are impartial.
The above statements do no state whether all impartial persons are judges or not.
Therefore, predicate term is taken to be undistributed. Same is with particular affirmative
Proposition.
There is one exception to the distribution of predicate in 'A' Proposition. In
normal case 'A' Proposition being affirmative, the predicate term is not distributed. But
when subject and predicate are same, the predicate is distributed.
Eg; Bachelor is unmarried man
In above example, both terms are distributed.
In case of negative propositions the predicate term is denied of subject term. I.e, all things
denoted by the predicate are excluded from the subject. Therefore, negative propositions
distribute predicate.
Eg:
1. No lemons are sweet
Above example is E Proposition in which the whole class of lemon (subject) is
excluded from the class of sweet things (predicate). Similarly, entire denotation of
predicate term is excluded from subject term.
In 'O' Proposition the predicate is distributed as a part of the denotation of the
subject term is excluded from the entire denotation of the predicate.
Eg: Some flowers are not white
In this Proposition, part of class of flowers is excluded from the entire denotation
of white things.
Distribution of terms can be seen in following diagrams.

'A' Proposition
'E' Proposition
I proposition
'O' Proposition
(plesease draw Venn diagram from p.57 of K.T. Basantani book)
Law and Definition(common introduction)
According to law as integrity, propositions of law are true, if they in or follow
from the principles of justice, fairness, and procedural due process that provide the best
constructive interpretation of the communitys legal practice.
- Laws empire
Above word precisely states the importance of law, and need of it to be defined
properly. And the method, of this definition is given by Logic. Let us see that in
following laws.
1. Labour Law:Disablement.
According to dictionary meaning Disablement isTo deprive of some ability.
But in Law, it is not taken in this literal sense. The Workmans Compensation Act,
1923 , states disablement as loss of earning capacity. And depending on the nature
and percentage of loss, they distinguish Disablement as
a) Total Disablement- It means loss of 100% earning capacity. According to Sec. 2
(1) the total disablement means such a disablement, whether of a temporary or
permanent nature as in capacities a worker for all work which he was capable of
performing at the time of the accident resulting in disablement.
for e.g. National Insurance Co. Ltd., V/s Saleem Khan. Saleem Khan use to
work as a driver of a truck, met with injuries in an accident. The doctor certified
him that he is physically impair and loss of physical function was to the extent of
50 percent only, but due to such injury, he was not fit to drive a heavy vehicle.
The court held that as he was incapable of doing work which he was capable of
doing before the accident, it was a case of total disablement.
b) Partial disablement- According to Sec 2(1)(g) it means loss of earning capacity to
some extent because of injury the workman cannot do the same kind of work as he
was doing before at the time of accident or he cannot do the same work as efficiently
as he could do before the accident. On these bases it is divided in two sub-partsi) A Temporary partial disablement- it means any disablement, which temporarily
reduce his earning capacity of a workman in any employment in which he was
engaged at the tie of accident causing the disablement.
ii) Permanent Partial Disablement When a workmans disablement reduces
permanently his earning capacity in every field of employment which he is capable of
undertaking at the time of accident.
For e.g. General Manager G.I.P. Rly. Bom V. Shankar - A Railway servant on a grade
A-1 post lost one eye and two teeth as a result of collision between two engines. He
was declared by the Medical Officer as unfit for grades A-1 and B jobs, but fit for C-2
jobs, because of his defective vision Class C-2 was offered to him by the Railway

Administration. He, however, refused the offer and claimed compensation on the
basis of total disablement. It was held the workman was entitled to compensation, not
on the basis of total, but partial disablement.
Conclusion- Though dictionary was stating it as deprive of some ability, yet Law
considered it as loss of earning capacity, to fit it in labour law, and resolve the
disputes about claims of compensation, by workmen. Therefore, it is best example of
Stipulative definition, coming into life.

Industry
The Act came into force on 1st April, 1947. The object of the Act was to make
provision for the investigating and settlement of industrial disputes and to secure
industrial peace through voluntary negotiation and compulsory adjudication. The Act
relates to all relevant aspects of the industrial relations, machinery, mediation and
conciliation, arbitration, adjudication and matters incidental thereto. The section
defines important concepts like industry workmen, employer, wages, strike, lockout,
retrenchment etc., identical disputes etc
The Act provides an exhaustive definition of the term Industry Divisible by stating
What it means, What it includes, What it excludes.
Industry: According to Section 2 (j) Industry means
i) Any systematic activity carried on by co-operation between an employer and his
workmen (whether such workmen are employed by such employer directly or by or
through any agency, including a contractor) for the production, supply or distribution of
goods of services with a view to satisfy human wants or wishes (not being wants or
wishes which are merely spiritual or religious in nature), whether or not (1) any capital has been invested for the purpose of carrying on such
Activity or
(2) such activity is carried on with the motive to make any gain
Or profit.
(b) And includes:
(1) Any activity of the dock Labour Board established under Section 5A of the dock
Workers (regulation of Employment) Act, 1948 and
(2) Any activity relating to the promotion of sales or business; or both, carried on by an
establishment.
(c) But does not include: any agricultural operation except where such agricultural
operation is carried on in an integrated manner with any other activity (being any such
activity as is referred to in the forgoing provisions of this clause) and such other activity
is the predominant one.
A new definition of Industry has been incorporated by the Amendment Act of 1982
Position after the Amendment Act of 1982.
Pursuant to the decision in the Bangalore Water supply and Sewage Board V. Rajappa (A.
I. R. 1978 S.C. 548), the ambit of the term Industry was widened. Institution like
hospitals and dispensaries, educational, scientific research and training institutes,
institutes engaged in charitable, social and philanthropic services etc, were include if such
institutions carried on any industrial activity. The Legislature, however, keeping in mind
the special environment and nature of the above referred institutions, and in an attempt to
distinguish the environment of the said institutions from those prevailing in regular
industrial and commercial undertakings has redefined the term industry, so as to

exclude from its scope the said institutions. it may further be noted that certain function
of the Government such as activities relating to atomic energy, space and defense
research have also been excluded.
Clubs : In the Madras Gymkhana Club Case, (1968) I. S. C. R. 742, and the cricket Clubs
of India V. Bombay Labour Union, AIR 1968 SC 276, it has been held that where a club
render services to its members, the same cannot be regarded as an industry. These
judgments have been overruled by the Supreme Court in the Bangalore Water Supply
Case. A club is an industry if the tests specified above are satisfied. However, The
Amendment Act, 1982 exclude a club if it employs less than ten persons.
Educational Institutions: Originally, Educational institutions were excluded from the
definition of an industry as the predominant activity of such institutions is to spread
education, and not to run a business or trade. The employment of staff was held to be
incidental to the main purpose.
In University of Delhi v. Ramnath (AIR 1963 S C. 1873) the Supreme Court had earlier
held that a University was not an industry, on the ground that its main purpose was to
impart education and that it was not run as a business or trade for profit.
The Supreme Court expressly overruled the above view in its decision in the Bangalore
Water Supply case. However, the Amendment Act, 1982 now clearly excludes
educational institutions from the scope of industry.
It may be noted that the amended definition has not been brought into force by the
notification dated 21.08.1984.
Attributes of an industry:
1. The activity must involve the habitual or systematic production or distribution of
goods or rendering material services to a large community or a small art of it.
2. The activity must be similar in nature to the organization of business or trade.
3. The activity should not be in exercise merely of government functions.
4. The employment must not be personal such as in the case of domestic servants.
5. In respect of professions such as these of doctors and lawyers, it was held that they
do not fall within the scope of the term industry.
Conclusion- Though word industry may mean for lay man as only production house at
great scale, by defining precisely, it gave many benefits just like to education institute and
others, to get rid of heavy taxes and other expenses, and getting subsidy. And hence, it is
another practical example of Stipulative definition.
Nuisance
The word nuisance is derived from the French word nuire and the Latin word
nocere meaning to do hurt or to annoy Nuisance has been defined to be anything done
to the hurt or annoyance of the lands, tenements of hereditament of another and not
amounting to a trespass, Blackstone described a nuisance (nocumentum) as something
that worketh hurt, inconvenience, or damage.
Nuisances are of two kinds 1) Public (also known as general or common nuisance) and
2) Private.
1) Public or Common or General Nuisance- it is an act or omission which cause any
common injury, danger or annoyance to the public, or to the people in general who
dwell or occupy property in the vicinity, or which must necessarily cause injury,

obstruction, danger or annoyance to persons who may have occasion to sue any public
right
for e.g., obstructing a highway or throwing fire crackers on road, selling any food which
is not fit for human consumption etc. Public nuisances consist not only of those acts
which interfere with definite public rights (such as the right to use a public thoroughfare),
but also of nuisance which endangers the health, safety or comfort of the public generally,
such as noise or the escape of noxious vapors, gases, fames or any other deleterious thing
affecting the health of the neighborhood.
Public nuisance depends on the special damage, they see the extent of harm caused
depending upon the nature of the locality. That is to say, in certain area damages are
unavoidable. So, depending upon each area the courts adopt their standards.
For ex., in the case of Beath v. Brighton the warden of church sought for an injunction
restraining the municipal Corporation from operating the electric power station, which
was causing some noise. It was found that due to this noise none of the church members
were personally annoyed or they were reluctant to go to church, and while conducting the
service Priests were not hampered by the noise. Hence the court held that this kind of
nuisance cannot give rise to an action for damages.
2) Private Nuisance:
A private nuisance is some unauthorized use of a mans own property, causing damage to
the property of another, or some unauthorized interference with the property and
proprietary rights of another causing damage but not amounting to trespass. Private
nuisance includes obstruction to light and air, wrongful escape of foul gas, or noise,
water, filth, germs, etc.
In other famous case known as Hollywood Silver Fox Farm limited v. Emmet it was
found that the defendant deliberately caused his guns to be fired with the main object of
scaring the plantiffs silver foxes during their gestation period. Here, the court took into
consideration the malicious aspect while avoiding damage.
Conclusion- Nuisance may be inconvenience or damages, but it must be consider at
certain extent, even court has to neglect certain nuisance, as given in public nuisance.
But, one can precise its demarcation line by defining it precisely and observing the
definition minutely. Thus, stipulative definition plays it role, to justify the verdict.
3. The Law of Contract:
Contract is the word we use and participate in day to day life. In every transaction from
purchasing to commutating, we are in contract with service giving person. But the real
contract problems come in business or partnership and so on. Main purpose of Law of
Contract is to ensure what a man has been promised shall be performed and what a man
has been led to expect shall be fulfilled (Sir William Anson). Contracts are also of
different types as Expressed and implied, in fact or quasi contract etc. but major concern
is consent of parties.
PARTIES AD IDEMS- To enter in to a contract, it is essential for both the parties to agree
to the same things in same sense, in which they are said to be ad idem.
The word thing must be considered in the wide sense1) To cover the whole contract of agreement.
2) To refer to material objects
3) Payment
4) To any other act or promise.

If they attach different meanings to the language which they use, it is obvious there is
no agreement. Thus, it is important for the two parties to define the term or agree on
the meaning of the terms of contract. If two persons enter into an apparent contract
concerning a particular ship/ person are misled by similarly of name or person or
mistaken identity, there would be no contract between them.
Cundy v. Lindsay (187819.1LR Bom. 697)- In this case, Blenkarn took advantage of
the similarity of names with Blenkiron a respectable firm (the signature look like
Blenkirons one) and delivered the goods to Blankaron, who sold the goods to Cundy
and did not pay Lindsay and Co. In a suit by Lindsay and Co. against Cundy, it was
held that owing to the mistake caused by Blankaron, there was no real agreement
between him and Lindsay and Co. and that Cundy got no title to the goods.
Free Consent:
Consent is not enough for a contract, consent must be free. Under section 14, consent is
said to be free when it is not caused by
1) coercion
2) under influence
3) Fraud
4) Misrepresentation
5) Mistake
As stated above free consent is necessary for validity of a contract. A contract is
voidable if there is no free consent i.e. if the consent is given under any of the first four
circumstances, the contract is voidable at the option of the party whose consent was so
caused. A Contract is void it consent is caused by coercion.
According to Sec. 15 coercion is defined as, the committing of any act forbidden or the
threatening, the unlawful detaining of any property to the prejudice of any person
whatsoever or the unlawful threatening to detain any property to prejudice of any person
whatever.
Cases / Illustration Ranganyakamma V. Alworesetti, A Hindu widow was forced to
adopt X under the threat that her husbands corpse would not be allowed to be removed
unless she adopted X. The adoption was held to be void able as having been induced by
coercion with the intention of wounding the feeling of the widow (non-removal of the
husbands corpse).
other factor, which invalidates consent, is undue influence. Sec. 16 states that a contract
is said to be induced by undue influence on the following grounds. When the relation
between the parties is such that1) One is in a position to dominate the will of the other
2) Or uses that position to obtain an unfair advantage over the other. Further, Sec. 16
gives three examples when a person is deemed to be in a position do dominate the will of
another.
a) Where he holds a real of apparent authority over the other of
b) Where he stands in fiduciary relation to the other or
c) Where he makes a contract with a person whose mental capacity is (temporarily or
permanently) affected by reason of age, illness or mental or bodily distress.

Examples A, having advanced money to his son B during his minority, upon B coming
of age, obtains by misuse of parental influence, a bond from B, for a greater amount than
the sum given in advance, A employs undue influence.
In a leading English case, Alkard V. Skinner (1887-36 Cr. D 145), the Court had
to decide whether religious influence can amount to undue influence. A young girl joined
a sisterhood at the age of 2, and bound herself to observe the triple vows of chastity,
poverty and obedience. The rule of obedience required her to regard the voice of Mother
Superior as the voice of God. Moreover, no sister was allowed to take any independent
advice from an outsider without the leave of mother Superior. When the girls father died,
leaving considerable money and shares, she made a gift thereof to the sisterhood, and also
made a will bequeathing everything to the sisterhood on her death. In 1879, she left the
sisterhood, and revoked her will son thereafter, in 1885, she filled a suit to revoke the gift
(which she had made to the sisterhood at the time of her fathers death) on the ground that
the transaction was vitiated by undue influence and therefore, void able at her option.
Conclusion- As we have seen in case that many time person can make or take
concern by force or fraud, but this is totally against humanity, and to protect such
tenements law had adapted concept like Free consent, and it not only mean like
dictionary, that it humans freedom to give consent but also goes step ahead and protect
if any wrong act is performed. And this is the reason stipulative definition comes in
existence, to state something extra, to overcome the situation.
4. Medical Terms:
Todays burning issue in law is medical laws and depth of their terminology. It is very
important to set laws for medical practice-ner, as small error may commit big problems
and cause ones life. But the must amongst it is to precise their definition. In countries,
like the U.S. the legislature will ensure that a term meaning is clearly specified with the
help of a definition e.g. the Michigan House of Representatives Bill of 1987 introduced
two definitions which are useful, illustrative prcising definitions.
1.
Terminally ill means a state in which an incurable, irreversible and
uncontrollable disease or condition will, in the reasonable opinion of the attending
physician, be likely to result in death within approximately one year.
2.
Medical Intervention means any medicine, procedure or device which a
physician prescribes, administers, performs or authorizes.
Similarly the word physician is defined as an authorized practitioner of medicine
as one who has graduated from a college of medicine and licensed by the appropriate
board. Attending physician is one who attends a hospital at a stated time to visit the
patient and give directions as to the treatment.
Conclusion- It can be best mention in the words of John Locke asAchievement of human knowledge is often hampered by the use of words without fixed
signification. Needless controversy sometime produced and perpetuated by a
unacknowledged ambiguity in the application of Key term. This is precise requirement
while filing some technical case. Hence, Precising definition serves the major purpose of
law.
Laws of thought.

Logic is often defined as the study of Laws of Thought.

-Cohen and Nagel.
These laws are particularly taken into consideration(1) Law of Identity.
(2) Law of contradiction.
(3) Law of excluded Middle.
They have been taken as necessary condition for valid thinking. One cannot
think or give any proof without these fundamental laws. These are called as Universal
postulates of Reasoning.
*Salient features of Laws of Thought.
These laws are presupposition of valid thinking; are inexorable and inviolable are
formal in character and lastly are independent of each other and nor can be reduced to
other.
(1) Law of Identity.
In accordance with this, it states that in deductive argument the meaning of the term
must remain same throughout.
E.g.: If we say that since books are meant to be read, the books in bank must be read.
Here we violate the rule of Identity.
Heraclitus and Buddhists deny the validity of this law, because according to them,
everything is momentary, so, nothing remains same in the next moment.
But, this criticism is invalid, because, there is a fundamental difference in the realm
of things and thinking, that is ideas and objects are not subject to same laws.
It is said that sometimes, one proposition can be true at one time and false at other
times.
E.g.: India has congress govt.
It is true in present reference, while false in past and doubtful in future
This objection is also best on misunderstanding. Since it is in complete statement and by
completing it, we can remove the vagueness that is India has congress govt. in sept 2005.
For the conclusion value of the Law of Identity, the law of Identity does not mean that
nothing is changeable but it insists upon the uniformity and continuity in this change,
which is responsible for the identity of the object. A thing is always defined in terms of its
property and nature.
Conc.: Thus, it is understood that just as the world of physical thing follow the Law of
Nature, similarly, the world of thought follows The Law of Thought.
(2) Law of Contradiction.
According to law of contradiction states that no proposition can be true and false
together. Laws of Contradiction and Excluded Middle explicitly state the relation
between proposition and its negation.
In other words, a thing cannot both exist and non-exist at the same time.
Hamilton has called the Law of Contradiction as the Law of non-contradiction.
According to him correct thinking is non-contradicted.

E.g.: A thing cannot be white or non-white at the same given time and in same space.
Coherence, Thought has no virtue of physical world is certainly a condition for human
thinking.
Like Law of Identity it is challenged as proposition may be both true OR false.
E.g.: The Sun is rising.
The Sun is not rising.
But, it is also best on conclusion of time and place of prediction.
To quote Cohen and Nagel, Being in the first pair of expression, the time in
prediction is not specified in the second pair, the place in prediction is omitted, if these
omissions are supplied, in neither of the pairs are propositions contradictory.
It is popularly called Sophism of the Liar. It states -- if man says, I am lying
and he is speaking the truth, the proposition is true. But, he is not speaking the truth; the
proposition is false, pointing out the mistake involved in criticism.
Cohen and Nagel have rightly said The difficulty arises from concluding a
group of words or sentence with a proposition which alone is true or false.
The sentence, I am lying would indicate a proposition only if referred to some
other assertion of the speaker that would thus be characterized as a lie.
In such a case, paradox obviously vanishes.
Conc.: Thus, it is understood that, just as the world of physical things follow the Law of
Nature, similarly, the world of Thought follows The Law of Thought.
(3) Law of Excluded Middle.
According to this law, anything must be either true or false.
E.g.: A piece of Toffee can be either sweet or not sweet.
Jevons- The very name of Law expresses the fact that there is no third or middle
course.
Though in a way, this law of thought are related to each other, because, what law
of contradiction states is implied in law of Identity. The truth of Proposition does imply
the falsehood of its opposition.
But, to bring out this implication, we need another statement, which is
independent.
**Criticism of Excluded Middle.
The Universality of Law of Excluded Middle has been challenged more often than
that of the other two laws.
Criticism- (1)
According to it, proposition may not only be true or false, but also it may be
neither of the two. Thus, there is third possibility of two alternatives suggested.
E.g.: Ram is elder than Mohan or Ram is younger than Mohan.
This both may not exist i.e. third possibility arises as Ram is as much old as
Mohan.
It is best upon confusion of contraries with contradictories. Principle of Excluded
Middle applies only to contradictories and not to contraries.

Criticism- (2)
Another argument is based upon a ground that it is against change, while change
is the law of Nature.
E.g.: In a developing person, the proposition that He is mature or immature may both
be wrong.
However, there is a mistake in statement, as the meaning of maturity is not fixed.
Cohen and Nagel rightly object it as, This objection doesnt deny that the
principle since the latter simply states that one of the pair of contradictories must be
true, but, does not tell us which one.
Criticism- (3)
J.S.Mill objects on the ground that there is possibility of a meaningless
proposition.
E.g.: Ram is son of a Barren Women.
So, this objection is pointing out that any law of thought refers to proposition or
things and meaningless expression, is not proposition.
Logical positivist states that, it is meaning which makes an assertion as
proposition.
Meaningless proposition are pseudo. Therefore, criticism is trivial.
Conc.: Thus, it is understood that just as the world of physical thing follows of the Law
of Nature, similarly, the world of thought follows the Law of Thought.
Eductions
Like opposition of Proposition, even in eduction, conclusion is drawn from only one
Proposition and so it is type of immediate inference.
Eductions are those forms of immediate inference in which, from a given Proposition, we
deduce another propositions, differing from it in subject, in predicate or in both. The truth
of the conclusion is implied by the truth of the premises.
There are seven kinds of eductions among which two are fundamental as remaining five
are arrived at by the operation of these two kinds. These are;
CONVERSION:It is a process of immediate inference in which, from a given Proposition, we infer
another Proposition, having the predicate of the original Proposition as its subject and
having the subject of the original Proposition as its predicate.
Given S P
Converse

PS

In it, given Proposition is called convertend and the inferred Proposition is called the
converse.
Rules of Conversion:-Rule of Quality:- Rule of quality is that the converse must have the
same quality as the original Proposition.Rule of Distribution:- Rule of Distribution is that

no term can be distributed in the converse unless it is distributed in the original

Proposition.
CONVERSE OF ALL FOUR KINDS OF PROPOSITIONS
1. A Proposition: The converse of A Proposition is "I" Proposition, because in converse
original predicate becomes subject. In "A" Proposition the predicate term is not
distributed. Therefore, it cannot be distributed in the converse.
Eg: L.F.of A : All bald men are sensitive "A" will be
L.F.of I: Some Sensitive beings are bald men.
Converse of "A" Proposition is "I" Proposition which is called conversion per accidents
as there is change in quantity.
However, the denotation of both the terms is the same, the converse of "A" Proposition
can be "A" Proposition, which is called Simple Converse.
2. E Proposition: Converse of "E" Proposition is "E" Proposition.
Eg:

L.F. of E: No ghost is beautiful

(will be)

L.F. of E: No beautiful being is ghost

3. I Proposition: Like "E" Proposition converse of "I" Proposition is "I" Proposition.
Like E & A Proposition, I Proposition is called simple converse. In simple conversion,
the converse is equivalent to the original propositions.
Converse of O Proposition is not possible
This is because the converse of O Proposition violates the rule of distribution of terms.
One of the rules of conversion is that the quality of converse must be the same as that of
the given Proposition. The given Proposition is negative. So converse will be negative.
The converse being negative will distribute its predicate. (Negative propositions
distribute their predicate).
The predicate of the converse is the subject of the given Proposition. This term is not
distributed in the given Proposition. Therefore, it cannot be distributed in the converse.. If
the conversion of O Proposition is attempted, it will commit fallacy of illicit conversion.
II. OBVERSION:It is the process of inference in which the subject of the inferred Proposition is the same
as that of the original Proposition but the predicate is the contradictory of the original
predicate. The quality of the Proposition also changes.
Given
Obverse

-SP
-SP

The given Proposition is called the obvertend, and the inferred Proposition is called the
obverse.
Obverse of four kinds of propositions;
1.

A Proposition:- Obverse of Proposition is E Proposition

L.F. of A: All journalists are pessimists (obverse is)

L.F. of E: No journalists are non-pessimists.
2.

E Propositions:- Obverse of E Proposition is "A" Proposition.

L.F. of E: No capitalists are far-sighted
L.F. of A: All capitalists are non-far-sighted.

3.

I Proposition:- Obverse of I Proposition is O Proposition.

L.F. of I: Some lazy persons are successful (obverse is)
L.F. of O: Some lazy persons are not non-successful.

4.

O Proposition:- Obverse of O Proposition is I Proposition.

L.F. of O: Some Italians are not dark haired (obverse is)
L.F. of I: Some Italians are non-dark haired
From above examples, we have seen in obverse the quantity has remained the same,
though the quality has changed.
Obversion is simply a way of obtaining a negative equivalent for an affirmative
Proposition, or an affirmative equivalent for a negative Proposition.
1.

Write a note on the importance of analogy ?

Analogy performs many useful functions, in every day life as well as in science.
In everyday life, we draw inferences on basis of observed resemblances as we recognize
people with same habits, even we recognize same bookshop, same places, same books
with help of observed resemblances, i.e, in everyday life we use analogy.
1]. As method of explanation:
In science analogies are sometimes used for explaining phenomena. A discovery of
diseases causing due to viruses.
From observation of similar instances were gathered and from gathered instances it was
found that there was some organism which were cause of diseases but which were
different from bacteria as it had some different symptoms. So from such resemblances it
was found that there were viruses different from bacteria.
2]. Suggesting Hypothesis:All scientific investigations are guided by hypothesis and analogies have many a time
suggested fruitful hypothesis.
Eg: Huygen's wave theory of light was suggested by the familiar view of sound as a wave
phenomenon.
3]. Drawing inferences:
Analogies are used in arguments for two purposes. These are;

a). To make predictions:Analogies are used to make prediction which enables us to find many phenomena of
science. As Halley believed like planets, even comets have orbit and like orbit of planet
can be calculated in the same way orbit of a comet also can be calculated. On the basis of
analogy of regularity in the movement of comets he said or he predicted that comet will
appear in 1758.
b). To make choices:Analogies are used to choose between alternative hypothesis. As to derive at particular
theory scientist take hypothesis and they examine these taken hypothesis and with help of
analogy they chosen the hypothesis.
2. What is ANALOGY ? Explain the factors on which its value depends ?
The observed instances resemble one another in being members of the same class. That is
why the observed instances collectively constitute evidence for the generalization. The
generalization includes both observed and unobserved instances resemble the observed
one's in being members of the same class. Since the observed instances possess a certain
property, it is believed that the unobserved instances, being members of the same class,
will also possess it. This argument from resemblance is called analogy. MILL emphasises
characteristic of analogy, when he defines induction. So we can say analogy is form of
inductive argument. The pattern of analogical argument is; P1 is observed to have
properties R1, R2, R3, .... R+q
P2 is observed to have properties R1, R2, R3, .... Rn
Therefore,
P2 is likely to have the property q.
Some analogical arguments are not good, they are bad and such arguments do not have
value as they are not probable.
Eg: Two students have same height and weight; they belong to same community and live
in same locality.
One of them is intelligent
Therefore, the other is intelligent
In above argument height, weight, community and locality have nothing to do with
intelligence, because there is no probability. The probability is a relation between the
evidence and the conclusion, which determines the value of an analogical argument.
Initially Mill opposed three Criteria as,
1]. The extent of known resemblance
2]. The extent of known difference
3]. The extent of unexplored region of unknown properties
But there were not sufficient to determine the value of analogy.

Further Keynes proposed four concepts in determining the value of analogy, they are,
1]. Total positive analogy:All characteristics known as well as unknown in which two (or more) things resemble are
the total positive analogy.
2]. Known positive analogy:The known between two things are the known positive analogy.
3]. Total negative analogy:All the characteristics (known as well as unknown) in which things differ constitute the
total negative analogy.
4]. Known negative analogy:The known differences between two things constitute the known negative analogy.
To determine the value of analogy, though these four concepts are used but for us it is not
possible to know all the resemblances, even not all differences. We can know only some
of them. So while judging the probability of an argument from analogy, we have to
depend upon the known positive analogy and the known negative analogy. Thus,
1]. When the known positive analogy (resemblances) consists of important properties, the
conclusion of analogy has a high degree of probability.
That is to say to derive at conclusion, when we consider important properties of two
things which resemble with each other, then the analogy has high degree of probabilities:
In case of analogy of earth and mars, resemblances are atmosphere water.