SOC 241:1

Professor J. Garcia

Final Exam Study Guide

Fall 2012

There are 80 multiple choice questions. The final exam is scheduled for Monday,
December 10th from 3:15-5:15pm in our regular classroom. Good luck with your
studies!
Social psychology Reality- There is no truth (from a sociology perspective)
Spotlight effect - The belief that others are paying more attention to us than they really are
Transparency effect
Hindsight bias
Rosy retrospection - We recall mildly pleasant evens more favorably. (At the time the

things might not have been horrible but now you think it was like the best thing in the
world. Kind of like looking back on old times and thinking things were better then)
Theory v. hypothesis Theory - An integrated set of principles that explain and predict observed events.

organize our observations and imply testable hypotheses and practical

predictions
o Theory a general statement about how two or more facts are
related to one another
Hypothesis - a testable statement about the relationship between two or more

variables

Allows to test theory

Survey, correlational, experimental research - Know to compare and contrast them

(How are they different, how they collect data)
Look at soc exam 1 notes
Random and representative samples
Random sample - Survey procedure in which every person in the population being

studied has an equal chance of inclusions/being selected

1,200 randomly selected participants enables 95% confidence of
describing the entire population with an error margin of 3% or
less
Representative sample - How closely the population represents the population under
study.
Independent v. dependent variables
Informed consent
Realism
Deception

Self-esteem - Our overall sense of self-worth

Specific self-perceptions predict performance and vice versa

Feedback is best when it is true and specific
Self-esteem more likely to be threatened by those close to us
Our self-esteem gauge alerts us to threatened social rejection
Individualism v. collectivism

Collectivism
Nurtures the interdependent self.
Asian African and central south American cultures.
Self Esteem based on what others think of me and my group
** Asians Focus more on relationships than Americans. So collectivism results in different ways
of thinking
Individualism
Found primarily in western industrialized countries.
Self esteem is more personal and less relational
Goals and identity
Impact bias - Overestimating the enduring impact of emotions-causing events
We are especially prone to impact bias after negative events.
Self-fulfilling prophecy - when stereotypes lead to confirmation
Examples: Girls and Math/Science
Looking-glass self - How we think others perceive us is used as a mirror for perceiving
ourselves.
Locus of control

Locus of control --> the extent to which people perceive outcomes as internally v.
externally controlled
Learned helplessness

Helplessness and resignation learned when we perceive no control over repeated bad
events
Unrealistic optimism

Leaves us vulnerable
Is on the rise

False consensus

We see our failings as relatively normal and our virtues as relatively exceptional
Belief perseverance

The more we examine our own beliefs and explain their basis the more likely we are to
hold on to them even when they are discredited.
A remedy for belief perseverance:
Explaining alternative theories drives people to consider other possibilities. (Have
people explain things from the other side. Fight for the other side of the debate)
Heuristics
Automatic v. controlled processing

Confirmation bias
Misinformation effect
(Mis)attribution
Attitude v. behavior
Foot-in-the-door
The tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with
a larger request

Gradual increase in commitment

Door-in-the-face
opposite of foot in the door theory. You start with a big request then come down
Low-ball
A tactic for getting people to agree to something. People who agree to an initial
request will often still comply when the requester ups the ante. People who receive
only the costly request are less likely to comply with it.
Self-presentation
We adjust expressed attitudes to appear consistent with our behavior.
Sometimes genuine attitude change occurs in the process
Self-perception
When our attitudes are weak or ambiguous we infer them by looking at our behavior
and the context under which it occurs
Expressions and attitudes

Going through the motions can trigger emotions

Emotional contagion --> emotions can be contagious

Cognitive dissonance

Insufficient justification
Were forced to reduce dissonance by internally justifying our behavior when the
external justification is insufficient
The effects of attitudes-follow-behavior is strongest when people feel some
responsibility
People are unlikely to internalize forced behavior
Dissonance after decisions
Deciding-becomes-believing effect
Can breed overconfidence: even when we should reconsider our decisions, once
its been made were less likely to
Self-Presentation Impression Management
We express attitudes that match our actions
To appear consistent, we may pretend those attitudes

Self-Justification:
Tension arises when one is simultaneously aware of two inconsistent cognitions.
Pertains mostly to discrepancies between behavior and attitudes
To reduce the tension, we adjust our thinking
Overjustification
Rewarding people (beforehand) for doing what they enjoy undermine their selfperception that they do it because they like it.
Intrinsic v. extrinsic motivation

 bribing people to do what they already like may then see their actions and
externally controlled rather than intrinsically appealing
Evolutionary psychology Our behaviors and actions serve evolutionary purpose

Study of the evolution of cognition and behavior using principles of natural selection
Whom should I trust? Whom should I help? When and with whom should I mate?
Culture and values
Personal distance (proxemics) - 4 diff examples. one was the bathroom urinals
(know distance and labels for each)

Proxemics --> The study of the spacing between individuals (how much personal
space we all need. This varies between cultures)
Four zones in the US:
Zone of intimacy: 18 inches (intimate partners like s/o or your children)
Zones of personal distance: 18 inches to 4 feet (close friends and trusted ind.)
Social distance: 4 to 12 feet
Public distance: beyond 12 feet (strangers, people with status difference etc.)
Individuals and groups differ
Universal norms

Universal friendship norms

Respect the friends privacy; make eye contact while talking; dont divulge things
said in confidence
Universal trait dimensions
Five dimensions of personality: stable, outgoing, open, agreeable, and
conscientious
Universal status norms
Forms of communication and interactions vary by social status (like meeting the
president/queen or someone whos a homeless person etc.) (The higher the status of
the person is the one who determines how you interact)
Advances in intimacy are usually suggested by the higher- status person
The incest Taboo
Best-known universal taboo
Biological penalties for inbreeding

Altruism and gender

Nature v. nurture
Obedience, compliance, acceptance and conformity
Compliance- Publicly acting in accord with an implied or explicit request while privately

disagreeing. (you might like to wear sweats at all time but at work you dress up)
Conformity- A change in behavior or belief as the result of group pressure.

Types of Conformity

Predictors of conformity-

Group size
3-5 people will elicit more conformity than just 1 or 2
Groups greater in size than 5 yields diminishing returns

 Unanimity
Observing anothers dissent can increase our own independence
Obedience- Compliance with an explicit command

What breeds obedience?

Victims distance or depersonalization
Closeness and legitimacy of the authority
Institutional authority
Liberating effects of group influence
Acceptance - Both acting and believing in accord with social pressure
Milgrams experiment and findings

What happens when the demands of authority clash with the demands of conscience?
65% percent of participants continued beyond expectations (all the way to 450
volts)
Ethics of Mlgrams experiment
Critics said the milgrams experiment stressed the participants against their will
Participants self-esteem may have been altered
Milgram
stated that the critics controversy was terribly overblown

Normative v. informational influence

Normative influence
Based on a persons desire to avoid rejection or to gain approval
Especially powerful for people who have recently witnessed others being ridiculed
or those who are seeking to climb a status ladder
Often occurs without our awareness
Informational Influence
People accept evidence about reality provided by other people
Especially when reality is ambiguous or we are uninformed
Media, friends, commercials
Central v. peripheral route

Central route - Occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and
respond with favorable thoughts
Explicit and reflective
Debate examples
Peripheral route - Occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such
as speakers attractiveness
Implicit and Automatic.
Obamas expressions examples
Characteristics of persuasion
Sleeper effect

A delayed impact of a message that occurs when an initially discounted message becomes
effective, such as we remember the message but forget the reason for discounting it.
Two-step flow of communication
Life cycle v. generational changes in attitudes
Cult characteristics
Ethnocentrism, prejudice, discrimination, stereotypes
Social dominance and authoritarian personalities

Authoritarian personality --> Disposed to favor obedience to authority and intolerance

of out groups and those lower in status
Often ethnocentric --> believing in the superiority of ones own ethnic and cultural
group
Feel morally superior
Concern for security and control
Authoritarian tendencies tend to surge in times of economic recession and social
upheaval
Realistic group conflict

Competition is an important source of frustration (like when the automobile industry here was
struggling because of asian cars people took it out on the japanese here)

Realistic group conflict theory

Concerns about immigrants taking jobs are greatest among those with the
lowest incomes
Anti-Black prejudice is greatest among low-income Whites

Ingroup bias

more about pride than prejudice

Just-world

tendency to believe the world is just and people get what they deserve and deserve
what they get
Pluralistic ignorance
Altruism and egoism
Social responsibility

Social-responsibility norm --> we should help those who need help, without regard
to future exchanges
Tied to attributions
Super Storm Sandy

Predictors of altruism

Three types of helping:

Obviously egoistic (helping only because youre expecting something in return)
Subtly egoistic (helping will make you feel better so you do it)
Genuine altruism is empathy-induced (the only intention is to increase somebody
elses welfare)
When will we help?
As the number of bystanders increases we are less likely to
Notice
Interpret the incident as problematic
informational influence; illusion of transparency

 imminent danger reduces the effect

Assume responsibility for taking action
Responsibility diffusion
Unless the bystanders are friends or share a group identity
When will we help?
Helping when someone else does
Prosocial model promote altruism
Elevation
Time pressures
Similarity
Who will help?
Personality Traits
Individual differences
Network of traits: positive emotionality, empathy and self-efficacy
Self-monitoring and perceived rewards
Gender
Men are more helpful in potentially dangerous situations
Women are slightly more helpful in safer situations
Women are more empathetic and spend more time helping
Religiosity predicts intentional, long-term altruism
Bystander effect

As the number of bystanders increases we are less likely to

Notice
Interpret the incident as problematic
informational influence; illusion of transparency
imminent danger reduces the effect
Assume responsibility for taking action
Responsibility diffusion
Unless the bystanders are friends or share a group identity
Predictors of friendship and attraction
Proximity
Physical attractiveness
Similarity
Liking those who like us
Relationship Rewards
Types of love and attachment
Companionate love
Passionate love

What is love?

 Sternbergs Love Triangle

Passion
Intimacy
Commitment
Passionate Love
Emotional, exciting, and intense
A biological and psychological phenomenon
What we feel when we are in love
Two-factor theory of emotion --> in a romantic context, arousal from any source, even
painful experiences, can be steered into passion
Adrenaline makes the heart grow fonder
Scary movies, roller coasters
Men fall in love more readily and fall out of love more slowly
Variations in Passionate Love
Passionate love fades
After 2 years of marriage: spouses express affection half as often
After 4 years: divorce rates peak worldwide
If a relationship endures, it settles into steadier (but warm) companionate love
Deep, affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are deeply
inter wined
Variations in Passionate Love
Passionate love fades
After 2 years of marriage: spouses express affection half as often
After 4 years: divorce rates peak worldwide
If a relationship endures, it settles into steadier (but warm) companionate love
Deep, affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are deeply
inter wined
Arranged vs. Love-based marriages
Those who marry for love report diminishing feelings of love after 5 years
Those in arranged marriages report more love after 5 years
If the relationship has been intimate, mutually rewarding, and rooted in a shared life
history, companionate love deepens
What enables close relationships? Attachment Styles
Secure attachment -> Rooted in trust and marked by intimacy
7 in 10 infants and adults
Secure adults dont worry about being too dependent or being abandoned.
Relationships tend to be satisfying and enduring
Trust sustains them through conflict
Positive
image of self and others

Attachment Styles
Avoidant attachment

 2 in 10 infants and adults

Avoid closeness; less invested in relationships
More likely to hook up
Attachment Styles
Insecure attachment -> Positive expectations of others but negative image of self
Less trusting possessive and jealous
May break up repeatedly with the same person
Emotional and often angry during times of conflict
Equity

What Enables close Relationships? Equity

Long-term equity
As people observe their partners being self-giving, their sense of trust grows
Perceived equity and satisfaction
Those in an equitable relationship are typically content
Perceived inequity leads to distress and depression (runs both ways)
Matching phenomenon

Tendency for men and women to choose as partners those who are a good match in
attractiveness and other traits
Other qualities can compensate for appearance (if someone is a great singer or rich can
makeup for someone being unfortunate looking. Happens more for men)

Physical attractiveness stereotype

we assume physically attractive people possess other socially desirable traits as well
(assume that a good looking person must also be a good person. Also when someone is less attractive
we assume the person is probably a bad person and not nice)

Contrast effect

pornography decreases satisfaction with ones partner

Attractiveness of those we love
Likable people become more attractive to us
Mere exposure

Tendency for novel stimuli to be liked more or rated more positively after repeated
exposure to them
Familiarity increases liking
Exposure without awareness especially significant
Reward theory

We like those whose behavior is rewarding to us or whom we associate with

rewarding events
Mutual attraction flourishes when each meets the others unmet needs
People everywhere feel attracted to those who are warm, trustworthy, and
responsive
Ingratiation

(self-serving interests) reduces liking (you have to genuinely like the person)
Characteristics of healthy marriages

Successful Marriage Correlates

Married after age 20 (and close in age)

Stable, two parent homes
Long courtship
Similarly high levels of education
Did not cohabitate and not pregnant before marriage (doesnt really include people who
already decided to get married and live together after engagement. Does include people who either live
together because of financial reasons or to figure out whether things will workout)

Successful Marriages
Positive interactions outnumber negative interactions by at least 5-to-1
86% of those who were unhappily married but stayed with the marriage were very or
quite happy 5 years later
Married adults are more likely than others to declare their lives very happy
Coping with a failing relationship

How do relationships end?

Divorce rates vary widely by country
Individualistic cultures have more divorce than do communal cultures (so people in
other cultures have lower divorce rates who marry for practical reasons other than love but when
you marry for love we are more understanding)

Alternatives to exiting a relationships

Loyalty
Waiting for conditions to improve
Neglect (more common among men)
Ignore the partner and allow the relationship to deteriorate
Voice concerns
Take active steps to improve relationship (communicate)