IRON MAKING COURSE NOTE

RAW MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES

The blast furnace raw materials are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Iron ore (lump ore/Coarse ore)

Sinter/pellets
Coke - Anything that promote volume also promote production
Limestone (flux)
Hot Blast air
BF Additives (O2 , steam, pulverised coal, hydrocarbon fuels)
Functions
Iron ore (lump ore/Coarse ore) is the source of iron bearing minerals.
Sinter- Source of iron + (flux)
Limestone Source of flux
Blast air source of O2 (O2 - 21% + N2 78%) used for combustion of coke at the
tuyeres.
Coke

i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)

The function of coke in the blast furnace is five fold namely,

Acts as fuel by providing for the thermal requirements in the furnace, the reaction being,
2C + O2 = 2CO
Provides permeability (in the dry as well as the the wet zone) and also mechanical
support to the large charge column;
Provides gases (CO) for reduction of iron oxides;
Reduction of oxides of metalloids such as, Mn, Si, P and others if present;
Carburises the iron (Combine with iron to form iron carbide) Fe + C = Fe 3C and lowers
its melting point.

Iron Ores
The iron bearing minerals containing iron compounds are;
Types of Iron Ore
Haematite
Magnetite
Limonite
Siderite
Pyrite

Chemical formula
Fe2O3
Fe3O4
2Fe2O3.3H2O
FeCO3
FeS2

%Fe in Pure State

70
72.4
60
48.3
46.6

Characteristics of Iron Ore

The essential characteristics of the iron ore are:
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)

Reducibility;
Size and size distribution;
Strength;
Temperature and range of softening;
Iron, moisture and gangue contents;
Swelling and volume change.

Reducibility is the easy at which the oxygen combined with ore can be removed
indirectly.
A higher reducibility means a greater extent of indirect reduction that may be obtained in
the blast furnace resulting in lower coke rate and higher productivity.
Size and Size Distribution
Ziscosteel iron ore size range;
8 to 32mm
Lower size range;
6 8mm
Upper size range should be 2 3 times the lower size range
Advantages of Narrow Size Distribution;
Increase charge permeability and uniform gas distribution resulting in better utilisation of
the chemical and thermal energies of the gases.
More even material distribution at the stock level and less material segregation in shaft
during descent

Strength
Ore should be able to resist the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Compression
Abrasion
Impact
Loss of strength to volume change in reducing atmosphere
Tumbler index > 70%
Abrasion
< 5%
Iron, moisture and gangue contents
Generally;
Rich Ores have 50 65%Fe (haematite, magnetite and limonite)
Lean Ores have 30 50% Fe (siderite and pyrite)
Zisco Ore
>
54% Fe
Moisture
<
1.0%
SiO2
<
8.0%
Al2O3
<
1.5%
Around 70% of Cripple Creek iron ore degenerate into fines on crushing due to the
friable nature of the limonitic ore.
The moisture content of the ores varies according to the conditions under which they are
mined, stored, transported and also according to season, humidity, and e.t.c.
Moisture increases the thermal load and therefore the fuel rate.
It adds to extra and useless transport charges, loading, and unloading difficulties, esp. in
the cold countries.
On the other hand, if it is deficient it can lead to handling difficulties due to dust
formation.
Swelling and Volume Change

Swelling and volume change occur when ore is reduced in a reducing

atmosphere at 800 1000OC
The consequent loss of strength and compaction under load decreases the
voidage and resist the flow of gases.

Softening temperature and softening temperature range

This is temperature at which the ores start to soften or melt and takes place
over a temperature range.
For ores the range may be wide, 700 1 350OC, and that for sinters and
pellets much narrower, 1000 1 350OC.
- The smaller the temperature range of softening i.e the shorter the vertical distance in
which the highly viscous semi-fused mass forms and exists, the better the gas flow and
higher the productivity.

Limestone
Size range 6 40mm
Chemical properties

CaO
MgO
SiO2 <
Al2O3

above 40%
11%
1.0%
=
0.3%

Coke
Coke is the universal fuel used in the blast furnace.
It acts both as a reductant as well as a supplier of heat.
It also comprises the major portion of iron production cost.
1.

Physical properties of coke

a) Coke size
Coke comprises about 50 60% of the volume of the charge material. The importance
of coke size is for providing permeability in the dry as well as the wet zone. In the dry
zone, the size should be compactable with the ore size and in the wet bosh zone the
coke size should be as large as possible to minimise flooding. The coke should be about
3 to 5 times larger than the ore.
b) Coke Strength
It is the quality cohesion that prevents the coke from collapsing and tends to avoid the
formation of small particles.
Coke strength should be high enough to resist breakage by impact, compression or
abrasion. Coke strength is determined by several coke making properties, viz., the
proper crushing and blending, adequate swelling and coking during carbonisation,
absence of strains and shrinkage cracks, e.t.c.

2.

Chemical properties of coke

(a)

Carbon content
Since coke is used as fuel and reduction, its calorific value and carbon content (>80%)
should be as high as possible.
Carbon content should not vary to a great extent, if it does, variable amounts of heat will
be generated in the furnace, which makes it difficult to control the quality of iron.

(b)

Moisture < 1%
Driving off the moisture needs additional heat, which has to be supplied by additional
coke or by increase in blast temperature. The additional heat requirement lowers the
productivity since there is high coke rate.
In order to have lower coke rate and uniform running of the furnace, the moisture
content of the coke should be minimum and constant.

(c)

Coke Ash

Main ash components are silica (SiO2) and alumina (Al2O3).

High ash content would mean there is need to add more limestone.
Calcinations of limestone requires heat and the melting of extra slag increases the coke
requirements.
Ash content should not exceed 10 15%
(c)

Sulphur
About 80 95% sulphur input into the B/F comes from coke
If a sulphur input is high, the removal is accomplished by higher slag basicity, higher
slag bulk (volume), higher temperature and desulphurisation out side the furnace.
All these would increase the cost of hot metal production.

(d)

Coke Reactivity
Coke reactivity is measured by the reaction rate of: C (coke) + CO 2 = 2CO at different
temperatures.
Coke should be of low reactivity.
In the B/F reactivity of coke increases by the action of alkali metals (K, Na) and they act
as catalysts.

(e)

Alkali Attack
Alkali metals increase the reactivity of coke and decrease its strength
Alkali attack weakens the cell walls and increases the susceptibility of coke breakdown
under load.
The degree of breakdown affects bed permeability in the B/F leading to hanging and
non-uniform operation.
Coke strength is severely affected at temperatures above 1000 oC because of weakness
in the matrix generated by preferential alkali attack according to:
2K + 2C + N2 = KCN (potassium cyanide)
Agglomerations
Fines are generated during mining and ore dressing operations and cannot be charged
directly into the B/F, it is necessary to agglomerate them into lumps by sintering or
pelletising process.
An importance pre-requisite of sinter or pellets is that there is adequate reducibility and
strength to withstand handling hazards and impact, abrasion and compression in the B/F
Types of Sinter

a)

Non Fluxed or Acid sinter

These are sinters where no flux is present (base- CaO) in the ore or is added during
sintering.

b)

Fluxed Sinter
These are sinters where flux has been added or is present in the ore.
Fluxed sinters are further classified/categorised into two sub-classes according to
basicity:

i)

Self Fluxed Sinters

Those where sufficient flux has been added in sinter mix to provide a basicity that is
desired in the final slag, taking into consideration only the burden acids.
An extra flux is added to the burden while charging to cater to coke ahs acids.
ii)

Super Fluxed Sinter

An additional flux (at Sinter Plant) is added to the mix to provide for the desired final
basicity, taking into account acid content of both i.e ore as well as the coke ash.
Fluxed sinters have better reducibility in comparison with acid sinters.
Desulphurisation takes place due to the present of CaO.
Energy saver during calcinations process e.g non-addition of CaO, i.e limestone.
Less than <10% is preferred.
Advantages of Sintering

1.
-

Acids sinters
Agglomeration of fines into hard, strong and irregular porous lumps which
gives good bed permeability (high void age)

2.

Elimination of 60-70% of all sulphur and arsenic (in present)

during sintering (CaO + Fe(s) + C

3.

Elimination of moisture hydrated water and volatiles on the sinter

strand with a cheap fuel. (2Fe2O3 = 3H2O, SiO2 Al2O3 = H2O)

4.

Increase in softening temperature and narrowing down the

softening range.
Fluxed Sinter

(a)

Calcinations of limestone inside the B/F is very expensive of

carbon Approx 60-70kg carbons per 100kg CO2 are served by transferring the
calcinations to sinter strand.

(b)

Since in cooperation with lime lowers the viscosity and liquidous

temp of the bonding slag, less coke (low temp) can be used of the same strength and
hence a high degree of oxidation and reducibility can be achieved

(c)

Lime increases the activity co-efficient of FeO in the silicate and

increase sinter reducibility.

(d)
(e)

Super flux serves much in more coke in the furnace

High blast furnace productivity, better than even with pellets idea
blast furnace material because of by far the best high temps gas permeability
Manganese will high in sinter because there are mostly find in fines
Low iron content in sinter

OUTLINE OF BLAST FURNACE PROCESS

-

Furnace reactions are divided into three zones based on temperatures.

The three zones may merge / overlap depending on the materials
distribution. The three zones which are temperature depended zones are:

(1)
(2)
(3)

The upper,preheating or preparation zone.

The middle, indirect reduction, thermal reserve or isothermal zone.
The lower, processing, melting, or direct reduction zone.

Reaction in the upper zone.

-

The burden is rapidly heated from ambient temperature to above 800 oC with a distance
of 4-6m from the stock level.
The gases coming from the middle zone cool down from a 900 oC to 100-200% as it
leaves the furnace top.
Main reactions, which occur in this zone, are (a) volatisation ambient to 300%

(b)

Chemically uncombined water entering the furnace with mostly ore, coke, and limestone
is driven off and consumes about 580 KCal/ kg H2O.
Water as steam can be deliberately is added to ore to lower the top gas, minimise dust
nuisance.
Average moisture content of coke and ore is about 5% and can be as high as 15% in
very moist ores.
Coke volatiles should be 1.5-2% in good quality of coke and also volatililize in this zone
without altering the top gas composition due to their small amounts.
Decomposition of Hydrates above 300OC
Hydrates consists of chemical combined water of crystallisation or dehydration e.g.
Fe2O3 3H2O,Al2O3 2SiO2 2H2O.
Decomposition of hydrates of iron oxides start at around 300% decomposition increases
with increase in temperature.
Decomposition of hydrates require about 965 kcal / kg of H 2O i.e the additional 385kcal /
kg of H2Ois used for breaking more bonds of hydration.
Physically combined H2O escapes unchanged as steam at lower temperature, but
hydrated water (released at above 300OC 400OC) may react with Co to produce CO 2
and H2 gas known as water gas (water gas shift reaction)
H2O +CO
CO2 +H2
Water- Gas shift reaction
CO2 +H2O
CO2 +H2 +9680 cal.

(c)

Water gas shift reaction

CO + H2O = CO2 + 9680 cal
It is possible to have this reaction in the upper furnace to a certain extent while the
reaction would be kinetically more favourable in the middle zone where temperature
ranges between 800 100 oC.
The reaction influenced by catalysts and fleshly reduced iron posses catalysing
properties.

(d)

Reduction of Iron Oxides

Haematite

3Fe2O3 +CO = 2Fe3o4+CO2 + 10.33 KCal

Magnetite

Fe3 O4 +CO = 3FeO +CO2 8.75 KCal

Wustite

FeO +CO = Fe +CO2 + 3.99 KCal

All the three are exothermic reactions (releases heat)

-

They are referred as indirect reduction reactions.

The extent of actual reduction depends on the size and nature of the ore and intensity of
gas flow in the radial cross section of the zone.
If ore is large and non porous, i.e. results in outer shell being reduced to FeO (wustite)
while the inner core still containing Fe2O3

Reduction of Fe2O3 and magnetite (Fe3O4) to FeO is not complete in this zone.
Fe3O4 is reduced to FeO mainly at 700-900OC.

(e)

Carbon Deposition
2CO = CO2 +C it happens at low temperature and in the reverse of the solution loss
reaction (C+CO2
2CO

The reaction occurs in narrow temperature range 450-600%, presence of free iron (Fe)
and its oxide catalyses the reaction.
FeO +CO
reaction.

Fe +CO2 = Slag formation carbon decomposition indirect

Advantages of Carbon decomposition

i)
ii)
iii)

Decomposition of carbon on the ore surface minimise sticking of the ores and enhances
permeability
Economics fuel consumption since the reaction is exothermic.
The deposited carbon can descend along with the burden and replace equivalent
amount of coke there by economise fuel consumption.
Disadvantages of carbon decomposition

Deposited carbon reacts with ore to liberated CO, which causes bursting of the ore
lumps there by decreasing the mechanical strength of the ore. Fe2O3+C FeO +c.
This therefore affects gas distribution and permeability.
Causes formation of bridges and accretions.
Carbon react directly with ore C+FeO
Fe +CO
Deposition of carbonates

Carbonates of Fe, Mn, Mg, Ca Mg (dolomite) except calcium carbonates (CaCO3)

CaCO3 decomposes of much higher temperature of around 900-1000OC.
All the carbonates decomposition reactions are endothermic reactions (require heat).
Reaction in Middle zone / Indirect reaction
Temperature range, (800-1000OC).

Extends from upper zone ( 4-6m) below the stack level down to 3-5m above the tuyere
level.
Occupies 50-60% of shaft height i.e about 75% of shaft volume.
The temperature range 800-1000OC is very suitable for indirect reduction of FeO.
A Main reaction, which happens in this zone, is (i) indirect reduction reaction.
Fe2O3+CO
=
Fe3O4 +CO2
Fe3O4+CO
=
FeO +CO2
FeO+CO
=
Fe +CO2
Indirect reduction of all oxides takes place below 1000OC and that of Wustite (FeO) at
800-1000OC.
The larger the height of 800-1000 OC temperatures zones the longer the gas / solid
contact times at these temperatures the greater the degree of indirect reduction.
The higher the reducibility of the ore the more rapid the reduction.

Methods of improving indirect reduction.

An increase in indirect reduction can be achieved by:

(a)
(b)

Increased reducibility of ores

Extension and enlargement of the middle zone by use of less reactive coke (solution
loss).
Longer / gas ore contact time through the use of high top gas pressure (gas residence
time to be increased)
Use of hydrogen bearers (tar, steam)
Presence of limestone in the burden charge shortens the middle zone (endothermic
calcinations reaction), which starts to occur at 9000c.

(c)
(d)

(ii)

Carburetion of iron

(a)

2CO=CO2+C
3Fe+C =Fe3C

(b)

3FeO+5CO=Fe3C+4CO2

(iii)

Water Gas shift reaction

(a)

CO +H2O = CO2 +H2

(b)

C+H2O = CO+H2 at high temps

Reactions in the lower zones

Temp above 900-1000OC

Extends from 3-5m above the tuyere level to the hearth bottom.
Temperature of molten materials reaches 1400-1450 OC and the gas cools down to 8001000OC.
Burning of coke in front of the tuyere create an empty space around the hearth periphery
combustion zone of depth 1-2m.
Gauge in admixture with the flux starts to fuse in the belly region.
Important chemical reactions occurring in this zone are:

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)
(ix)

Endothermic calcinations of limestone CaCO3 = CaO +CO2

Endothermic direct reduction of FeO: FeO +C = Fe +CO
Endothermic direct reduction of SiO2: SiO2 +2C = Si +2CO
Endothermic direct reduction of MnO: MnO +C = Mn +CO
Endothermic direct reduction of P2O5: P2O5 +5C = 2P +5CO
Endothermic sulphur (s) removal: FeS +CaO +C = CaS +Fe +CO
Exothermic combustion of carbon: C+O2 = CO2+N2+heat
Endothermic reduction of CO2 solution loss: CO2 +C =2CO)>1000OC)
Endothermic reduction of moisture in blast: C+H2O = CO+H2 (>1000OC)
The final temperature of iron is about 1350-1450OC and that of slag is about 50-100 OC
higher.

CO2 +C
(j)

Carbon deposition

2co
2CO =

CO2+C

Combustion Zone
- Flame temperature = 1800-2000OC
This is a zone in front of tuyere where coke is burns in air producing heat + gases + ash.

The burning of coke in front of a tuyere is called race way zone.

Race way / hearth annulus or active perimeter.
The actual active ring area of 1-2m depth around the hearth periphery.
The size and shape i.e the depth of the raceway and width between neighbouring
tuyeres, which determines the race way area, are of great importance for : Furnace
productivity and the thermal state of the hearth.
Reaction of the Combustion Zone

(i)
(ii)

C +O2
CO2 +C

CO2 + heat 94450 calories (1.2m)

CO Heat 41000 cal

During the 1st reaction of O2 of the blast react with coke to initial form CO2 .
This zone is referred as oxidising zone because any metal or slag iron including metal
oxides falling in this zone are re-oxide to varying degrees.
2Nd Reaction
In this zone CO2 being unstable immediately reacts with carbon (coke) to produce CO.
The reaction where CO2 +C is called reducing zone.
It is here that a considerable reduction of slag and metal oxides.
Cohesive zone is the zone where iron and slag fusing.
Factors affecting raceway zone:
Factors affecting the size and shape of the raceway:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)

Blast parameters: volume, velocity, pressure and temperatures.

Diameter, length and shape of the tuyere.
Inter tuyere spacing is the number of tuyeres around the hearth periphery.
Coke size narrow size range.
Blast modification blast additives i.e tar, natural gas, steam, O2 enrichment, pulverised
coal, fuel oil, coke ovens gas.
Nature of stock movement.
Furnace Irregularities
Furnace production is beset with numerous difficulties and irregularities, a successful
counter- action of which only can give rise to smooth operation and high production is
therefore required.
The interference of smooth operation i.e smooth counter flow of solids, liquids and gases
occurs due to abnormalities in the physical character of the burden materials which
themselves may arise on chemical grounds. The usual difficulties, and counter measure
generally adopted are detailed below.
Hanging
This is a condition that takes place in the furnace when descending material meets with
resistance in its downward flow or the gas in its upward flow.
This arises from the following causes:

1)
2)
3)

Obstruction to burden decent due to presence of scaffolds, scabs and sticky bosh slag.
Increased gas support due to fines.
Blocking of drain holes in the bosh due to highly viscous or resolidified slag or frozen
iron.

A.

Scabs and Scaffolds

Formation of scabs, scaffolds, bridges arches and the like on the walls offer physical
resistance and obstruction to material downward movement. By virtue of reducing the
passage size material descent is slowed down or even brought to a Holt. As a result
gaps between suspended material that is moving down form, which when they collapse
lead to chilling of the hearth and damage to the refractory lining, flat coolers and even
the tuyeres.
When the scaffolds / scabs come away, the sudden descent of material is called bosh
slip.

B.

Peripheral Overloading
Excessive presence of ore fines in the periphery of the furnace lowers its permeability.
The furnace works hard, stock descent becomes erratic, and the blast volume
backpressure rises rapidly. In extreme cases the furnace hangs as a result. Solution to
this is usually altering the B/C ratio, charging sequences and removal of fines (coke /
ore) by use of screens.

C.

Hot Hanging
This comes about as a result of an increase in flame temperature i.e in front of the
tuyeres and causes the burden in the furnace to descent irregularly due to cause the
furnace to hang.
Solution to hanging due to above is usually:

i)
ii)
iii)

Reduction of flame temperature by steam injection.

By lowering the hot blast temperature.
Use of low carbon containing coke.

D.

Cold Hanging
Cold hanging is due to limey slags, which due to their poor flow properties block the
coke pores in the bosh. Poor slag flow can be due to low bosh and hearth temperatures
which may arise from:

i)
ii)
iii)

Leaking flat coolers or tuyeres.

Sudden decrease in the coke carbon content.
Sudden increase in team injection.
Solution:

i)
ii)
iii)

Replacement of leaking flat coolers.

Charge a light burden i.e burden with a low burden to coke ratio.
Increase the blast temperatures and temporarily reduce the blast volume.
Please Note:
A decrease in indirect reduction can also cause cold hanging. The endothermic heat
requirement of the increased direct reduction of wastage (FeO )may result in freezing of
iron in the voids, thus hindering gas through flow. Freezing of the iron if it occurs on the
walls would resemble scabs.

10

Solution
i)
ii)

Increasing blast temperatures, and

Coke /Ore/ ratio of charge temporarily and improving gas distribution through charging
control.
SLIPS
A slip is a sudden rapid descent of the stock column in the furnace resembling a
collapse
Their occurrence is due to:

i)
iv)

Hanging in the upper furnace as a result of which material below continues to descent,
and smelted while material above remains suspended.
Formation of arches inside the furnace.
When the suspended material collapses as a result of its own weight, a slip is said to
have occurred.
Hanging and subsequent slipping may be treated to:

a)

Condensation of oxidised alkali metal and zinc vapours in the upper shaft and formation
of hard impervious mass protruding inwards.

b)

Hindrance of counter flow of solids and gases due to carbon deposition or landing of
powdery coke or ore fines in the interstices of the lumpy material.

c)

Resolidification of previously fused slags due to operational variations.

d)

Slips may result from differential rates of stock descent as a result of channelling. More
compact areas descent slower than the less compact ones, leading to void formation.
They lead to an increase in the top gas temperature and pressure as well as dust
emission. Gas CO and CO2 contents may show a decrease due to dilution by nitrogen
released suddenly from the cavities.
The evolution of gas at very high pressures 6-12 atmospheres during a slip may cause
loosening of material.
The explosive reaction during a slip probably occurs between from oxide (ore) with the
carbon dust deposited inside, when the material suddenly moves into a high
temperature region.
Effects of Slips

i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)

Disruption of uniform stock descent

Deterioration of uniform gas distribution.
Increase of coke rate.
Gives rise to inconsistent metal quality.
Decreases production.
Affect the thermal state of the hearth.
The emission of dust containing a lot of coke and the collapse of thermally unprepared
and unreduced ore into the lower furnace results in furnace irregularities like chilled
hearth and variations in iron quality.
Scaffolds

11

Scaffolds are accretions of materials, which build up on the furnace wall and project
towards the furnace centre.
A bridge forms right across the furnace horizontal cross section restricting stock descent
and gas ascent.
This build up occurs from the bosh to the upper part of the stack. Generally the term
scaffold refers to build up in the low temperature regions where liquid phases do not
normally occur i.e in the middle and upper shafts.
The reduction in cross sectional area at the place of scaffold formation leads to
disruption of stock decent and to an increase d gas movement in unaffected regions. As
a result
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)

High top gas temperatures right up to the uptakes are experienced.

Top gas CO2 level drops
Gas utilisation drops
Indirect reduction of the ore is reduced
Coke rate and gas velocity increase.
Causes of Scaffolds
They are formed as a result of deposition of compounds of volatile alkali metals (Na K),
lead zinc tin, low and wide softening range ores, fine sinters, carbon deposition, bad
furnace operation and non uniform cooling with flat coolers.
Control of Scaffold Formation

i)
ii)

Control of input materials (quality control choosing ore containing less alkalis lead zinc
and tin).
Improving exit of the scaffolding forming agents.
Manifestations of Scaffolds

i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)

Sudden increase in flue dust emission (100, 200%) or even more.

High top gas pressures
Low gas temperatures above scaffold with low inwall temperatures in the regions of the
scaffolding.
High CO/CO2 ratio in the top gas
Non uniform burden descent i.e hanging and slipping.
Method of Control

i)

iii)
iv)
v)
vi)
vii)
viii)
ix)

Decrease alkali levels in the 800-1000OC zone by increasing their exit in the slag (i.e by
lowering CaO / SiO2 ratio. NB:
basicity cannot be lowered below a certain limit for
optimum desulphurisation unless external desulphurisation is practised.
ii)
Control of flame temperature low flame temperature reduces alkali build up and
facilitates their removal via slag. (Coke rate goes up).
Lowering zinc input through use of higher sinter levels in the burden.
Steep boshes to prevent any build up formation.
Use of compact bricks capable of resisting alkali, and CO seepage. (High Al 2O3 bricks
fired at high temperatures less prone.
Substantial wall working to discourage formation- this can be achieved via stock line
control V or M types increased tuyere diameter to reduce blast penetration and
encourage peripheral gas flow.
Using raw materials with small softening range.
Screening of all charged materials.
Suitable blending to eliminate alkali levels.

12

CHANNELLING
1.0

Channelling
Ovens when gas moving up the stack flows unevenly due to varied properties. In a
mixed bed of sizes of materials, the bed permeability decreases as the proportions of
small particles or fines decreases. As a result of differential gas flow in the bed, uneven
gas distribution of differential gas velocities occurs.
In areas where the gas velocity is high, fluidisations may start, smaller particles lifted up
and the gas will; rush into those regions, which become more and more unstable until
the majority of the particles are suspension. The suspended layer may extend to
considerable depths.
Suspension of particles is the beginning of channelling and gas starts to show an active
influence on the structure of the burden in the affected areas. In characteristic cases,
channelling is directly related to aero dynamic transfer of particles.
Indications Of Channelling

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)

Sharp rise on peripheral gas temperatures near the channel.

Sharp fall on CO2 content of the top gas.
Rise and closer approach of the top gas temperature
High flue dust losses.
Collapse of one or both of the stock line indications into the suspended layer
Severe erratic gas pressure pulsation during lowering of the big bell.
Drop on blast pressure (when channels are large).
Large blast volumes entering the tuyeres close to the channels.
Channelling Control

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

Manipulation of charging techniques e.g. CCCC/OOO,CCOO/CCOO,OOOO/CCCO to

encourage or discourage peripheral gas flow.
Reduction in blast pressure by e.g. checking the furnace to cause artificial descent of
materials.
Lowering the blast temperature to main driving rates constant.
Increasing steam injection to maintain stock descent constant.
Hanging
Is a condition that takes place in the furnace when descending material meets with
resistance in its downward flow or the gas in its upward flow?
This arises from the following causes:

(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

Obstruction to burden decent due to presence of scaffolds, scabs and sticky Bosch slag.
Increased gas support due to fines.
Blocking of drain holes on the coke layers.
Blocking of gas passage in the bosh due to highly viscous and resolidified slag or frozen
iron.

A.

SCABS AND SCAFFOLDS

Formation of scabs and scaffolds, bridges, arches and the like on the walls offer physical
resistance and obstruction to material downward movement. By virtue of reducing the
passage size material descent is slowed down or even brought to a Holt. As a result gaps
between suspended material that is moving down from, which when they collapse led to
chilling of the hearth and damage to the refractory lining, flat coolers and even the tuyeres.

13

When the scaffolds/scabs come away, the sudden descent of the material is called bosh
slip.
B.
-

C.
-

Peripheral Overloading
Excessive presence of ore fines in the periphery of the furnace lowers its permeability. The
furnace works hard, stock descent becomes erratic, and the blast volume backpressure
rises rapidly. In extreme cases the furnace hangs as a result. Solution to this is usually
altering the B/C ratio, charging sequences and removal of fines (coke/ore) by use of
screens.
Hot Hanging
This comes as a result of an increase in flame temperature i.e in front of the tuyeres and
cause the burden in the furnace to descent irregularly and to cause the furnace to hang.
Solution to hanging due to above is usually:

i)
ii)
iii)

Reduction of flame temperature by steam injection.

By lowering the hot blast temperature.
Use of low carbon containing coke.

D.

Cold Hanging
Cold hanging is due to limey slags, which due to their poor flow properties block the
coke pores in the bosh. Poor slag flow can be due to low bosh and hearth temperatures
which may arise from:

i)
ii)
ii)

Leaking flat coolers or tuyeres.

Sudden decrease in the coke carbon content.
Sudden increase in steam injection.
Solution

i)
ii)
iii)

Replacement of leaking flatcoolers or tuyere.

Charge a light burden i.e a burden with a low burden to coke ratio.
Increase the blast temperature and temporarily reduce the blast volume.

Please Note
A decrease in indirect reduction can also cause cold hanging. The endothermic heat
requirement of the increased direct reduction of vustite (FeO) may result in freezing of
iron in the voids, thus hindering gas throughflow. Freezing of the iron if it occurs on the
walls would resemble scabs.
Solution
i)
ii)

Increase blast temperature, and

Coke/ore ratio of charge temporarily and improving gas distribution through charging
control.
SCAFFOLDS
Scaffolds are accretions of materials, which build up on the furnace wall and project
towards the furnace centre. A bridge forms right across the furnace horizontal crosssection restricting stock descent and gas ascent. This build up occurs from the bosh to

14

the upper part of the stack. Generally the term scaffold refers to build-up in the low
temperature regions where liquid phases do not normally occur i.e in the middle and
upper shafts.
The reduction in cross-sectional area at the place of scaffold formation leads to
disruption of stock descent and to an increased gas movement in the unaffected
regions. As a result
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)

High top gas temperatures right up to the uptakes are experienced.

Top gas CO2 level drops.
Gas utilisation drops.
Indirect reduction of the ore is reduced.
And coke rate and gas velocity increase.
Causes of Scaffolds
They are formed as a result of deposition of compounds of volatile alkali metals (Na K),
lead zinc tin, low and wide softening range ores, finesinters, carbon deposition, bad
furnace operation and non uniform cooling with flat coolers.
Control of Scaffold Formation

i)
ii)

Control of input materials (quality control choosing ore containing less alkalis lead zinc
and tin).
Improving exit of the scaffolding forming agents.
Manifestations of Scaffolds

i)
Sudden increase in flue dust emission (100, 200%) or even more.
ii)
High top gas temperatures.
iii)
Low temperatures above scaffold with low in wall temperatures in the regions of the
scaffolding.
iv)
High CO/CO2 ratio in the top gas.
v)
Non uniform burden descent i.e hanging and slipping.
Methods of Control
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)
vii)
viii)
ix)

Decrease alkali levels in the 800 100OC zone by increasing their exit in the slag (i.e by
lowering CaO/SiO2 ratio N.B: basicity cannot be lowered below a certain limit for
optimum desulphurisation unless external desulphurisation is practiced.
Control of flame temperature low flame temperature reduces alkali build up and
facilitates their removal via slag. (Coke rate goes up).
Lowering zinc input through use of higher sinter levels in the burden.
Steep boshes to prevent any build up formation).
Use of compact bricks capable of resisting alkali, and CO seepage.
(High A12 O3 bricks fired at high temperature less prone)
Substantial wall working to discourage formation this can be achieved via stocking
control V or M types increased tuyere diameter to reduce blast penetration and
encourage peripheral gas flow.
Using raw materials with a small softening range.
Screening of all charged materials.
Suitable blending to minimise alkali levels.
SLIPS
A slip is a sudden rapid descend of the stock column in the furnace, resembling a
collapse.

15

Their occurrence is due to:

i)
ii)

Hanging in the upper furnace as a result of which material above remains suspended.
Formation of arches inside the furnace.
When the suspended materials collapse as a result of its own weight a slip is said to
have occurred.
Hanging and subsequent slipping may be traced to:

a)
b)
c)
d)

Condensation of oxidised alkali metal and zinc vapours in the upper shaft and formation
of hard impervious mass protruding inwards.
Hindrance of counter flow of solids and gases due to carbon deposition or landing of
powdery coke or ore fines in the interstices of the lumpy material.
Resolidification of previously fused slags due to operational variations.
Slips may result from differential rates of stock descent as a result of channelling
More compact areas decent slower than the less compact ones, leading to void
formation. They lead to an increase in the top gas temperature and pressure as well as
dust emission. Gas CO and CO2 contents may show a decrease due to dilution by
nitrogen released suddenly from the cavities. The evolution of gas at very high
pressures 6-12 atmospheres during a slip may cause loosening of material. The
explosive reaction during a slip probably occurs between iron oxide (ore) with the carbon
dust deposited inside, when the material suddenly moves into a high temperature
region.
Effects of Slips

i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)

Distribution of uniform stock descent.

Distribution of uniform gas distribution.
Increase of coke rate.
Gives rise to inconsistent metal quality.
Decrease production.
Affect the thermal state of the hearth.
The emission of dust containing a lot of coke and the collapse of thermally unprepared
and unreduced ore into the lower furnace results in furnace irregularities like chilled
hearth and variations in iron quality.
CHOKING OF HEARTH
This is defined as disturbance of furnace working a s a result of liquid drainage
interference through the coke grid into the hearth and build of frozen solids on the hearth
walls.
Causes of Choking

i)
ii)

iii)
iv)
v)

High blast rates that interfere with liquid drainage leading to flooding conditions.
Limey slags, which have a high melting point. (These tend to freeze when the operating
temperatures are below their liquidus temperature i.e the temperature at which liquid
is in equilibrium with solid such that a minute drop in temperature is followed by
precipitation of solid particles in the liquid).
Use of low strength coke, which breaks down during descent altering permeability via
the bed.
Use of limey sinters same reason as (ii).
And due to accumulation of graphite during production of high silicon iron.

16

Stock descent is sluggish and slag appears in the tuyeres soon after tapping. Iron carry
over in the slag is predominant and loss of tuyeres and slag notches becomes
exaggerated.
Due to deposition of solids on the hearth walls, the hearth volume dwindles and the level
of liquids rises quickly after tapping.
Control of Choking
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)

Improve mechanical strength of coke breakdown of coke is the most important cause
of choking and burning of tuyeres.
If breakdown of coke is due to alkali attack, lower the alkali input if possible and
operates at low flame temperatures and operates at low flame temperatures and use
lean slags
Lower hot blast temperature in order to increase coke/ore ratio.
Control burden distribution to achieve high sinter levels at the periphery e .g SS CCC /
charge.
Make low Si iron to reduce graphite separation.
Use fluid bosh and hearth slags.
TERMS TO REMEMBER
Direct reduction

The use of coke (C) as reductant (endothermic reduction requires heat).

Indirect reduction

The use of gas (CO) (& H2 Gas) as a reductant. Exothermic reduction releases heat).
Exothermic on the lower zone takes place at the tuyere zone where O 2 in the blast air
reacts with carbon (C) in coke during burning.
Two ways of Reducing Tuyere Diameter are:

i)
ii)

Claying and holing

Reducers
Tuyere spacing should facilitate a tuyere raceway zone. Inter tuyere spacing should be
generally 1.45m to 1.55m
O2 addition facilitates high flame to usually accompanied by steam injection.
BF SLAG

Slag Homogeneous melt consisting of oxides of Si, Mg, Al, Ca, Fe etc
The MAJOR FLUXS IN THE bf is limestone the other is lime in sinter (CaO).
Flux - a material added to the BF to:

i)
ii)

Lower the melting point of impurities (i.e SiO2, Al2O3, etc).

To form a medium through which the impurities can be removed.

Carburisation the melting point for Fe from 1537OC TO 1260OC.

Major sources of silica are iron ore (70 80%) and coke slag is calcium silicate (CaSi).
Salt lowers the melting point of the hot metal (iron) in ladles.

***

Major constituency of slag are CaO, MgO, SiO and Al 2O3, all these constitute about
955 of slag.

17

Others are Fe, Ca, and MnO. Alkali oxides are K2O, NaO e.t.c.
1.

Basic oxides

CaO, MgO, alkali oxides (K2O, NaO), FeO and MnO

NB:

Any oxides that donate O2 is a basic oxide

2.
-

Acidic oxides
SiO2 and Al2O3
Any oxide that accepts O2 is an Acidic oxide.
SLAG BASICITY

Is the ratio of Basic Oxides to Acidic Oxides.

High basicity caters for Sulphur during desulphurisation in hot metal to slag
Types of Basicity

1.

B1 CaO/SiO2

2.

B3 CaO + MgO
SiO2

3.

(ores without Alumina)

B4 CaO + MgO
SiO2 + Al2O3 (ores with Alumina)
Slag Viscosity

(a)
(b)

The easy with which slag flows

Low viscosity higher and fluidity (melting point)
High viscosity low fluidity
Slag Liquid Temperature

Temperature at which slag melts to liquid form. Temperature above slag

exists in liquid form/state
Slag temperature 50 100oC above hot metal temperature e.g. HMT 1400oC
therefore Slag temperature should be 1450 1500oC.
CRITIC HEARTH TEMPERATURE
The minimum hearth temperature necessary for free running of slag is about 15001550oC in order to provide some superheat in the hearth and ensure that both slag and
iron are in liquid state under all operating conditions.
Desulphurisation takes place when iron/hot metal passes through slag and the
reactions; sulphur is released by hot metal and collected by slag.
Stages of Slag Formation

1.

Primary slag FeO, SiO2, Al2O3, MgO (lower stark and belly zone)

2.

Bosh slag MgO, SiO2, Al2O3 (bosh zone)

18

3.

Hearth or final slag CaO, MgO, Al2O3, SiO2 (tuyere zone to hearth zone)

1.

Primary slag

Is the slag that is formed when the burden starts to soften, with the partially
reduced oxide (FeO) combining with the gangue, (i.e Al2O3, SiO2) at temperature
above 1200oC?
FeO is the only constituency being reduced during slag formation (low
viscosity)
Primary slag constitute high FeO (content) % and has high melting point.
CaO substitute FeO to react with Si to form CaSi and give out CO2.
2.
-

Bosh slag
Formed when a primary slag descents to higher temperature, with the FeO
rapidly reduced by carbon as well as carbon monoxide (CO) and continually absorbs
CaO changing to CaO, Al2O3, SiO2 with some minor impurities accompanying.
The SiO2 in the slag is mainly from iron ore minus the ash silica produced in the
combustion zone. The basicity will be high i.e
CaO
SiO2 +SiO2
The removal of FeO then we improve our viscosity.
Ca has high affinities for silica so slag needs or absorbs much silica than liquid hot
metal.
Importance of Bosh slag

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
N.B:

The properties of bosh slag are of utmost important for furnace productivity and metal
quality.
The most important properties are:
High fluidity it ensures free movement of the bosh slag through the coke grid
Narrow fusion range it lower the pressure drop in the lower furnace (e.g.
150kpa 40 kpa = 110 kpa (high kpa drop), 150kpa 80 kpa = 70 kpa (lower pressure
drop).
High fusion/melting for adequate preheating before entry of the smelting
products
into hearth (high residence time of slag in the bosh).
High basicity: for lower Si and S iron, addition of MgO to thin any excessively limey sag.
Items (2 4) above permit the use of highest blast temperatures without
affecting the
metal silicon or smooth furnace operation.
Bosh slags are more basic than final slag because more acids from coke ash are
absorbed at the tuyere and below.
FINAL SLAG OR HEARTH (Temp 1450 1500OC)

Hearth slag is the formed on dissolution (dissolving into) of lime which was not
incorporated in the bosh and absorption of the coke ash released during combustion.
This slag run along with the molten iron into the hearth, accumulates there, and forms a
pool with the molten metal underneath.
During the passage of the iron droplets through the slag layer, the slag reacts with the
hot metal and a transference of mainly Si, Mn and sulphur occurs from or to hot metal.
The nature composition and bulk of the hearth slag ultimately controls the composition of
the pig iron and productivity of the blast furnace.
Note: if it is

(a)
(a)

Lean slag more Si, Mn and S reports in HMT.

Lime (CaO) less Si, Mn and S reports in HMT

19

(b)

Too much slag- less coke burnt and less productivity

Sulphur is the biggest enemy in hot metal production, causes fractures or breaking of
our product and cost.
The most important purpose of Slag Control is the control of sulphur since it is the key
to iron quality.
It is uneconomical to produce a low P, low Si and high sulphur iron.
Si (silica) - cause graphite in iron or promote graphitisation but easy to shape.
Lean slag are short no change to chemical composition.
Lime slags are long due to change in temperature and chemical composition.

The Purpose of Criteria of Good B/F Slag

A proper/good slag should perform a variety of function for maximum efficiency both in
fuel as well as furnace performance, it should determine, control or posses the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Metal temperature
Metal quality i.e C, Si, Mn, S and FeO content of iron
Homogeneity, absence of crystalline phase i.e the melt should not undergo variation in
its physical properties.
Tolerance of fluctuations in the temperature and physical and chemical operating
conditions, the slag should cushion such shocks without materially affecting its
properties and furnace performance (lime or long slags).

***

Minor change of composition, temperature, and physical properties affects the

quality of hot metal (short slag or lean slags). These are glass like and gummy.

5.

Sulphur retention potential i.e high sulphur in slag and hot metal, if the ratio is high
means more S in slag and less in hot metal.
Low viscosity- high fluidity i.e the slag should be able to run out of the furnace freely
and rapidly at the operating temperature, as the critical hearth temperature, which
enables the slag to flow, affects the coke rate the furnace running characteristics of the
slag will affect fuel economical consumption.
Free movement of the stock and furnace gases are determined by the physical
properties and zone melt of fusion of primary and bosh slags which greatly affects the
productivity of the furnace and the quality of the products (i.e HTM and slag quality).
Alkalis slag should have high alkali removal capacity (Na, K)
Slag volume should be as low as is compatible with other criteria as used above.
Suitability in for use in manufacture of cement and for road use during
maintenances.

6.

7.
8.
9.
10.

Furnace Desulphurisation in Blast

-

Is the removal of high sulphur in the raw materials and hot metals into slag? Major
source of sulphur is 80-90% being coke.
Sulphur is carried into the furnace by burden materials i.e coke, ore and flux.
Coke is the major source of sulphur.
Sulphur in coke ash exists in form of FeS (pyrites), CaS and Organic S (0.6-1.5%).
Sulphur accompanying coke may range from 4-10kg/thm, with a modern coke rate of
700kg/thm.
Sulphur in ore is present as FeS (range from 0.05-0.10%).
Sulphur in fluxes exists as sulphite or sulphate.
The slag removes most of the sulphur in the furnace.
Slag may carry as much as 80-90% of total sulphur.
Flue dust and top gas removes about 10-15% of total sulphur.
Sulphur entering the iron is 2-5% (e.g. having added 10kgs into the furnace)

20

Typical BF Sulphur Balance

Sulphur Input
Sulphur Output
Material
Kg
%
Kg
%
Coke (1%S) 600kg/thm
6-0
80
Charge material
1.5
20
(Ore, flux)
Iron 0.03%S
0.3
4
Flue dust and gas
0.37
5
Slag
6.82
91
Sulphur removal much of it occurs when hot metal passes through the slag in the hearth.
-

During the decent of the stock, the sulphur in the charged materials is absorbed in the
shaft, molten iron and slag and the final transfer of sulphur from the metal to slag occurs
in the hearth.
Coke starts giving off its sulphur in the shaft (5-20%), aided by an increase in H2 content
of the stack gas and decreasing size of the coke.
Bulk of sulphur in the coke transfer by chemical reactions during combustion of coke in
front of the tuyere.

Note: lean slag has a high alkali retention capacity because CaO is less in lean slag than the
alkalis (e.g. KO, Na2O), replaces CaO and reacts in Sulphur, silica, and e.t.c. Part of
Sulphur goes to hot metal since desulphurisation has been compromised.
CHEMESTRY OF SULPHUR REACTIONS
NOTE:
Sulphur in iron denoted as - [S]
Sulphur in slag denoted as (S)
1.

Sulphur enters into the metal through

Metal sulphide (pyrite) (FeS) + Fe = [FeS]

2.

FeS + 10 Fe2O3 = 7 Fe3O4 +SO2

SO2 + 2C + S2 + 2CO
[Fe] + S2 (g) = [FeS]

3.

CaSO4 + [Fe] + 3C [FeS] + CaO + 3CO

4.

CaSO4 + $c = CaS + 4 CO
CaS + FeO = CaO + [FeS]

5.

CaS + SiO (g) = SiS (g) + CaO

SiS (g) + 2[FeS] = [Fe Si] + [FeS]

6.

Desulphurisation by lime CaO

[FeS] +[CaO](s) C = CaS + CO +[Fe]
2[Fe]

2[FeS] + 2 CaO(g) + [Si] = 2 CaS +SiO2 +

Desulphurisation in the Shaft/ Sulphur Reactions in the Shaft

21

The sulphur movement in the shaft compromises of liberation of sulphur from the coke
and its absorption by the burden components from the gases.
As slag and iron comes down there is a pick in sulphur content but in slag continue to
rise while dropping in hot metal.
50-70% sulphur of the coke enters the gas phase before the tuyere due to combustion
of coke.
Sulphur is liberated by the coke and is absorbed by the burden components.
Sulphur is ascending tuyere gas is absorbed by the descending burden and reduced
iron.
Sulphur in both slag and hot metal rises continuously up to the tuyere level.
In front of the tuyere level there is a slight drop of iron sulphide (FeS and is found in hot
metal), thereafter the FeS drops greatly in the hearth up to the iron notch.
The sulphur in slag rise only a little in the tuyere zone thereafter there is rapid of
increase/rise of sulphur in the slag.
Diagrams

FeO should not be more on slag because needs more heat to keep slag temp high and
at high fluidity and low viscous. Thus we need less than 10% FeO in sinter requires high
temp/ heat hence high coke rate.
FeO + C should complete in mid zone
SULPHUR REACTION IN THE BOSH
-

For efficient desulphurisation in the bosh slag should be fluid, high basic (high basicity)
and low FeO (i.e. reducing slag)

The high the S in the bosh slag the lower will be the load on the hearth slag for the final
desulphurisation of iron.

If the bosh slag is (high) viscous, it may be made fluid by increasing the manganese
(Mn) input. (Help desulphurisation Mn)

If a low manganese iron is sort for the slag should be made (thin) fluid by the use of
MgO (found in limestone).

NB:

Final metal S depends upon the extent of exchange of S between the iron droplets and
the hearth slag during the passage of the iron droplets through the hearth slag. (High
basicity/ excess CaO)
FACTORS DETERMINE THE RATE OF DESULPHURISATION

1.

Sulphur reaction rate of the slag depends on

(i)
(ii)
(iii)

Basicity of temp of slag

Slag bulk (volume should be low to allow desulphurisation)
Contact surface time

2.

Reaction surface between the slag and metal.

3.

Contact time the greater the thickness of the slag layer through which the iron droplets
pass the greater the contact time, the greater the desulphurisation.

22

4.

Slag compositions slag basicity should be high in CaO (lime) but lower in FeO content.

5.

Slag bulk, slag basicity and sulphur load-low.

6.

Slag and metal viscosities if too high affects desulphurisation because of surface area
and temp to allow iron to pass through slag hence improve desulphurisation.

7.

Metal composition Si, Mn, P, C if too high sulphur becomes low, if Sulphur is too high
Si, Mn, P and C becomes low i.e. Mn + S = MnS

SUMMARY
The control of sulphur in iron is based on the following
1.

An extensive pre-reduction of ore before it reaches the bosh; it ensures a hotter bosh
(helps slag fluidity).

2.

High basicity and low Fe content of bosh slag.

3.

Fluid bosh slag thinning by MgO and or Mn0.

4.

For rich ores and consequent low slag volume, the coke rate, the coke sulphur and the
coke ash should be low, a low coke rate and a low coke ash take care of excessive bosh
basicity and a low coke rate and low coke sulphur do so of sulphur solubility in slag.

5.

Part replacement of coke with hydrocarbons e.g. tar lowers the input of coke ash (thus
lowering from e.g. 9kg to 6kg coke input).

6.

Lower sulphur load by decreasing coke rate.

7.

Use of pre-fluxed burden (e.g. sinter) high reducibility, uniform basicity attracts S gas
to pre-fluxed burden.

8.

Lower input of slag FeO into the hearth.

9.

Excessive lime in bosh slag to be replaced by MgO (improves fluidity or lowering the
viscosity) as well as maintaining the desulphurisation capacity.

10.

Increase in slag basicity.

11.

For high ash coke, avoid refractory bosh slag by replacing part of the coke by
hydrocarbons e.g. tar.

12.

More frequent tapping to increase the amount of roughing slag, the more the slag flows
together with iron the better the sulphur removal.
BF IRREGULARITIES

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Channelling
Scaffolds
Seabs
Hanging
Slipping
Chocking of hearth

23

7.
8.
9.
10.

Coke mess
Chilled hearth
Burning of tuyeres
Ore shift
STOCK DISTRIBUTION AND CHARGING
Blast furnace productivity depends upon the quantity of air that can be blown per unit
time. The quantity of gas that can be accepted is governed by the uniformity of voidage
(pores) and particle size both of which depends upon proper material distribution in the
stock (burden) column.
During charging materials tend to segregate radially according to nature, size and
density. Non-uniform radial distribution of the burden materials results in a non-uniform
radial distribution of particle size, voidage and hence another of permeability of the
burdens.
The stock line cross section can be divided into 3 zones i.e. (i) periphery (ii)
intermediate (iii) Central.
The intermediate zone occupies 50% of the total cross sectional area and 30 35% of
the gas passes through this area.
Each of the periphery and central occupy 25% of the area respectively and 65 70% of
the gas passes through them.
Charging sequence is denoted by e.g. OOCC/ where O denotes ore -, L limestone, S
sinter and C coke or round or batch.
The distribution of materials when dumped on a heap on a stationary bed generally
behaves as follows:

(i)

The finer particles tend to accumulate in a peak or ridge, rubble and lumps slide down to
distance according to their kinetic energies the largest going furthest.

(ii)

Two different materials dumped under the same conditions tend to have their surfaces at
different angles with the horizontal, i.e. they have different angles of repose ore: 30
35o, coke: 34 40o.
Smaller particles have greater angles than larger particles. Angle of repose depends
upon the moisture content, co-efficient of friction and size as well as the density of the
materials.

(iii)

Angle of repose of blast furnace charge materials

Material
Angle of repose
Mean size (mm) average size
Range (mm)

Sinter
31-34
20
5-30

Pellets
26-28
11
8-14

Coke
35-38
45
25-75

Raw Ore
33-35
18
10-30

Two profiles formed when materials are charged into the furnace are
(i) M shape
(ii) V shape
M shaped profile formed when the material or burden particles hit the burden material
or stock column.
V shaped profile formed when the burden material/ particles hit the furnace walls.

24

In a V shaped profile the periphery is packed and partially blocked due to the presence
of fine materials near the furnace wall and more volume of gas will tend to pass through
the centre resulting in low gas utilisation.
The m profile obtained when the material strikes the surface of the material and results
in both periphery and central gas flow.
CHARGING CYCLES
The material placed first on the big bell will accumulate on the inwall of the furnace and
as a result e.g. if ore is placed first on the bell, the material near the wall will be mainly
ore, and the same will happen if coke is placed first. Since the coke bed is more
permeable than ore bed, the gas distribution in the furnace can be altered by charging
ore coke (OC) or coke ore (CO). For mixed burden of ore, sinter and pellet, the stock
distribution pattern change according to their proportions and placement on the large
bell.
TYPES OF CHARGING CYCLES/ FILLING
1.

Normal Filling Or Positive Filling

Ore is placed in the bell first and coke comes over it. This type of filling helps the
periphery to return the ore and coke travelling to the centre hence making the centre
more permeable. The charge is expressed as OOLCCC/ LOOCC/ OLCC. This filling is
used when the amount of fines is small and their nearness to wall will not cause the
formation of accretions on the wall. A lower coke rate is usually attained because of
better peripheral utilisation of gases (CO gas).

2.

Reversal Filling/ Negative charging

Coke is placed first in the bell with ore coming over coke e.g. CCOO or CCOOL.
The coke falls ahead of ore forming a slope and ore rolls to the centre loosening the
periphery. This type of filling promotes peripheral gas distribution results in a higher coke
rate due to low utilisation of CO gas, e.g. the filling can be use in burdens where they
tend to form accretions on the walls. Occasional charge over from the normal filling to
reverse filling helps in the cleaning up of the inwalls.

3.

Mixed Filling
E.g. OCOLC/CLCOC. It is especially suitable for ores or sinters with a lot of fines. It
helps in the distribution of ore both the periphery and centre. Some of the fines are also
carried to the centre along with the rolling coke.

4.

Separate Filling/ Layering/ Block Filling

E.g. OOO/CCCC or OOL/CCC
This is when ore and coke are charged separately. This filling is very suitable for closely
graded material i.e. narrow size range because this method has a tendency to cause
size segregation if used where the size range is wide.
Coke Rate coke consumption rate

(i)

Coke rate The amount of coke consumed for a unit of iron. Coke rate = kg/thm.
Coke constitutes a major portion of the production cost of iron (hot metal).
Besides providing mechanical support and permeability coke is necessary in the blast
furnace for the following purposes:
Carburisation of iron, Cc (kg)

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(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

Production of heat on burning at the tuyeres for covering the thermal requirements; on
combustion it provides CO for gaseous indirect reduction of iron oxides, Ct (kg) (tuyere
(C) carbon).
Direct reduction of iron oxides, Cd (kg) (direct reduction carbon).
Direct reduction of metalloids, Cm (kg).
Coke rate = Cc + Ct + Cd + Cm (kg carbon/thm
All reactions in the blast furnace (except gaseous reduction of iron oxides indirect
reduction, carbon deposition and slag formation) give thermal deficiency (ore
endothermic) i.e. direct reduction of iron oxide and metalloids (melting of slag and iron),
sensible heat of the flue dust and top gas radiation and cooling looses, calcinations,
evaporation of moisture and hydrated water.
Sensible heat lost in the top gas varies between 5 10% of the total heat generated at
the tuyere and 90 95% of heat is utilised showing the BF to be an efficient counter
current apparatus.

NB:

Direct reduction accounts for 35 50% of the high potential heat required in the lower
furnace and about 20 35% of the total heat required in the blast furnace process e.g.
direct reduction of iron oxides.
Reduction of Coke Rate
The coke consumption rate per THM can be decreased by any method which:

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

Increases direct reduction

Decreases the thermal load (those that require heat e.g. moisture cal nation)
Increases the sensible heat supply - increase hot blast temp.
Decreases the sensible heat out flow or replace coke with other fuel.
These can be badly realised by:

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)

Increase the blast temp

Burden preparation (sizing)
Stack gas injection at around 1000OC
Super burden (Direct reduced iron pre reduced ores)
Blast additives
High top gas pressure (HTP) utilisation of chemical energy CO gas
- Utilisation of thermal energy - temp

Note: Most of the coke savings are realised by the replacement of valuable metallurgical coke
with cheaper and easily available fuels.
The increase in indirect reduction and the use of high blast temps are possible but
partially at the cost of inferior (low) cv of top gas, lower top gas volume, cost of burden
preparation and the expenditure of fuel for development of higher hot blast temps (e.g.
through the use of sinters, high softening and low softening range).
Blast Temperature
Use of high blast temperatures results in saving of coke and in an increase in
productivity, the saving is mainly due to an increased supply of sensible heat through the
blast inorder to reduce coke consumption.

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Burden Preparation
The primary purpose is to use blast furnace charge material which are optimum in size,
easily reducible, passes a thermal load as low as possible in order to achieve maximum
production with a minimum of coke rate, production cost and capital outlay.
Blast Furnace Productivity
Productivity = Total hot metal produced per day =
Working volume

2000 t/day
1500m3

= (Tonnes) t/m3 per day

Productivity (P) =

coke burned (Q)

Coke rate (K)

Productivity depends upon the amount of coke burnt in unit time at the tuyeres and
tuyere carbon (coke) consumed for producing a unit of iron.
Note: The higher the blast volume i.e. the higher the O2 input, the greater will be the amount of
coke burnt and therefore the larger will be the production.

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