INDUSTRIAL TRAINING

PROJECT REPORT ON
X-RAY MACHINE
AT
SIEMENS LIMITED
JUNE JULY 14

By:
ROHIT JAIN (INSTRUMENTATION AND
CONTROL ENGINEERING)

(GURU GOBIND SINGH INDRAPRASTHA

UNIVERSITY)

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project work done on X-Ray Machine is a bonafide
work carried out by Mr Rohit Jain under my supervision and guidance. The
project report is submitted towards the partial fulfilment of degree of Bachelors
of Technology.
This work has not been submitted anywhere else for any other degree/diploma.
The original work was carried during June 3, 2014 to July 31, 2014 in Siemens
Ltd., Healthcare Sector, Imaging and Healthcare Division at New Delhi.
MR. M K BHATT
Manager At
Siemens Ltd
Healthcare Division

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The completion of any project is not complete without thanking the people
behind the venture and this project is no exception. Racing against time and fast
approaching deadlines, the fact that I was able to successfully complete the
project in time would not have been possible without the help and support of
many. I express my gratitude to Mr. Pramod Kumar Pandey, Mr. M K Bhatt
and for providing their valuable guidance.
I also express my gratitude to my family and friends without whose support and
co - operation I would not have been able to complete this project.

Index
Sr. No
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.

Topic
Cover Page
Certificate
Acknowledgements
SIEMENS: At a Glance
Products By Siemens
What is x-ray
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Wave concept
Particle concept
Properties of E.M.R
Production of x-ray tube
Bremsstrahlung radiation
Characteristic radiation
Construction of X-ray tube
Cathode
Limitation
Focussing cup
Anode
Rotating anode x-ray tube
Modification in target
Advantages of rotating anode
Limitations
Anode heel effect

Page No.
1
2
3
5
8
9
11
12
13
14
15
17
18
20
21
22
23
25
28
29
30
31
32

SIEMENS: At a Glance :History :

Siemens was founded by Werner Von Siemens and his partner Johann
George Halske with 10 employees in a small building in Berlin on October
12,1847. Siemens was initially known as Telegraphen-Baunstalt von siemens
& Halskecompany. As an extraordinary inventor, engineer and entrepreneur,
Werner von Siemens made the worlds first pointer telegraph and electric
dynamo, inventions that helped put the spin in the industrial revolution. He
was the man behind one of the most fascinating success stories of all time by
turning a humble little workshop into one of the worlds largest enterprises. As
Werner had envisioned, the company he started grew from strength to
strength in every field of electrical engineering. From constructing the worlds
first electric railway to laying the first telegraph line linking Britain and India,
Siemens was responsible for building much of the modern worlds
infrastructure.
Werner Von Siemens
In 1847,Werner von Siemens designed a pointer telegraph that was faster
and more reliable than any other device of its kind. Three core companies
were combined to form Siemens AG [Aktiengesellschaft] in 1966 &
reorganization in 1969 and then various segments the precursors to todays
Groups-were formed in the Basic Organization of Siemens AG. At the same
time sub groups were converted to independent companies like BoschSiemens- Hausgerate-GmbH.
The history of Siemens is filled with technological milestones: the pointer
telegraph and Dynamo, the electric train and the electric street light, the
electron microscope and cardiac pacemaker, electronic automation and the
worlds largest and most powerful Gas Turbine.

Other innovations were worlds first electric locomotive (1879) and the
worlds first electric streetcar(1881).The first national subsidiary was
established in Russia in 1855, followed by an English subsidiary in 1858. As
Werner envisioned, the company he started from strength to strength in every
field of electrical engineering. Siemens is today a technology giant in more
than 190 countries.
Mission statement :
It is our goal to set the benchmark by being the best in our fields and to
create value for our customers, wealth for our stake-holders and a future for
our employees while giving back graciously to society a piece of our success.
Quality policy :
For Siemens, quality is a driving factor which strengthens our ambition to
assume a world- leading role in our environment of logistics automation and
material handling technology. Our Quality Policy is:Customer Satisfaction
through Continuous Improvement help us to get nearer to our goal, and to
become better in our efforts to achieve top quality in all the products and
services that we supply push us to the limit!
SIEMENS in INDIA :
For over 50 years, Siemens has been active in India, where it holds leading
positions in its Energy , Industry and Healthcare Sectors , while Siemens IT
Solutions and Services functions across all three Sectors. In 2008, Siemens
India was the top ranked company by Business Week in its annual rating of
Asias 50 companies. Siemens was also ranked No. 1in the Corporate
Reputation by The Wall Street Journal in its survey of Asias 200 most admired
companies. In Fiscal 2008 sales to customers in India amounted to almost EUR
1.9 billion. The Siemens Group in India has emerged as a leading inventor,
innovator and implementer of leading-edge technology enabled solutions
operating in the core business segments of Industry, Energy and Healthcare.
The Groups business is represented by various companies that span across
these various segments. Siemens brings to India state-of-the-art technology
that adds value to customers through a combination of multiple high-end
technologies for complete solutions. The Group has the competence and
capability to integrate all products, systems and services. It caters to Industry
6

needs across market segments by undertaking complete projects such as

Hospitals, Airports and Industrial units. The Siemens Group in India comprises
of 17 companies, providing direct employment to over 18,000 persons.
Currently, the group has 21 manufacturing plants, a wide network up of Sales
and Service offices across the country as well as over 500 channel partners.
Today, Siemens, with its world-class solutions plays a key role in Indias quest
for developing modern infrastructure and energy sectors. Siemens
consolidates its innovative offerings in the Energy sector by combining its full
range expertise in the areas of Power Generation (PG) and Power Transmission
& Distribution (PTD). Utilizing the most advanced plant diagnostics and
systems technologies, Siemens provides comprehensive services for complete
power plants and for rotating machines such as gas and steam turbines,
generators and compressors. By combining the most advanced laboratory
diagnostics, imaging systems and healthcare information technology, Siemens
Healthcare division enables clinicians to diagnose disease earlier and more
accurately, making a decisive contribution to improving the quality of
healthcare. At Siemens, end-to-end products, systems and solutions for
industrial and building automation as well as infrastructure installations are
provided. These turnkey solutions cover project management, engineering and
software, installation, commissioning, after-sales service, plant maintenance
and training.

PRODUCTS BY SIIEMENS IN HEALTHCARE

DEPARTMENT

X-RAY MACHINE
CT SCAN
PET IMAGING
MAMMOGRAPHY
MRI
CATH ARM
ULTRASOUND
PATIENT MONITOR
ANGIOGRAPHY
COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY
MAGNETIC RESONANCE
RADIOGRAPHY
MOLECULAR IMAGING
FLUOROSCOPY

WHAT IS X-RAYS
X-rays are electromagnetic radiation produced whenever substance is
bombarded by high speed electrons. It comprises electric and magnetic
field components, which oscillate in phase perpendicular to each other
and perpendicular to the direction of energy propagation. Discovered by
Wilhelm Roentgen.An invisible energy that can penetrate solid
objects.Its ability to penetrate objects depends on the objects density. Xrays produce a shadow much like visible light. This shadow captured on
film is called a radiograph. X-ray equipment is used to diagnose or treat
patients with controlled amounts of radiation.Used by skilled medical
personnel radiation, is an effective diagnostic and treatment tool.
Examples are Diagnostic Imaging Equipment - used to determine the
extent of disease and /or injury.Therapeutic - Used to treat various types
of disease, mainly CA.

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

10

WAVE CONCEPT:

Wavelength : Distance between the peaks ( )

Frequency : Number of cycles passes per second , a fixed point ( )
Velocity : Distance travelled per second by a point ( V )

V=x

Lower frequency : Longer wavelength

Higher frequency : Shorter wavelength

11

PARTICLE CONCEPT

Electromagnetic waves, may react with matter as if they were particles

rather than waves .
These particles are discrete bundles of energy.
Each of these bundles of energy is called a Quantum or Photon
Frequency doubled , energy of the photon doubled.
The photons with the highest energy correspond to the shortest
wavelengths .

12

PROPERTIES 0F EMR (X-RAYS)

EM radiation exhibits both wave properties & particle properties.

It travels through free space as straight lines.
All forms of EMR have the same speed of ~ 3 x 108 m/s in space.
Electromagnetic radiation on passing through a medium gets attenuated.
[Absorption and Scattering]
EMR obeys Inverse square law.
Electrically neutral and cant be deflected by electric or magnetic field .
Produce chemical and biological changes mainly by ionization and
excitation.
Produce secondary and scattered radiations.
Affect photographic film producing a latent image which can be
developed chemically.
Cannot be focused by lens.
Cause flourosence of certain crystals making possible their use in
fluoroscopy and radiographic intensifying screens.
Ionize gases indirectly because of their ability to remove orbital electrons
from atoms.

13

PRODUCTIONS OF X-RAYS
X-ray are produced when electrons , travelling at high speed, collide with
a target material , such as tungsten.
The kinetic energy of the electrons is converted into electromagnetic
radiation. Part of this radiation is X-rays.
X-rays and other types of electromagnetic radiation are emitted as small
packets of electromagnetic energy called photons.
In medical applications, this is usually TUNGSTEN or a more crack
resistant alloy of RHENIUM (5%) AND TUNGSTEN (95%),but
sometimes MOLYBDENUM for more specialized applications, such as
when soft X-rays are needed as in

14

 X-rays are produced in an X-ray tube.

An X-ray tube consists of a vacuum glass envelope in which a filament
and a target are placed.
The vacuum is needed so that electrons emitted from the filament can
move freely to the target material.
The filament is the cathode.
The target material is the anode.
If the filament is heated, electrons are emitted. The higher the
temperature of the filament, the more electrons are emitted

Cathode - Negative terminal of x-ray tube

Anode - Positive terminal of x-ray tube
An X-ray beam, produced by an X-ray tube, consists of different
wavelengths.
Such a beam is called a POLYCHROMATIC (heterogeneous) X-ray
beam.
The total emission spectrum includes both BREMSSTRAHLUNG
(BRAKING) and CHARACTERISTIC RADIATION.
The BREMSSTRAHLUNG RADIATION is a continuous spectrum of
energies from near zero to peak photon energy
15

BREMSSTRAHLUNG RADIATION

Interaction with Nucleus causes no ionization

16

CHARACTERISTIC RADIATION
Now L shell electron jumps into K shell producing
59Kev(70-11=59)

Interaction with Electrons causes ionization of atoms in target. Tungsten target

it is 59.3 keV for the first electron from shell L to shell K, 60.0 keV for the
second electron and 67.2 keV for an M shell electron jumping to K shell
The quantity (number) of the x rays generated is directly proportional to
1.Atomic number of the target material
2.Square of the kilovoltage
17

 3.Milliamperes of the x ray tube

The quality (energy) of the x rays depends mostly on kVp

18

C0NSTRUCTION OF X-RAY TUBE

Borosilicate glass or Metal - Ceramic tube envelope.

Anode and Cathode connections.
Tungsten target mounted on a rotating anode block,
Rotor and stator coils for rotating the anode.
Filament(s) in focusing cup i.e., cathode assembly.
X ray tube is contained within the tube housing and the oil inside the
housing surrounds the tube
TUBE SHIELDING is lined with LEAD & serves to absorb primary and
secondary x rays avoiding needless exposure.
TARGET WINDOW is constructed in the GLASS ENVELOPE to
allow less scatter & attenuation of the photons.
In MAMMOGRAPHY - a special metallic BERYLLIUM WINDOW
prevents attenuation of lower energy photons
The oil has good electrical insulating and cooling properties

19

CATHODE

Filament made of TUNGSTEN(0.2 mm in diameter)

Connecting wires which supply both amperage (3 to 5 A) and voltage
(10V) that heat the filament.
Focusing cup
TUNGSTEN IS MATERIAL OF CHOICE It has high melting point of
3370 C. Can be drawn into thin wires. Little tendency to vaporize. Has
reasonable life expectancy.

THERMIONIC EMISSION: The emission of electrons from the

filament resulting from the absorption of thermal energy (generally
occurs at 2200 c)
EDISONS EFFECT: Electron cloud surrounding the filament produced
from thermionic emission is Edisons effect and the charge produced is
space charge
20

LIMITATIONS
Tungsten that is vaporized from the filament is deposited as a thin coating
in the inner surface of the glass of x ray tube .
Filters x ray beam gradually changing its quality,
May result in puncture of the tube( because of arcing between the glass
and electrodes at higher peak kilovoltage .

21

FOCUSSING CUP
Shallow depression in the cathode assembly that houses the focusing cup,
usually made of NICKEL.
Maintained at the same negative potential as the filament.
Designed so that its electrical forces cause the electron stream to
converge on to the anode in the required size and shape.
Can be a single or most commonly double filament.

22

23

ANODE
Anode is positively charged electrode of x-ray tube.
Electrons released from cathode are accelerated towards anode, from
where x-rays are produced.
TUNGSTEN IS THE MATERIAL OF CHOICE High atomic number
(z=74)so more efficient in the production of x rays High melting point of
3370 degree C Relatively high thermal conductivity

FOCAL SPOT

Area of tungsten anode bombarded by the electrons from cathode.

Most of energy carried by the electrons are converted to heat. So that, a
large focus point is needed because of huge amount of heat which is
produced.
Good radiographic detail requires a small focal spot
Anode angle is the angle between inclined anode and the plane
perpendicular to the incident beam So the size of the effective focal spot
is considerably smaller than that of the actual focal spot

24

 Size of the projected focal spot is directly related to sine angle of the
anode
For diagnostic radiography done at 40 inches the anode angle is 15
DEGREES , as there is a limit to which anode angle cannot be decreased
as dictated by heel effect

STATIONARY ANODE
ROTATING ANODE

25

STATIONARY ANODE
Simplest type of x-ray tube has a stationary (fixed) anode
Consists of tungsten imbedded in a copper block
Copper supports the tungsten target and acts to increase the total thermal
capacity of anode and to speed its rate of cooling

26

ROTATING ANODE X-RAY TUBE

Consists of:
A) Cathode-tungsten filament
B) Anode-large disc of tungsten.
C) Stem-molybdenum
D) Rotor-copper cylinder

27

MODIFICATION IN TARGET
Alloying the tungsten.
Molybdenum decreases moment of inertia by 35% than a solid tungsten.
Graphite decreases inertia by 50% but does not conduct heat and got
technical problem with bonding

28

ADVANTAGES OF ROTATING ANODE

Generally it rotates at the speed of 3600 rpm.

Hence, any given point on target electrons will bombard once every 1/60
sec, reminder of the time heat generated during the exposure can be
dissipated.
By spinning the anode, the heat is spread across the whole of the target
area. This helps keep it cool, and extend the life of the anode (and tube).

29

LIMITATIONS

Roughening and pitting of anode surface exposed to the electron beam

causes
Decreased output of x ray radiation due excessive scattering (overcome
by alloy of 90% tungsten and 10% molybdenum)
Increased absorption of x rays by the target itself.

30

ANODE HEEL EFFECT

Reduced intensity of x-ray beam towards the anode side of the x-ray
field.
Caused due to the absorption of some of the x ray photons by the target
itself.
Intensity of film exposure on anode side is less than that on cathode
side The heel effect is important when imaging anatomic structures that
differ greatly in thickness or density throughout their respective lengths

It is not always a disadvantage.

It is used for the imaging of the following anatomical structures.
Humerus.
Femur, tibia and fibula.
Thoracic vertebrae.
Fore arm.
31

32

33

Thank you

34