©_ BiologyFolio.Dec09.

Active transport

• Sodium ion approach the carrier protein. The carrier protein has a site for the sodium
ions and another site to bind the ATP molecules.
• The carrier protein binds the sodium ions. The ATP molecules is split into ADP and
phosphate. The splitting of ATP releases energy to the carrier protein.
• Energy from the ATP changes the shape of the carrier protein to release the sodium ions
outside the cells.
• The carrier protein turn to original shape.

Plasma membrane
1
©_ BiologyFolio.Dec09 .

• Plasma membrane is made up of protein and phospholipid.

• A phospholipid is an amphipathic molecule. This means that it has both a
hydrophilic region and a hydrophobic region.
• The polar head region is hydrophilic (attracted to
water) while the non-polar tail is hydrophobic
(repelled by water).
• The interaction of the tails of the phospholipid
bilayer prevents adjacent phospolipid from packing
too tightly together. This makes the membrane
more fluid.

• The characteristic of the phospholipid bilayer is semi-permeable. It only allow

Structure of Examples of substances that move across the

plasma membrane plasma protein

Phospholipid i. Lipid-soluble molecules : fatty acid, glycerol and

bilayer vitamin A,D,E,K.
ii. Non-polar molecules : O2,CO2
iii. Small molecules : H2O

Pore protein i. Small water-soluble molecules & ions : K+,Na+,Ca+.

Carrier protein i. Large water-soluble molecules : glucose and amino

acid.

some substances to cross the plasma membrane.

2
©_ BiologyFolio.Dec09.

Facilitated diffusion
• Facilitated diffusion is the movement of molecules from region of high
concentration to region of low concentration with the help of transport protein.
• Facilitated diffusion that occurs with the help of carrier protein only allows
molecules insoluble in fats such as glucose and amino acids to cross the plasma
membrane.
• The mechanism of carrier proteins in facilitated diffusion is as follows :
(a) The solute moves to the binding site of the specific carrier protein.
(b) The solute binds to the carrier
protein at the binding site and
triggers the carrier protein to
change its shape.
(c) The carrier protein changes its
shape and moves the solute across
the membrane.
(d) The carrier protein returns back to
its original shape.

3
©_ BiologyFolio.Dec09.

➢ Facilitated diffusion that occurs through pore protein only allows small charged
molecules such as mineral ions to pass through the pore in the protein molecules.

Effects of different concentration

of solution on red blood cell

4
©_ BiologyFolio.Dec09.

Concentra Environment of cell Explanation

tion of
solution

Hypotonic • When red blood cell are placed in a

hypotonic solution (distilled water),
water molecules diffuse into the red
blood cells by osmosis.
• The red blood cells gain water and
swell and finally burst because they
have no cell walls.
• The red blood cells are said to
undergo haemolysis.

Isotonic • If red blood cells are immersed in an

isotonic solution (0.85% sodium
chloride solution), water molecules
flow across the membrane at the
same rate in both directions.
• There is no net movement of water
molecules across the membrane.
• The red blood cells maintain their
shape.
• The concentration in the red blood
cells is the same as the
concentration in the environment,
that is 0.85% sodium chloride
solution.

Hypertoni • When red blood cells are placed in a

c hypertonic solution such as 4%
sodium chloride solution (salt
solution), water molecules diffuse
out of the cells by osmosis.
• Water is rapidly lost.
• The red blood cells will shrivel and
probably die.
• This process is called crenation of
red blood cells.

5
©_ BiologyFolio.Dec09.

Effects of different concentration

of solution on plant cell
Concentra Environment of cell Explanation
tion of
solution

Hypotonic • When a plant cell is immersed in a

hypotonic solution such as water,
water molecules diffuse into the
cell by osmosis.
• The vacuole gains water, expands
and exerts pressure outwards on the
cell wall.
• This pressure is called turgor
pressure. It caused the plant cell
become turgid.
• The turgidity of the cells give the
plant mechanical support.

Isotonic • If the plant cell is immersed in an

isotonic solution such as 5% sucrose
solution, there is no net movement
of water across the plasma
membrane.
• Water flows across the membrane
at the same rate in both directions.
• The cell’s volume and shape remain
constant.

6
©_ BiologyFolio.Dec09.
Hypertoni • When a plant cell is placed in a
c hypertonic solution such as 30%
sucrose solution, water molecules
diffuses out of the cell by osmosis.
• Water is lost from the vacuole and
cytoplasm.
• The vacuole shrinks and becomes
smaller. The cytoplasm, together
with the plasma membrane,
shrinks and is pulled away from the
cell wall.
• The plant cell loses water and
shrivels. The cell becomes flaccid,
causing the plant to wilt.
• This process is called plasmolysis.
• If the plasmolysed plant cell is
immersed in a hypotonic solution,
there is a net movement of water
into the cell.The cell will expand and
become turgid again.
• The plant cell is said to undergo
deplasmolysis.

Lock and key hypothesis

7
©_ BiologyFolio.Dec09.

• An enzyme is a molecule with an active site that has a specific shape.

• The active site of the enzyme (the lock) is a place where its substrate
molecule (the key) fits in exactly.
• The substrate molecule fits into the active site to form an enzyme-substrate
complex.
• The enzyme speeds up the change of the substrate into its product. The product
then leaves the active site.
• The enzyme remains unchanged and can be used again to act on more
substrates.

Production of extracellular enzyme

8
©_ BiologyFolio.Dec09.

1. The instruction for producing the extracellular enzyme comes from the DNA in the
nucleus. The information in the DNA is copied into messenger RNA (mRNA).
2. mRNA goes out of the nuclear pore and attaches itself to ribosome on the Rough
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER).
3. The protein that synthesized in the ribosome transported through rough ER.
4. Proteins wrapped in vesicles (transport vesicles) bud off from the side of rough ER.
5. These transport vesicles will fuse with the membrane of the Golgi Apparatus.
6. These protein are then modified along the golgi apparatus and form enzymes.
7. Modified proteins finally buds off as a secretory vesicles at the other end of the golgi
apparatus.
8. Secretory vesicle contain modified protein fuse with plasma membrane to secrete the
enzyme.

Effects of temperature on the rate

of enzyme reaction

9
©_ BiologyFolio.Dec09.

Effects of pH on the rate of

enzyme reaction

10
©_ BiologyFolio.Dec09.

• Enzymes are denatured by changes in the pH level of the reaction medium.

• An enzyme that functions at pH7, the optimum pH, will be inactive when its reaction
medium becomes too acidic or too alkali.
• A change in pH results in a change in the concentration of hydroxide ions (OH-) and
hydrogen ions (H+). The excess of hydroxide ions or hydrogen ions destabilize the
enzyme by changing the shape of the active site and the enzyme stops functioning.
• The effects of changes in pH on the rate of enzyme reaction are reversible. An enzyme
that is inactive in a low pH will be active again when it is at optimum pH.
• Each enzyme function actively at its optimum pH.

Technique of plant tissue culture

11
©_ BiologyFolio.Dec09.
• Tissue culture is a technique in reproduction which involves the transfer of tissues or
cells from an organism into a suitable culture medium to produce a whole new organism
that is identical to the existing organism.
• New individuals that are produced are generally identical to the original parent and
called clones.
• The culture medium must be sterile to kill microorganisms that would contaminate the
culture. The culture medium contains nutrients for the growth and differentiation of cells.
The cultures are incubated at an optimal temperature of 37oC and at an optimal pH level.
• Figure below shows the tissue culture technique used in the production of orchids in
Malaysia.

Technique of cloning

• Cloning is a highly artificial form of asexual reproduction based on mitosis to form new
individuals.

12
©_ BiologyFolio.Dec09.
• The new individuals have the same genetic material as the parent and are called
clones.
• The cells actively divide by mitosis, differentiate and develop to form whole new
individuals which are identical to the parent.
• In animals, cloning is carried out by replacing the nucleus of an unfertilized egg cell with
the nucleus from a diploid cell.
• The offspring is produced by mitosis from a diploid cell and not by fusion of
gametes.
• Steps in the cloning process are as follows :
(a) A somatic cell (from the skin) is taken from an adult animal A.
(b) An ovum from another female animal B is taken and its nucleus is removed.
(c) The nucleus from the cell of animal A is then placed inside the ovum.
(d) The ovum is then placed in a petri dish containing nutrients solution where it
divides repeatedly to form an embryo.
(e) The embryo is then transferred into the uterus of another female animal.
(f) The young animal born is a replica of animal A.

Comparison between mitosis &

meiosis
13
©_ BiologyFolio.Dec09.

14
©_ BiologyFolio.Dec09.
Mitosis Aspect Meiosis

In somatic cells Place In reproductive organs

occur
(testis and ovary)

Parent cell divides once Number of Parent cell divides twice

divisions

Produces two diploid daughter Number of Produces four haploid daughter

cells daughter cells
cells
(gametes)

Synapsis does not occur Synapsis Synapsis occurs during prophase

of I
homologou
s
chromoso
mes

Cytokinesis occurs once Number of Cytokinesis occurs twice

cytokinesis

Crossing over does not occur Crossing Crossing over occurs during
over of prophase I
chromatids
of
homologou
s
chromoso
mes

Each daughter cell has the Number of Each daughter cell has half the
same number of chromoso number of chromosomes of the
chromosomes as the parent mes in parent cell
cell daughter
cells

Daughter cells are genetically Genetic Daughter cells are genetically

identical to the parent cell compositio non-identical to the parent cell
n of and to each other
daughter
cells

Occur during interphase DNA Occurs once during interphase

before mitosis begins replication before meiosis I

Produces cells for growth, Role in the Produces gametes, results in

maintenance and repair of animal genetic variation among the
body tissues body gametes, reduces chromosomes
15
©_ BiologyFolio.Dec09.

16
©_ BiologyFolio.Dec09.
Human digestive system

17
©_ BiologyFolio.Dec09 .
Part of the Secretion Enzymes/activ Enzyme action/other actions
system and (pH) e substance
related
organs

Mouth

Teeth --- --- Mechanical digestion and mixing of food

with saliva.

Salivary glands Saliva Amylase

(alkaline) Hydrolysis of starch:
amylase
Starch + water maltose

---
Tongue ---
Rolling food into a bolus for easy
swallowing.

Oesophagus --- --- Peristalsis (a series of wave like muscular

contractions of the oesophagus) to move
food down to the stomach.

Stomach Gastric Hydrochloric i. Stops the action of enzyme amylase

juice acid
-a muscular ii. Provides an acidic medium
sac that mixes (acidic,pH
food with 1.5-2.0) iii. Kills bacteria in the food
gastric juice
into a paste
called chyme. Hydrolyses proteins:
Pepsin
pepsin
Protein + water peptone +
polypeptides

Rennin Converts the soluble milk protein

caseinogens into insoluble casein.
rennin
Caseinogen casein

Mucus Protects the stomach wall from the acid

--- and enzymes.

Duodenum

Liver Bile Bile salts Emulsifies fats into smaller droplets to

18
©_ BiologyFolio.Dec09.

Comparison between ruminants

and rodents

19
©_ BiologyFolio.Dec09.
Ruminants Aspects Rodents

Digest cellulose in the stomach Digestion of Digest cellulose in the caecum

cellulose

Bacteria and protozoa in the Presence of Bacteria and protozoa in the

stomach secrete the enzyme cellulose caecum secrete the enzyme
cellulase enzyme cellulase

Stomach has four chambers The structure Stomach has one chamber
of the stomach

Caecum is short Length of the Caecum is long and large

caecum

The food first goes into the The time for The food goes through the
rumen and reticulum.It is then the food to go alimentary canal twice. The
returned to the mouth to be through the rodents eat back the partially
chewed again. The food is then alimentary digested food after it has
swallowed into the omasum and canal passed the alimentary canal the
lastly abomasum. first time.

20
©_ BiologyFolio.Dec09 .
Absorption of nutrient in the villus

• Glucose, amino acids, minerals, vitamin B and C are absorbed by simple

diffusion into the blood capillaries. These substances are carried by the hepatic
portal vein to the liver and then distributed to the body cells by the circulatory system.
• Glycerol, fatty acids and vitamin A, D, E, K are absorbed into the lacteal of the
villus. The fatty acids and glycerol diffuse across the epithelium and recombine to form
fat droplets. The fat droplets and vitamins A, D, E, K in the lacteals are carried out of the
ileum by a larger lymphatic vessel called thoracic duct. From the ileum, the thoracic
duct carries the content of the lacteal into the blood stream via the left shoulder vein
(left subclavian vein) and then distributed to the body cells by the circulatory system.

21
©_ BiologyFolio.Dec09.
Structural adaptations of the leaf
for photosynthesis

22
©_ BiologyFolio.Dec09.

Structure Adaptation Explanation

E Lamina of • Broad, flat and • The broad and flat shape provides a
the leaf thin large surface area for the maximum
X absorption of sunlight and carbon
dioxide
T
• Thin leaf allows light to penetrate and
E reach the cells. It also allows carbon
dioxide to diffuse rapidly to the cells in
R the leaf

N Position of • Leaf is positioned • To absorb maximum sunlight

the leaf at right angle to
A
rays of sunlight
L Arrangeme • Leaves are • To absorb maximum sunlight
nt of the arranged in a
leaf mosaic pattern so
F that they do not
overlap
E
Upper • Translucent • Allows sunlight to pass
A epidermis

Palisade • Contain the • For maximum absorption of sunlight for

mesophyll greatest number photosynthesis
I cells of chloroplasts
N • Closely packed

Spongy • Loosely arranged • Provides large air pockets to facilitate

T
mesophyll with large air the diffusion of carbon dioxide and
E cells spaces between oxygen
the cells • Carries out photosynthesis

23
©_ BiologyFolio.Dec09.
R • Contain
chloroplasts
N

A
Stoma • Many • Allows the exchange of gases between
L the cells in the leaf and the atmosphere

Vascular • Branch out to • Transport water, minerals and products

F
bundles in form a network of photosynthesis efficiently and quickly
E the vein • Both xylem and
(xylem and phloem are long
A phloem) and continuous
tubes
T

Equations of mechanism of
photosynthesis

24
©_ BiologyFolio.Dec09.

Light reaction of photosynthesis

1. Light reaction occurs in the granum of the chloroplast only in the presence of light
and involves the trapping of light energy and the formation of materials required
for the dark reaction.
2. Energy from sunlight is absorbed by the chlorophyll to split the water molecules into
hydroxyl ions and hydrogen ions. This process is called photolysis of water.

sunlight
4H2O 4H+ + 4(OH)-
chlorophyll

3. Each hydroxyl ion is neutralized by releasing its electrons to the chlorophyll. A neutral
hydroxyl group is formed. Four hydroxyl groups combined together to form water and
oxygen.

4(OH)- - 4 electrons 4(OH)

4(OH) 2H2O + O2

4. Each hydrogen ion receives an electron from the chlorophyll and is neutralized. A neutral
hydrogen atom is formed. The hydrogen atoms are used in dark reaction to reduce carbon
dioxide.

4(H)+ + 4 electrons 4(H)

Dark reaction of photosynthesis

1. Dark reaction occurs in the stroma with or without light and involves using the products
from the light reaction to form glucose.
2. Hydrogen atoms produced during light reaction are used in dark reaction to reduce carbon
dioxide to basic units of glucose (CH2O). This reduction of carbon dioxide process
involves a series of complex chemical reactions which require enzymes.

CO2 + 4(H) (CH2O) + H2O

3. Six units of (CH2O) combine together to form a molecule of glucose.

25
©_ BiologyFolio.Dec09.
6(CH2O) C6H12O6 (glucose)

4. Glucose is converted into starch, cellulose, other sugars (sucrose) and lipids. When
combined with nitrogen, glucose is converted to protein.
5. The overall process of photosynthesis can be represented in the following equation:
sunlight
12H2O + 6CO2 C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
chlorophyll

Gaseous exchange between

alveolus and blood capillary

1. Inhaled air in the alveolus contains more oxygen and less carbon dioxide compared to
the quantities in the blood capillaries of the lungs.
2. Hence the partial pressure of oxygen is higher in the air of alveolus compared to
the partial pressure of oxygen in the blood capillaries.
3. The higher partial pressure of oxygen in the alveolus causes the oxygen to dissolve in
the layer of moisture on the wall of the alveolus and diffuse out of the alveolus into the
blood capillaries.

26
©_ BiologyFolio.Dec09 .

4. During respiration, carbon dioxide is produced. The blood capillaries in the body
transport the carbon dioxide to the alveolus.
5. Hence the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the blood capillaries is higher
than the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the alveolus.
6. As a result, the carbon dioxide in the blood capillaries diffuses out of the blood
capillaries into the alveolus and expelled during exhalation.

Partial
pressure
Respirat Effect
ory gas Air of Blood

Gase alveol
us
capillar
ies

ous Oxygen High Low Oxygen in the

alveolus diffuses
into the blood
capillaries

Carbon Low High Carbon dioxide in

dioxide the blood
capillaries diffuses
into the alveolus

27
©_ BiologyFolio.Dec09.
exchange between blood capillary
and body cells

1. In the body cells which lack oxygen, the high partial pressure of oxygen in the
blood caused the oxygen to diffuse out of the capillary into the body cells.
2. The body cells contain a high concentration of carbon dioxide, a product of cellular
respiration.
3. Hence the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the body cells is higher than the
partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the blood capillaries.
4. Carbon dioxide diffuses out of the body cells into the blood capillary.

28
©_ BiologyFolio.Dec09.

29