Chap 1

1.
(a)
(i)
Outline the Gaia philosophy.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii)
Explain the difference between an open system and a closed system.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(b)
The first and second laws of thermodynamics suggest that energy is neither made or lost,
merely transformed. Using a named ecosystem, outline how this occurs.
.....................................................................................................................................
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(3)
(c)
(i)
Explain how socio-political and economic pressures have caused or are causing the
degradation of a named area of biological significance.
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(4)
(ii)
Describe and evaluate one strategy to address the problems you have identified in
(c) (i).
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(3)
(Total 12 marks)
2.
The pedosphere can be defined as that shell or layer of the Earth in which soil forming
processes occur. [Bates and Jackson, 1980]
(a)
State how the pedosphere forms an integral part of the environmental system and outline
the interactions between the hydrosphere, atmosphere, biosphere and pedosphere.
(5)
(b)
Compare the agricultural properties of sand and clay soils.

(5)
(c)
Compare and evaluate soil conservation measures for a named commercial farming
system and a named subsistence farming system.
(7)
(Total 17 marks)
3.
The Inuit are indigenous aboriginal people of Northern Canada. The data below come from a
study of a Inuit fish farming community. The Inuit fish in the open sea but have also sectioned
off a large fjord (a long narrow inlet of the sea) which they use for farming salmon and shrimps.
The shrimps eat microscopic plants in the sea called phytoplankton. Salmon and kawai (a wild
fish) both eat shrimps.
Figure 1
2
All units in KJm yr

Insolation on fjord
185000.0
Insolation on open sea
1972000.0
Farmed shrimp consumed by Inuit
26.0
Gross primary production by phytoplankton
3470.0
Shrimp consumed by kawai
847.0
Respiratory loss by kawai (open sea)
572.0
Shrimp consumed by salmon (farmed)
461.0
Respiratory loss by salmon
410.0
Kawai consumed by Inuit
6.2
Salmon consumed by Inuit
4.3
Energy used in managing salmon farm
4.1
Energy used in fishing for kawai
6.7
Energy used in managing shrimp farm
14.0
Energy used in other human activities including trading furs
12.5
(a)
Use the data in figure 1 to complete the diagram below.
Sun
F jo rd
O pen sea
F a rm e d s h rim p
847
26
410
F is h in g fo r
k a w a i 6 .7
(6)
(b)
(i)
Define what is meant by the term gross primary productivity (GPP).

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii)
State how GPP differs from net primary productivity (NPP).

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(iii)
Identify the factors other than insolation which affects rates of gross primary
productivity.
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
(2)
(c)
Using the data in figure 1, determine whether salmon or kawai is more efficient at
converting food into biomass.
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(3)
(d)
Compare the efficiency of aquatic food production system with terrestrial food production
system.
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.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
(3)
(e)
Calculations based on the data in figure 1 would suggest that farming and eating shrimp
is the most energy efficient food source for the Inuit. Suggest why the Inuit continue to
farm salmon.
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
(1)
(f)
Suggest ways in which this indigenous food production system might differ from a
large-scale commercial food production system.
.....................................................................................................................................
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(3)
(Total 20 marks)
4.
(a)
Distinguish between global warming and the greenhouse effect.

(3)
(b)
Explain what is meant by the systems concept and suggest how it can be applied to global
warming.
(6)
(c)
Reducing the impact of global warming is extremely difficult. Explain why this is the
case. In your answer you should refer to the strategies for managing pollutants in the
model below.
H U M A N A C T IV IT Y
P R O D U C IN G
PO LLU TA N T
A lte rin g h u m a n a c tiv ity th ro u g h in c e n tiv e s a n d

p e n a ltie s to p ro m o te th e :
d e v e lo p m e n t o f a lte rn a tiv e te c h n o lo g ie s
a d o p tio n o f a lte rn a tiv e life s ty le s
re c y c lin g .
R ELEA SE O F
P O L L U T A N T IN T O
E N V IR O N M E N T
R e g u la tin g a n d re d u c in g th e p o llu ta n t a t th e
p o in t o f e m is s io n b y :
s e ttin g a n d im p o s in g s ta n d a rd s
in tro d u c in g m e a s u re s fo r e x tra c tin g th e
p o llu ta n t fro m w a s te e m is s io n s .
LO
IM
PO
EC
C le a n in g u p th e p o llu ta n t a n d re s to rin g
e c o s y s te m s b y :
e x tra c tin g a n d re m o v in g th e p o llu ta n t fro m
th e e c o s y s te m s
re p la n tin g a n d re s to c k in g w ith a n im a l
p o p u la tio n s .
N G -T E R M
PA C T O F
LLU TA N T O N
O SY STEM
(8)
Expression of ideas
(3)
(Total 20 marks)
5.
(a)
Define the following terms.

(i)
Negative feedback
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii)
Positive feedback
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(b)
Suggest why most ecosystems are negative feedback systems.

......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(1)
The diagram below represents a coal fired power station.
sm oke
.... ......... ....
coal
w a rm w a te r
[Source: Adapted from D D Kemp, Global Environment Issues, A Climatological Approach, (Taylor & Francis,1994)
p. 7. Reproduced by permission of Cengage Learning]
(c)
Complete the diagram above by naming the missing input and the two missing outputs.
(2)
(Total 5 marks)
6.
(a)
Discuss the value of age-sex pyramids in analysing population change.

(6)
(b)
Outline the concept of an ecological footprint and discuss the relationship between socioeconomic level and footprint size. Refer to examples in your answer.
(5)
(c)
As the human population increases there is concern that we may ultimately out-grow our
resource base. Evaluate the arguments for and against population control.
(6)
Expression of ideas (3)
(Total 20 marks)
10
7.
The figure below shows a model of the climatic system.

R a d ia tio n o u tp u ts fro m
E a rth -a tm o s p h e re
A tm o s p h e re
S o la r in p u ts to
E a rth -a tm o s p h e re
O cean
O c e a n ic
c irc u la tio n
A tm o s p h e ric
c irc u la tio n a n d
c o m p o s itio n
Ic e
C L IM A T E
L and and
te rre s tria l
fe a tu re s
H um an
a c tiv ity
E a rth -a tm o s p h e re s y s te m
E x te rn a l in p u ts a n d o u tp u ts o f th e c lim a tic s y s te m
In te rn a l in te ra c tio n s o f th e c lim a tic s y s te m
[Source: OHare and Sweeney, The Atmospheric System, (1986), Oliver and Boyd, page 189]
(a)
Define the term model.

......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(b)
Identify two internal interactions in the figure above which affect the climate.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(1)
11
(c)
List four gases which are part of the atmosphere.

......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(d)
State how solar inputs and Earth outputs differ in their radiation wavelengths.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(1)
(e)
Outline the ways in which human activity can have an impact on climate.
......................................................................................................................................
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(3)
12
(f)
Evaluate the strengths and limitations of the model in the figure above for describing the
atmospheric system.
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(4)
(Total 13 marks)
13
8.
The figure below describes some features of an ecosystem at early and late stages during the
process of succession.
Feature
Early
Late
Organic matter
Small
Large
Nutrients
External
Internal
Nutrient cycles
Open
Closed
Role of detritus
Small
Large
Diversity
.............................
.............................
Nutrient conservation
Poor
Good
Niches
Wide
Narrow
Size of organisms
.............................
.............................
Life-cycles
Simple
Complex
Growth form
r-species
K-species
Stability
Poor
Good
[Source: D Briggs et al., Fundamentals of the Physical Environment, (Routledge, 1997) page 380.
Reproduced by permission of Taylor & Francis Books UK (Cengage Learning)]
(a)
Complete the figure above for diversity and size of organisms.

(2)
(b)
Distinguish between r-species and K-species.

......................................................................................................................................
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......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
14
(c)
Explain why the amount of organic matter increases as succession occurs.

......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(d)
(i)
Outline what is meant by the term ecosystem stability.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii)
Explain why ecosystems in the later stages of succession are likely to be more
stable.
...........................................................................................................................
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...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 9 marks)
9.
(a)
(i)
State the first law of thermodynamics.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
15
(ii)
Calculate the amount of energy output in the model below.
In p u t
1000 kJ
e n e rg y
1 0 % lo s s to
a tm o s p h e re
1 5 % s to re d
a fte r lo s s to
a tm o s p h e re
O U TPU T = ?
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
16
(b)
The diagram below represents a simplified hydrological cycle.
ATM O SPH ERE
2.
3.
1.
G RO U N D
(i)
4.
Identify the processes corresponding to the arrows labelled 1 to 4 in the diagram.

1.
................................................................
2.
................................................................
3.
................................................................
4.
................................................................
(2)
(ii)
Suggest one weakness in the model above.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
17
The graph below shows the estimated world water withdrawals from 1960 to 2000.
4
3
W a te r w ith d ra w a ls /
1 0 3 k m 3 y r1
2
1960
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
Year
[J Loh, The Living Planet Report, [2002] WWF (panda.org). Some rights reserved.]
(iii)
Calculate the percentage increase in world water withdrawals from 1960 to 2000.
...........................................................................................................................
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(2)
18
(iv)
Suggest three reasons for the increase in water withdrawals during the period 1960
to 2000.
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(3)
(Total 11 marks)
10.
(a)
Describe the role of greenhouse gases in maintaining mean global temperature.

(4)
(b)
Discuss the impact of global warming. Consider the potential effect on biomes, global
agriculture and human society.
(7)
(c)
Predictive models of climate change may give very different results. Explain this
statement with reference to the limitations of models and the contrasting arguments about
global warming.
(6)
(Total 20 marks)
11.
(a)
A tree can be thought of as a system. Draw and label a systems diagram of a tree that
shows inputs, outputs and storages of matter and energy.
(3)
19
(b)
State two functions of producers in an ecosystem.

......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(c)
For a named ecosystem, draw a food chain with named species showing three
appropriately labelled trophic levels.
(3)
(d)
Outline three reasons for the relative value of tropical rainforests in contributing to global
biodiversity.
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(3)
(e)
Explain the role of decomposers in an ecosystem.

......................................................................................................................................
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......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
20
(f)
Suggest what effect a significant and prolonged decrease in the pH of rainfall would have
on primary productivity in a terrestrial ecosystem. Explain your answer.
......................................................................................................................................
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(3)
(Total 16 marks)
The graph below shows the interdependence of population size of two species of mites.
Eotetranychus sexmaculatus serves as the food supply for Typholodromus occidentalis.
50
E . se x m a c u la tu s
2500
E . s e x m a c u la tu s
(p re y )
T . o c c id e n ta lis
(p re d a to r)
2000
40
1500
30
1000
20
500
10
T . o c c id e n ta lis
12.
0
5
10
15
20
J u ly
25
30
10
15
20
25
A u gu st
30
10
15
20
25
S e p te m b e r
30
10
15
20
25
O c to b e r
30 5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15 20 25
N ovem ber
D ecem ber
Ja n u a ry
F e b ru a ry
[Source: C B Huffaker, (1958), Hilgardia, Volume 27, pages 343383.

Reprinted by permission of University of California Press.]
(a)
Predict when the next population maximum of T. occidentalis will occur. Show your
working.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
21
(b)
Determine the numbers of both organisms on September 30.

T. occidentalis: ............................................................................................................
E. sexmaculatus: ......................................................... . ..............................................
(1)
(c)
(i)
Identify the five day period for which the rate of increase of E. sexmaculatus is at
its maximum.
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii)
Determine when the difference in numbers between both populations is at a

maximum.
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(d)
(i)
Calculate the time lag between the maximums of both species in the period from
October 5 through November 5.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii)
Suggest a reason for this time lag.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(e)
(i)
Describe the role that negative feedback might play in this species interaction.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(ii)
Explain why the global human population is less prone to negative feedback
control than other organisms.
22
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...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)
(f)
Outline two examples of feedback in global warming.

......................................................................................................................................
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......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 14 marks)
23
13.
Map of Chesapeake Bay showing areas of low and no oxygen content in estuary waters.
[MILLER, Living in the Environment, 15E. 2007 Brooks/Cole, a part of Cengage Learning, Inc.
Reproduced by permission. www.cengage.com/permissions]
Chesapeake Bay is the largest estuary in the United States. Human population in the area grew
from 3.7 million in 1940 to 15 million in 1995. Levels of phosphates and nitrates have risen
considerably in Chesapeake Bay over the last four decades. Studies show that point sources
contribute about 60 % of the phosphates and non-point sources contribute about 60 % of the
nitrates. Commercial harvests of oysters, crabs and several important fish have fallen sharply
since 1960. As a result of cleanup programs, between 1985 and 1992 phosphate levels declined
by 16 % and nitrate levels by 7 %. These decreases led to a 75 % increase in submerged
vegetation during the same time period.
(a)
Describe the process which causes the presence of anoxic areas (no oxygen) and low
oxygen areas in Chesapeake Bay. Include references to positive feedback in your answer.
(6)
24
(b)
Evaluate the impacts of the process given in (a) on the aquatic environment of
Chesapeake Bay.
(5)
(c)
Describe the types of action that could have led to the improvements in water quality
described above in recent years. Your response should include actions from all three
levels of the pollution management model.
(6)
(Total 20 marks)
14.
(a)
Outline two management strategies for dealing with solid waste.

......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(b)
(i)
Name the process which is accelerated by fertilizers washing into lakes and rivers.
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii)
Outline two impacts of the process you named in (b) (i) on aquatic ecosystems.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
25
(c)
(i)
State whether the model shown in the figure above illustrates an open system, a
closed system or an isolated system.
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii)
Justify your answer to (c) (i).

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(iii)
A model is a simplified description designed to show the structure or workings of

an object, system or concept. Discuss the strengths and limitations of the model
shown in the figure above.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
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(4)
(Total 12 marks)
26
15.
...loss of biological diversity around the world, from a multitude of causes, is correlated with
decreasing productivity, increasing fragility in systems and increasing exposure of farming
families to uncertainty, poverty and hunger. Reversing these trends will require a huge effort to
understand the ecological, economic and social problems, while at the same time educating
people from all walks of life producer, consumer, scientist, policy maker and farmer.
[Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)].
(a)
With reference to examples of specific ecosystems you have studied, outline the factors
which can lead to a loss in biodiversity.
(6)
(b)
Describe and explain the relationship between biodiversity and increasing fragility in
ecosystems.
(5)
(c)
Evaluate the importance of educating people from all walks of life in reversing the loss
of biodiversity.
(7)
(Total 20 marks)
16.
...there is constant interchange of various kinds within each system, not only between the
organisms but between the organic and inorganic. These ecosystems, as we may call them, are of
... various kinds and sizes. Tansley (1935)
(a)
Compare the characteristics of ecosystems and social systems.

(5)
(b)
Describe how populations of individual species interact within an ecosystem, using

named examples to support your answer.
(6)
(c)
Explain the relationship between climate and net primary productivity in two contrasting
biomes you have studied.
(7)
(Total 20 marks)
27
17.
Figures 1 and 2 represent the food webs for two ecosystems.

Figure 1. Terrestrial Grassland
S u n lig h t
G ra ss
a u to tro p h
In o rg a n ic
m a te ria l
D ecay
a n d m in e ra liz a tio n
H e rb iv o re
h e te ro tro p h
D e a th
C a rn iv o re
h e te ro tro p h
28
Figure 2. Marine Food Web

H um an
B a le e n w h a le
C ra b e a te r
seal
S p e rm w h a le
S m a ll-to o th e d
w h a le
L e o p a rd se a l
E le p h a n t
seal
S e a b ird
F is h
S q u id
C a rn iv o ro u s p la n k to n
K rill
H e rb iv o ro u s
p la n k to n
P h y to p la n k to n
[Source: Tudge, C (1991) Global Ecology, The Natural History Museum, pp. 112113]
(a)
(i)
State, giving two reasons, which of the food webs, Figure 1 or Figure 2, is likely to
be more stable.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
29
(ii)
Deduce what would happen to the ecosystem in Figure 1 if rabbits were removed.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(iii)
Predict two changes that may occur if foxes were removed from the food web in
Figure 1.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
Figure 3. Antarctic Marine Food Web
B a le e n w h a le s
K rill
S e a ls
S q u id
F is h
P e n g u in s
[Source: Trudge C (1991) Global Ecology, The Natural History Museum, pp. 113]
30
(b)
In Figure 3, the size of the circle represents the relative biomass of each animal species
within the food web.
Identify which of the diagrams in Figure 4 below best illustrates what would happen to
the food web balance in Figure 3,
(i)
if humans hunted for seals and fish.

...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii)
if humans harvested krill.

...........................................................................................................................
(1)
31
Figure 4.
D ia g ra m A
D ia g ra m B
D ia g ra m C
32
(c)
Current production may not be sustainable under present circumstances.

[FAO cited in World Fisheries Beyond Sustainability (2002)]
(i)
Define the term sustainable.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(ii)
Suggest what measures could be taken to ensure that krill are harvested sustainably.
...........................................................................................................................
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(4)
(Total 14 marks)
33
18.
The table below shows the productivity of different farming systems.

Table 1
System
Migratory pastoralist, Kenya
0.025
0.01
0.004
Shifting cultivation, Papua New Guinea
1.5
0.5
0.3
Cattle, UK
3.5
0.7
0.6
Wheat, UK
97
20
17
Maize, USA
104
18
18
A = harvested food energy (GJ ha yr ), expressed as

B = food energy used per person in the area (GJ ha
total food energy

land area
1
yr )
C = if food energy use per person were equivalent to that used by an average American in the
1990s
[Source: adapted from Primack, R B (1993), Essentials of Conservation Biology, OUP, pp. 111]
(a)
(i)
State which farming system produces the greatest amount of food energy.
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii)
Suggest why the farming system you identified in (a) (i) has such a high
productivity.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)
34
(iii)
In table 2 below, list the farming systems (from table 1) as either low input or high
input systems.
(2)
Table 2
Low Input Systems
(b)
(i)
High Input Systems
State how MEDCs (more economically developed countries) and LEDCs (less
economically developed countries) differ in terms of their dietary composition.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(ii)
Explain the differences between the ecological footprint of a LEDC and a MEDC.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
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(4)
35
(iii)
Suggest how intensive maize production may cause damage to the environment.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(iv)
Suggest how migratory pastoralists may cause damage to the environment.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(Total 15 marks)
19.
Four main factors affect the erosion of soil: crop type, climate, soil type and topography
(landscape shape). The figure below shows the interactions between these factors.
Soil Erosion Model
A
C ro p
B
C lim a te
C
S o il T y p e
D
To p o g ra p h y
In fu e n c e s s tru c tu re
a n d c o h e s io n o f s o il. A ls o
p ro te c ts s o il s u rfa c e .
R a in fa ll m a g n itu d e a n d
fre q u e n c y.
C la y, s a n d , s ilt a n d lo a m a ll
h a v e d iffe re n t q u a litie s .
S lo p e a n g le a n d le n g th
a ffe c t s o il e ro s io n ra te .
S o il lo s s
[T ORiordan, Environmental Science for Environmental Management, 1995, p. 233.

Reproduced by permission of Pearson Education]
36
(a)
Suggest how humans may have an impact on soil loss with reference to factors A, C and
D in the figure above.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(3)
(b)
(i)
Outline the cause of global warming.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)
37
(ii)
Explain how global warming may affect soils.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(4)
(c)
(i)
Define the term open system, and state an ecological example of such a system.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(ii)
Outline the Gaia hypothesis.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
38
(iii)
Suggest one weakness in the model shown in the figure above.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(Total 15 marks)
20.
Figure 1 shows a farming system and Figure 2 outlines the activities for the farm in areas A, B
and C over a year.
Figure 1
fru it tre e s :
m a n g o e s , ja c k fru it,
c o c o n u t p a lm a n d b e te l n u t
s e e d b e d s fo r to b a c c o
a n d ric e
k itc h e n g a rd e n :
v e g e ta b le s , s p ic e s ,
sugar cane
A rea A
lig h te r s o il b e tte r
d ra in e d a b o v e
fo o d in g
w o rk in g a n im a ls , m a in ly
c a ttle , u s e fo o d in w e t
s e a s o n ro u n d v illa g e , b u t
g ra z e s tu b b le a fte r h a rv e s t
A rea B
o p e n fe ld s
A rea C
p o o rly d ra in e d
la n d lia b le to
fo o d in g
f a m i l y l a b o u r, s e a s o n a l
ro ta tio n o f c ro p s
h e a v ie s t, p lo u g h e d la n d
fo o d e d a n d ric e p a d d ie s .
B a s ic irrig a tio n te c h n o lo g y
u s e d in d ry s e a s o n .
Figure 2
M o n th
M a rc h
S ea so n
P re m o n so o n
A p ril
M ay
S e p te m b e r
W et seaso n
M a rc h
D ry se aso n
A rea A
c a ttle in y a rd , m a n g o e s ,
v e g e ta b le s
re p a irin g a n d th a tc h in g , g re e n
c o c o n u ts , b e te l n u ts
A rea B
ju te
w h e a t, to b a c c o , m u s ta rd
A rea C
g ra z in g , ric e (fo o d in g )
g ra z in g
[Source: Adapted from M Carr, Patterns, Process and Change in Human Geography, Macmillan, (1987), page 142]
39
(a)
State, giving two reasons, whether this system is more typical of farming in a more
economically developed country (MEDC) or a less economically developed country
(LEDC).
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(b)
Complete the systems diagram below to show three inputs, processes and outputs for the
farming system shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2.
In p u ts
P ro c e sse s
1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FA R M
O u tp u ts
1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(3)
40
(c)
With reference to Figure 1 and Figure 2, describe two ways in which the farming system
has been developed in response to variations in the local environment.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
Figure 3 below shows nutrient cycling in a terraced paddy.

irrig a tio n
canal
lo w e r ric e
paddy
ric e p a d d y
n itro g e n fx a tio n b y
d e c a y o f ric e
b lu e -g re e n a lg a e
s tu b b le re le a s e s
n u trie n ts
te rra c e
ric e
w a te r
d e a d o rg a n ic
m a te ria l
ra p id b re a k d o w n
slo w b re a k d o w n
N O
little s o il
e ro s io n
o x id is e d z o n e
re d u c e d z o n e (little O 2)
little le a c h in g
41
(d)
With reference to Figure 3 define

(i)
leaching.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii)
nitrogen fixation.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(e)
With reference to Figure 3 explain the following.

(i)
There is very little soil erosion in this farming system.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii)
The dead organic material breaks down more rapidly in the oxidized zone.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(Total 11 marks)
21.
(a)
Describe the typical features of a climax community.

(4)
(b)
With reference to a named ecosystem describe the natural and human threats it faces and
discuss the consequences for its future equilibrium.
(10)
(c)
Explain, with the aid of an example, the role of feedback mechanisms in the regulation of
ecosystem equilibrium.
(4)
(Total 20 marks)
42
22.
(a)
Explain the increasing global demand for water and discuss the problems this causes for
managing water resources sustainably. Support your answer with reference to examples.
(5)
(b)
Describe the concept of an ecological footprint and evaluate its role as a model for
assessing the demands of humans on their environment.
(5)
(c)
Compare the approaches of technocentric and ecocentric resource managers to the issue
of an increasing demand for water resources.
(8)
(Total 20 marks)
23.
Diagrammatic representation of a eutrophic lake:
(a)
Define the term eutrophication.

......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
43
(b)
Identify process A and process B.

Process A: ....................................................................................................................
Process B: ....................................................................................................................
(2)
(c)
Suggest one agricultural source and one non-agricultural source that may account for
high phosphate levels.
Agricultural source: ....................................................................................................
Non-agricultural source: ..............................................................................................
(2)
(d)
Suggest how an environmental manager may reduce the impact of eutrophication.

......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(3)
(Total 9 marks)
44
24.
Introduction
The Asian tsunami* on 26 December 2004 was caused by an undersea earthquake and had a
devastating impact across the Indian Ocean, causing unprecedented human, economic and
environmental damage to those countries in its path.
The Maldives are a chain of 200 inhabited islands, with a maximum land height above sea
level of just 4 metres. The country suffered relatively small human losses, but per capita
has sustained the largest economic damage of any country. More than 70 islands were
directly affected.
* tsunami: a giant wave caused by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions or undersea landslides associated with active plate
margins
Figure 1 Freshwater supply in the Maldives

Freshwater lens formation on islands
A proportion of the freshwater falling as rain on an island infiltrates into the sandy soils
and accumulates as fresh groundwater. The freshwater, being less dense than saline
seawater, floats on the saline groundwater that infiltrates the island laterally at depth from
the sea. Because of density differences, a freshwater lens develops, which in general is
thickest at the centre of the island, where groundwater levels are highest (compared to
mean sea level). The typical ratio between the height of freshwater above mean sea level
compared to the depth of freshwater below mean sea level is of the order of 1:20.
Groundwater levels above mean sea level on small islands may be 0.10 metres to 0.50
metres above sea level, resulting in a freshwater lens depth of 2 metres to 10 metres thick.
In the Maldives 99 % of local households use rainwater as their drinking supply and
groundwater for other uses. When rainwater dries up, they use groundwater for
everything. The tsunami flooded many islands with seawater which contaminated
groundwater supplies. Sewage also leaks into groundwater supplies.
45
Figure 2 Hydrological model of coral islands

e v a p o tra n s p ira tio n
m e a n s e a le v e l
ra in fa ll
w e ll
la g o o n
ocean
fre s h w a te r
(g ro u n d w a te r)
s e a w a te r
(s a lin e g ro u n d w a te r)
c o ral
ro c k
Figure 3 Desalination prospects for the Maldives

There is a common misconception that, for small marine islands, desalination (the
removal of salt from seawater) is an ideal source of freshwater. The experience throughout
the small island regions of the world is that with a few exceptions, Male (the capital
island) being one of them, the operation of desalination plants is in fact unsustainable.
3
Desalination is expensive (up to US $8/m in Male) and likely to be higher on the outer
islands; it requires advanced technical training not commonly available in the outer
islands, it needs good cost-recovery to support complex spare part maintenance and it
requires the import and storage of diesel fuels. Some or all of these factors that are
required to sustain desalination are absent in small islands.
Outside of Male, resorts routinely use desalination plants. This is because tourists use
large volumes of water and rainwater cannot meet demand. The small size of the islands
means there is no groundwater available. The money generated by the resorts ensures
engineers can adequately service the desalination plant, without which the resorts would
close.
46
Figure 4 Well water quality in three Maldivian islands after the 2004 tsunami and the WHO
(World Health Organisation) recommended maximum background levels
Island
Nitrate/mg l
Ammonia/mg l
Phosphate/mg l
Chloride/mg l
Kulhuduffushi
29.2
2.4
0.5
529
Filladhoo
32.9
6.8
0.9
1200
Dhidhdhoo
43.8
0.7
0.3
402
WHO guidelines
50.0
1.50
Background < 0.1
250
47
Figure 5 Climate of the Maldives

M o n th ly a v e ra g e ra in fa ll a n d s u n s h in e
300
250
250
200
200
S u n s h in e / h o u rs
150
150
100
100
50
50
0
R a in fa ll / m m
J A
M o n th s
K ey :
ra in fa ll
s u n s h in e
48
Figure 6 Climate change and sea level rise in the Maldives

The islands of the Maldives rise, on average, up to 4 metres above sea level. In 1987 and
1991, storm surges flooded a large number of islands, including one-third of the capital
where one-quarter of the countrys population lives. Unusually high waves forced the
international airport to close, causing great damage to tourism and constraining
emergency relief operations. Recent surveys have shown that almost one-third of the 200
inhabited islands were faced with serious beach erosion problems.
Sea level rise is not a fashionable scientific hypothesis but a fact. Already in this century,
the seas have risen between 10 cm and 25 cm. The prevailing scientific consensus holds
that human action, affecting the world climate, will cause the seas to rise more rapidly in
the future.
Countries need to pursue immediate measures by relocating their populations away from
areas of risk and taking protective measures to prevent flooding. For small island
countries relocation is not possible and because defences against flooding are
prohibitively expensive to construct, considerable external assistance would be needed.
49
Figure 7 Trends in island tourism, adapted from www.ourplanet.com

Tourism is expected to go on growing by approximately 5 % per year. World Tourism
Organization (WTO) projections suggest that international arrivals will rise to 800 million
in 2007 and one billion in 2010. The vast majority of tourists will continue to come from
the developed world, but economic expansion and per capita income growth in
developing countries such as Brazil, China and India will, over the long term, add to
the upward trend. This outlook makes tourism one of the most economically strong
sectors of the global economy.
In order to enhance the long-term viability of the tourist sector, many small island
developing countries have embarked on forward-looking strategies to improve efficiency.
50
Figure 8(a) Outline map of an atoll island, indicating land above sea level airstrip
a irs trip
d e e p w a te r
channel
n a tu re
re se rv e
h o te l
0 k. 5 m
to u ris t b e a c h
51
Figure 8(b) Cross-section of an atoll island
5 m e tre s
p re s e n t s e a le v e l
52
Figure 9 Countries with chronic water scarcity (below 2740 litre capita
2025 and 2050 compared to a number of other countries
Country
Available water /
1
1
litre capita day
in 2000
day ) in 2000,
Available water /
1
1
litre capita day
in 2025
Available water /
1
1
litre capita day
in 2050
Saudi Arabia
325
166
118
Israel
969
738
644
Somalia
3206
1562
1015
Malawi
4656
2508
1715
UK
3337
3270
3315
India
5670
4291
3724
China
6108
5266
5140
USA
24420
20405
19521
[Source: B Lomborg, The Skeptical Environmentalist, (2001). Reproduced by permission of Cambridge University Press]
53
Figure 10 Percentage of people living with chronic water scarcity

2000
2025
2050
3.7 %
8.6 %
17.8 %
[Source: B Lomborg, The Skeptical Environmentalist, (2001). Reproduced by permission of Cambridge University Press]
54
25.
(a)
What geographical features make the Maldives susceptible to damage from a tsunami?
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
55
(b)
List the three types of freshwater supply the Maldivian population relies on and state
whether each supply is renewable or replenishable.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(3)
56
(c)
Describe the state of Maldivian groundwater after the 2004 tsunami. Suggest sources of
contamination.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(4)
57
(d)
(i)
Deduce why water resources may become a limiting factor for Maldivian tourism.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
58
(ii)
Outline the trend in global water resources up to 2050.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
59
(e)
Discuss and evaluate three strategies to make tourism more sustainable in the Maldives.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(6)
60
(f)
Tourism is an important economic activity in the Maldives. Construct a model (diagram)

that demonstrates the range of impacts tourism may have both directly and indirectly on
Maldivian ecosystems.
T o u ris m
(4)
61
(g)
State two positive impacts of tourism.

......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 25 marks)
26.
The Gaia Hypothesis proposes that our planet functions as a single organism that maintains
conditions necessary for its survival by feedback mechanisms. It was formulated by James
Lovelock in the mid-1960s. In his recent book The revenge of Gaia, he suggests that we have
passed the tipping point on global warming and that feedback mechanisms will speed up the
rate of global warming.
(a)
State what type of system the Earth is and what the inputs and outputs are
(3)
(b)
Using positive and negative feedback models explain the process of climate change.
(7)
(c)
Scientists use computer simulations to model the effects of changes in the temperature of
the Earth. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of this modelling.
(4)
(d)
Describe your personal viewpoint on the global warming issue and justify your position
based on the evidence.
(4)
(Total 20 marks)
62
27.
The diagram below shows succession in a sand dune ecosystem.

A
(a)
(i)
Define the term succession.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(ii)
State what variable may be appropriate for the x-axis in the diagram above.
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(iii)
Outline what will happen to soils as the ecosystem in the diagram above changes
from A to B.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
63
(b)
State what is happening within a system when a decrease in variable P leads to a

decrease in variable Q which in turn leads to a further decrease in variable P.
......................................................................................................................................
(1)
(Total 6 marks)
28.
Figure 1 Relationship between number of

rodent species and altitude
Figure 2 Altitude habitat model 100
100
s s n o w lin e
N u m b e rs
of
ro d e n t
s p e c ie s
(a)
A ltitu d e in
m e tre s
3000
m o u n ta in
With reference to Figure 1 describe the relationship which appears to exist between
altitude and the number of rodent species.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(1)
64
(b)
Predict three ways in which the altitude habitat model in Figure 2 might change as a
result of global warming.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(3)
65
(c)
Figure 3 shows the numbers of wood mice and bank voles collected from traps.
The number above the trapping point () represents wood mice and the number below the
trapping point () represents bank voles.
Figure 3
K ey :
120 m
3
1
ro u g h g ra ss
w o o d la n d
b ra c k e n
140 m
[Source: A Cadogan and G Best, Environment and Ecology, page 51, Blackie and Sons Ltd, 1992]
Figure 4
(i)
Rough grass
Woodland
Wood mice
50
Bank voles
15
Bracken
Complete Figure 4 by calculating the numbers of wood mice and bank voles found
in bracken.
(1)
66
(ii)
Suggest two reasons for the relationship between numbers of wood mice and bank
voles and habitat shown in Figure 3 and Figure 4.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(iii)
Explain why the wood mice and bank voles were marked and released after
capture.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(Total 8 marks)
29.
Figure 1 shows energy flow through a food chain.

Figure 1
p rim a ry p ro d u c e rs
9 0 0 k c a l m 2 y r1
(a)
(i)
c a ttle
2 5 6 k c a l m 2 y r1
hum an
6 .6 k c a l m 2 y r 1
Calculate the percentage energy loss to humans from the initial input of
2 1
900 kcal m yr .
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
67
(ii)
Explain why farming systems based on crop production are more energy efficient
than harvesting from the sea.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(iii)
Suggest two ways in which energy may be lost from the system.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(b)
(i)
Suggest three reasons why livestock (cattle, goats, sheep, etc.) form a part of most
farming systems.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)
68
(ii)
Figure 2 shows a systems diagram for a farm. Annotate the diagram to show two
inputs and two outputs, and their possible environmental impacts.
Figure 2
IN P U T S
In p u t
Im p a c t
In p u t
Im p a c t
O U TPU TS
O u tp u t
Im p a c t
O u tp u t
Im p a c t
(4)
(Total 13 marks)
69
30.
(a)
Outline what is meant by a model.

(2)
(b)
Evaluate the models used:
to predict the growth of human populations
to predict climate change
to assess demands human populations make on their environments.

(9)
(c)
With reference to examples, explain the importance of understanding cultural factors

when designing policies to control population growth.
(7)
(Total 20 marks)
31.
(a)
Describe the role of soil in the transfer and transformation of water and nitrogen within
an ecosystem.
(5)
(b)
Compare soil management strategies in a named commercial farming system with those
in a named subsistence farming system.
(8)
(c)
Discuss how viewing soils as systems can help farmers to understand and reduce the
causes of soil degradation.
(5)
(Total 20 marks)
70
32.
Below is a diagram from UNESCO showing relationships between development, the

environment and health.
Sustainable development spirals
T H E D E S C E N D IN G S P IR A L
In a p p ro p ria te
d e v e lo p m e n t
E n v iro n m e n t
Im p a c ts
H e a lth
U n d e rm in e s
In h ib its
D e v e lo p m e n t
D e g rad e s
T H E A S C E N D IN G S P IR A L
M a k e s p o s s ib le
S u s ta in a b le d e v e lo p m e n t
H e a lth
In c re a se s
Im p ro v e s
S u s ta in s
D e v e lo p m e n t
E n v iro n m e n t
[Source: Sustainable development spirals, United Nations Environment Programme]
71
(a)
State, giving one reason, what kind of system feedback is illustrated by the descending
spiral.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(1)
(b)
Discuss the meaning of the term sustainable development with reference to the diagram
above.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(c)
Evaluate the strengths and limitations of the models shown in the diagram above.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 5 marks)
72
33.
Figure 1 Location map of Madagascar
[ Conservation International Foundation]
Figure 2 Introduction
Madagascar has an astounding total of eight plant families, four bird families, and five
primate families that are endemic, that is they live nowhere else on Earth.
Madagascars more than fifty lemur species are the islands charismatic worldwide
ambassadors for conservation, although, tragically, fifteen more species have been driven to
extinction since humans arrived.
Madagascar broke off from the Gondwanaland super continent more than 160 million years
ago and is an example of species evolution in isolation. Despite close proximity to Africa,
the island does not share any of the typical animal groups of nearby Africa. Instead,
Madagascar has evolved unique species, with high levels of endemism (species unique to a
geographical location).
The natural vegetation of the island is diverse. On Madagascar, tropical rainforests in the
east give way to dry deciduous forests along the western coast. A unique spiny desert covers
the extreme south. The island also has several high mountain ecosystems, which are
characterized by forest with mosses and lichens.
73
Figure 3 A climate graph for Toamasina, a major seaport in Madagascar. It has an elevation of
five metres.
450
400
m ax
av erag e
m in
30
25
T e m p e ra tu re
/ C
350
T e m p e ra tu re
300
250
20
200
15
150
10
100
50
Jan F e b M a r A p r M a y Ju n
Jul A ug S ep O ct N ov D ec
84
86 85
85
87
86
86
86
84
83
83
85
R a in fa ll /
m m
H u m id ity / %
7
H o u rs o f s u n s h in e p e r d a y
[Courtesy of Columbus Travel Media]
74
Figure 4 Madagascar: key environmental facts

Area / km
600 461
Vegetation remaining / km
60 046
11 600
Endemic plant species
57
Endemic threatened bird species
51
Endemic threatened mammal species
61
Endemic threatened amphibian species

Extinct species
Human population density / people/km

Area protected / km
Key:
45
32
18 482
endemic: species found only in this location

recorded extinctions since the year 1500
75
Figure 5 Human impacts

The geographic isolation that allowed Madagascar to evolve diverse and unique species
also contributed to its environmental degradation. Because humans did not arrive on the
islands until 15002000 years ago, the native animals were not initially afraid and were
easily hunted by the colonists.
The Malagasy people came to Madagascar from Africa and Asia and imported rice
cultivation, slash-and-burn farming and cattle grazing, which are inappropriate for
infertile, lateritic soils and were devastating to the fragile ecosystems of the island. The
central plateau of Madagascar is almost completely deforested and is now a lifeless land
of infertile, baked red earth. It is estimated that only about 17 % of the original vegetation
of Madagascar remains.
The 18 million people who live in Madagascar today do not represent a very large
number considering the land area of the island. However, the population is growing at
more than 3 % per year and is expected to double by the year 2025. In an area that is
already one of the most economically disadvantaged in the world, this growth rate is
putting tremendous pressure on the natural environment. In addition to agriculture,
hunting and logging, industry and small-scale mining are growing threats.
On the other Indian Ocean Islands, these same threats have been worsened by the
introduction of invasive alien species, brought as food sources, pets or for pest control.
Rats, cats and mongooses have devastated populations of birds and small reptiles, while
grazing rabbits, goats, pigs, and deer have stripped many landscapes. In addition, exotic
plant species such as water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) threaten the biodiversity of
freshwater ecosystems.
76
Figure 6 Soil degradation on the central plateau

Madagascar suffers from some of the worst land degradation and erosion in the world as
seen by the dark areas of the aerial photograph below.
[Source: www.photos.wildmadagascar.org]
77
Figure 7 Logging tables
Conventional logging
Too many roads and skidtrails
Too many landings that are too large
Substantial canopy opening
Subsequent invasion by vines and pioneer plant species
Significant damage to other vegetation, including future crop trees
Large number of lost logs
Reduced-impact logging
Reduces soil disturbed in roads, landings, and skidtrails by almost 50 %
Significantly less canopy opening
Better survival of residual trees
Faster recovery; shorter cutting cycles
Total cost is 1015 % lower
Wood waste is reduced by more than 60 %
[Source: Tropical Forest Foundation]
78
Figure 8 Conservation in Madagascar

About 2.7 % of Madagascars land area is officially protected in national parks, strict nature
reserves established to conserve ecosystems and special reserves designed to protect a
particular species or a group of species.
Attempts to identify and safeguard the areas remaining natural habitats are being
implemented with projects that demonstrate the value of this conservation to the country.
For example, in much of Madagascar the economic value of the remaining forests is of
enormous importance. Eco-tourism has provided a source of income for local communities.
Efforts at species-focused conservation represent important progress for the future of
several unique species. A number of lemur species have been bred successfully in captivity,
and, in 1997, the first lemur reintroduction program introduced captive-born black and
white ruffed lemurs into the Betampona Nature Reserve.
Photograph of a black and white ruffed lemur
[Source: adapted from www.images.wildmadagascar.org/pictures/1997/sifaka1.gif]
Lemurs have been the focal point of species-based conservation efforts in Madagascar.
79
Figure 9 Tropical forest ecosystem

The diagram below represents a tropical forest ecosystem on the north east coast of Madagascar.
The climax vegetation type up to the coastal margin is mixed tropical forest.
Table of surveyed animal groups present at the three sites shown on the map above.
Number of species
Animal group
Site 1
Site 2
Site 3
Lemurs
Tenrecs (rodent-like insectivores)
Geckos and chameleons
12
Carnivores (fossa, fanaloka, mongoose)
Frogs
Insects
14
Scorpions
[Source: adapted from www.europe.2007-aliens.org]
80
34.
(a)
Suggest why Madagascar has such

(i)
high biodiversity.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
81
(ii)
high rates of endemism (species only found in Madagascar).

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
82
(b)
Explain why Madagascan species have been vulnerable to hunting in the past.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(1)
83
(c)
Construct a model (diagram) that demonstrates why the soil of the central plateau in
Madagascar has become degraded.
(4)
84
(d)
With reference to Figure 7, explain why reduced-impact logging is likely to be more

sustainable than conventional logging.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
85
(e)
(i)
With reference to Figure 4, calculate the proportion of Madagascars total area

which is protected.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
86
(ii)
Suggest two reasons why the economic benefits of conservation are being
promoted by the authorities in Madagascar.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
87
(f)
With reference to Figure 9,

(i)
suggest two reasons for the variation in animal groups found at sites 1, 2 and 3.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)
88
(ii)
evaluate the reserve shown according to principles of good reserve design.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)
89
(g)
(i)
With reference to Figure 5, state the expected total Madagascan population in

2025.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
90
(ii)
Justify whether or not you think the government should attempt to reduce the rate
of population growth on the island.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 23 marks)
91
35.
The first law of thermodynamics concerns the conservation of energy, whilst the second law
explains the dissipation of energy not available for work.
(a)
(i)
State, giving the reason, which of these laws explains why natural systems are
never isolated.
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
92
(ii)
In the space below, draw a flow diagram model to illustrate an example of negative
feedback within an ecosystem.
(2)
93
Figure 1 The image below shows heather (Calluna vulgaris) which is a pioneer plant species
in moorland succession
94
Figure 2 The table below shows the growth stages of heather

Life stage
Height / cm
Cover / %
Early
24
12
290
150
Building
52
94
1500
440
Mature
63
78
1900
360
Degenerate
55
41
1000
140
Biomass / g m
Productivity / g m yr
[Source: Table showing growth stages of heather from Biological Sciences Review, (Philip Allan Updates, (November 2005).
Reproduced by permission of Philip Allan Updates.]
95
(b)
(i)
Construct an appropriate graph to illustrate the relationship between biomass and

productivity within the development of heather moorland.
(4)
96
(ii)
Describe and explain the trend in percentage cover for heather shown by the data in
Figure 2.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)
(Total 10 marks)
97
36.
Introduction
Uganda is a relatively small country in east Africa with a rapidly growing and ethnically
diverse population. The economy of the country is heavily dependent on farming which
employs 83 % of its workforce. While rainforests have extraordinary global significance,
conservation efforts in Uganda clearly need to take into account the needs of both the local
communities and the national economy as a whole. Management of their forest reserves has
moved toward meeting social, economic and conservation needs within the country. In
Kibale National Park, for example, the protected area is surrounded by 7 parishes (areas
of local government with strong family and tribal ties) where approximately 150 000 people
live. These boundary communities extract more than 20 different products from the park to
meet some of their subsistence, commercial, cultural and medicinal needs.
98
Figure 1 Map showing the location of Kibale National Park in Uganda
SU D A N
K E N YA
K itg u m
A ru a
Z A IR E
M o ro lo
G u lu
M a sin d i
H o lm a
K ib a le
N a tio n a l
P a rk
U G A N D A
M b a le
F o rtP o rta l
K a m p a la
J in ja
e q u a to r
E n te b b e
M asaka
M b a ra ra
KK a ab b a a l lee
T A N Z A N IA
L ake
V ic to ria
RW A N D A
[Source: www.usu.edu. Reproduced by permission of Utah State University]
99
Figure 2 Map of Kibale National Park and surrounding parishes
100
Figure 3 The model on which the original proposal for the Kibale National Park was based
T h e U g a n d a s tra te g y fo r m a n a g in g th e ir tr o p ic a l fo re s t w a s s ta rte d b y th e W o rld B a n k F o re s try R e h a b ilita tio n
P ro g ra m m e a n d th e o r ig in a l p ro p o s a l fo r K ib a le N a tio n a l P a rk w a s b a s e d o n th e ir M a n a n d th e b io s p h e re
m o d e l s h o w n b e lo w .
P ro d u c tio n z o n e 5 0 %
B u ffe r z o n e 3 0 %
S tric t re s e r v e 2 0 %
K ey:
S tric t re s e rv e
(0 % o f th e f o re s t a re a ) w h e re a ll d ire c t h u m a n im p a c t is p ro h ib ite d
B u ffe r z o n e
(3 0 % o f th e fo re s t a re a ) m a n a g e d fo r e c o to u ris m , e d u c a tio n , re s e a rc h
a n d c o n tro lle d h a rv e s tin g b y lo c a l c o m m u n ity o f m in o r fo r e s t p ro d u c ts
e .g . w ild c o ffe e
P ro d u c tio n z o n e
(5 0 % o f th e fo re s t a re a ) m a n a g e d fo r s u s ta in a b le fo re s try a n d lo c a l
c o m m u n ity u s e
[Source: adapted from D Earl, (1992), Wise Management of Tropical Forest for Timber Production, Tourism and
Wildlife, Wise Management of Tropical Forests, Oxford University Press, Oxford]
101
Figure 4 Data showing diameter and abundance of Ficus* species in logged and unlogged
Ugandan rainforest
2
Number of Ficus species trees / km by diameter class (cm)
Forest Type
10 20
21 30
31 50
51 70
71 90
91 110
> 110
Unlogged
40
20
Logged
153
77
101
* Ficus species are fig trees that grow by attaching themselves to the main trunks or stems of
other forest trees. The trees that they grow against are very often those that provide timber for
the loggers. In a typical rainforest they provide abundant food for many fruit-eating birds and
insects, particularly at times when there are very few alternative food sources available. Many
other trees and shrubs depend on these bird populations for dispersal of their seeds. Because so
many species depend upon Ficus species, they are frequently referred to as keystone species
in a forest ecosystem.
[Source: adapted from D Alder, (1991), Uganda Forestry Rehabilitation Project Data Processing for the Budongo
Forest Inventory, report DA-UG-4]
Figure 5 Figure showing relative abundance of seven primate species in adjacent areas of
mechanically logged and undisturbed forest at Kibale National Park
M e c h a n ic a lly lo g g e d fo r e s t
U n d is tu r b e d fo r e s t
R e d c o lo b u s
R e d ta il m o n k e y
B lu e m o n k e y
C h im p a n z e e
B la c k a n d w h ite c o lo b u s
M angabey
L H o e s t s m o n k e y
6
In d e x o f a b u n d a n c e (n u m b e r o f p rim a te g ro u p s /k m )
(n u m b e r o f in d iv id u a ls /k m in c a s e o f c h im p a n z e e s )
[P Howard (1991) Nature Conservation in Ugandas Tropical Forest Reserves, IUCN Publishers.
Reproduced by permission]
102
Figure 6 Conservation and indigenous peoples

The removal of people in establishing protected areas in Africa is the most basic form of
ecological restoration, and is based on the idea that human occupation is unnatural. In
some instances this may be true, but in most it is not, and serious questions of human rights
are raised by the imposition of wilderness conditions through the eviction of farmers,
hunter-gatherers or pastoralists. Many institutional and legal problems arise, but are
typically met through various forms of community outreach programmes, sometimes with
revenue sharing, development aid and access for resource use.
[M Penrow and A Davy, Handbook of Ecological Restoration, (2002).
Reproduced by permission of Cambridge University Press.]
Figure 7 Sample letters received by the Kibale chief warden from parish members around
the park
This is to tell you that when we went in the park we saw four people pit-sawing timber
around Lake Kiribwato. We are therefore calling you to come and patrol the area. The
resource users reported to me of that illegal activity.
General Secretary, LC II, Nyabweya Parish, 6 June 2000
There are five people who are in the park, hunting. We saw them while we were checking
coffee areas. Bring rangers and we will arrange to catch them. Come quickly before they
come out of the forest.
Resource User, Nyakarongo Parish, 2 March 2000
Madam, we are informing you that people are burning charcoal in the park. Please arrange
to send rangers for patrolling. We shall guide you to show the areas and the people
involved.
LC II Office, Kiziba Parish, 8 November 2000
I hereby inform you that after Mweya coordination meeting we patrolled the park and found
that pit sawyers had split a tree in the park but upon seeing us they ran away. So, we
collected their tools and took them to the office of LC II. We wanted someone to come so that
we could hand them in to your office. But they never showed up. We still have in our
possession two machetes, one rope and one file for sharpening.
User Group Member, Kakooga
[Adapted from P Chhetri, A Mughisa, and S White (2003), Community resource use in Kibale and Mount Elgon National Parks,
Uganda. In: G Borrini-Feyerabend and T Sandwith (eds) Conservation Partnerships in Africa, Parks journal, IUCN Gland,
Switzerland, 13:1, pages 28-38 Box 1]
103
Figure 8 A selection of strategies employed to develop a cooperative partnership between the

local population and the management of Kibale National Park
Strategy 1 allowing local people access to park resources
Cooperative resource management allows people access to selected resources under certain
conditions. In return the resource users undertake to monitor and regulate resource-harvesting
levels and to protect the resource use areas. Formal agreements are negotiated and signed by
Uganda Wildlife Authority (UWA) and by resource users. Kibale National Park has entered
into a number of agreements, involving 29 % of surrounding parishes. Of these, three
agreements were for harvesting wild coffee in the park by people in Mbaale, Kabirizi and
Nyakarongo parishes, one agreement allowed extraction of multiple resources such as
papyrus, craft materials, medicinal plants, grass for thatching and access to crater lakes for
fishing at Nyabweya.
Strategy 2 problem-animal management
In Kibale National Park, the loss of crops to park animals is perhaps the biggest source of
conflict between local communities and park managers. UWA, working with local
communities, tested a number of deterrents to keep the park animals from entering the
farmers fields. They included digging a trench, live fencing with Mauritius thorn
(Caesalpinia decapetala), placing sharp objects, scare-shooting and growing buffer crops
such as tea and soybean that are not easily eaten by wild animals. Of these, the trench and
Mauritius thorn fencing were found to be the most effective measures to keep bush pigs and
elephants out of crops.
Strategy 3 partnerships to reduce pressures on protected areas
Unsustainable development outside the parks forces people to turn to park resources for food,
other subsistence products and even to generate cash income. By cooperating with the district
authorities to promote environmentally sustainable development outside the parks, UWA is
helping to reduce pressures on the parks. These projects, which are also working with local
NGOs, include a variety of activities e.g. beekeeping (honey production) under managed
conditions within the park, domestic pig farming, coffee and fruit growing.
Strategy 4 revenue sharing
UWAs policy of allocating 20 % of the entrance fees to surrounding local authorities is a
good example of sharing benefits from conservation. However, the actual amounts shared are
small, as they are limited to gate fees only and do not include a wide range of other sources of
revenue such as trekking fees, camping fees, etc. For example, Kibale National Park earned a
total of US $116 300 in the year 2002 but only US $7800 was given to nearby communities.
[Source: adapted from P Chettri, A Mughisa, and S White, (2003), Community Resource Use in Kibale and Mount
Elgon National Parks, Uganda Parks, 13:1, pages 2838]
104
Figure 9 Decentralization
Decentralization is the process whereby a central government gives up some of its
management powers to local government, local leaders or community institutions. Central
governments have often found it hard to enforce some policies such as grazing allocations,
fishing quotas and forest use because of resistance in local communities. Decentralization
can bridge this gap by creating ways for people to negotiate mutually acceptable
environmental goals with governments.
The first wave of decentralization was seen in developing countries in the late 1980s and
early 1990s, frequently resulting in some form of decentralized natural resource management.
Uganda tried to recreate its government in a way that was responsive to citizens and would
promote local governments after years of repressive rule. From the mid-1990s onward, a
second form of decentralization became popular thanks to the efforts of donor agencies
targeting aid toward specific environmental and social sectors. For instance, donor agencies
supported the establishment of forest and wildlife committees in Uganda.
[Source: adapted from World Resources 20022004, (2003), World Resources Institute]
105
Figure 10 The roles of local organizations in the decentralization of forest management in

Uganda
A survey was carried out of local organizations and governmental bodies associated with forest
management in Uganda in order to identify the roles each played. The organizations were
considered in three categories district governments, parish authorities and support
organizations (e.g. NGOs, research institutes). The table below records results of this survey
where the figures represent the percentage of responses from each category that considered
themselves to contribute to the given role.
Note: N = the number of organizations surveyed in each category.
District
governments
(N = 47)
Parish
authorities
(N = 169)
Support
organizations
(N = 20)
Promotion of tree-planting
98
95
90
Promotion of energy conservation technologies
43
35
Monitoring illegal forest use
57
23
20
Promotion of bee-keeping
30
23
20
Formulation of policies and local laws
47
19
15
Promotion of ecotourism
17
10
15
Promotion of forestry research
35
Seeking funding for forestry activities
Roles
[Source: adapted from N Turyahabwe, C Geldenhuys, S Watts, and J Obua, (2007), Local Organizations and
Decentralised Forest Management in Uganda, International Forestry Review, 9:2, page 588]
37.
(a)
Suggest two ways in which the buffer zone of the Man and the biosphere model
(Figure 3) may contribute toward achieving effective conservation of the forest
ecosystem.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
106
(b)
Identify one way in which the Kibale National Park differs significantly from the model
on which it was based, and state how that difference may influence the success of
conservation within the park.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(c)
(i)
Calculate (to the nearest whole number) the percentage of Ficus species trees
(Figure 4) that have a diameter of 50 cm or less in unlogged and in logged forest.
Show your calculations.
Unlogged: .........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
Logged: .............................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(ii)
Suggest two reasons why logging may have caused the differences in abundance of
size classes in the populations of Ficus.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
107
(d)
From an ecosystem you have studied, identify another species that, like Ficus, may be
described as a keystone species. Justify your answer.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(e)
(i)
Outline the differences in abundance of primate species between mechanically

logged and undisturbed parts of Kibale National Park forest (Figure 5).
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(ii)
Suggest an explanation for the difference of abundance in Black and white colobus
between the two areas.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(iii)
Assuming that the recording of data in the study was completely reliable, state one
other assumption that must be made in order to conclude that the differences found
in primate abundance between the two areas is due to logging activity.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
108
(f)
From your own study, or from the information provided in the resource booklet, state one
way in which logging may not be considered a truly sustainable activity even when
harvesting is kept to below maximum sustainable yields.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(1)
(g)
Four parishes are specifically referred to in Figure 8 as entering into agreements with the
UWA. From an examination of the location of these four and the other parishes on the
map, suggest two reasons why other named parishes may be less willing to enter into
such agreements.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(h)
Identify one cause for indigenous people to have negative attitudes toward the
establishment of the Kibale National Park, and explain how one of the strategies adopted
by the park management may help to overcome it.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
109
(i)
In the study reported in Figure 10, identify one role in which the three groups show a
significant difference in their contribution and suggest a reason for this difference.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(j)
From the information given in the resource booklet, identify and discuss two pieces of
evidence that could be used to suggest the Kibale National Park has achieved a degree of
success in its conservation aims. (Use the figure numbers to refer specifically to any
evidence you identify.)
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(4)
(Total 25 marks)
110
38.
(a)
Distinguish between the terms renewable, replenishable and non-renewable natural

capital.
(3)
(b)
With reference to a named example of replenishable natural capital, explain how human
actions are damaging the resource and discuss the possible effects of this.
(8)
(c)
Describe the Gaia hypothesis and evaluate the usefulness of a global perspective for
managing resources sustainably.
(7)
(Total 20 marks)
39.
Some people believe that population control should be given equal weight to resource use in
environmental management.
(a)
Discuss, with reference to the statement above, the relationships which exist between
human population growth, resource consumption and carrying capacity.
(5)
(b)
Describe and compare the role of density-dependent and density-independent factors in

the regulation of animal populations.
(4)
(c)
Explain why an understanding of equilibrium is important for the successful management

of ecosystems. In your answer you should refer to examples of ecosystems where this
equilibrium has been upset by human activities.
(9)
(Total 20 marks)
40.
The table below gives a list of energy sources used to generate electricity and their cost per
kilowatt hour.
Energy source
Unit cost / kw hr
Coal
4.8 5.5
Natural gas
3.9 4.4
Nuclear
11.0 14.5
Wind
4.0 6.0
Hydro electric
5.1 11.3
Solar
15.0 30.0
111
(a)
Identify the two energy sources with the average lowest cost in the table above, and state
one advantage and one disadvantage of each.
Energy source
...........................................
...........................................
Advantage
Disadvantage
...........................................
...........................................
...........................................
...........................................
...........................................
...........................................
...........................................
...........................................
(3)
(b)
Outline two reasons why a country may not use the cheapest energy source to produce
electricity.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(c)
Suggest two reasons why it is so difficult to persuade people to reduce the amount of
energy that they use.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
112
(d)
Describe how the second law of thermodynamics applies to environmental systems.

......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(1)
(Total 8 marks)
41.
Figure 1 shows two wildlife reserve models. Model A has two isolated reserves whilst Model B
has a corridor connecting the reserves. Species X, Y and Z are found in all three reserves.
Figure 1
M odelA
M od el B
S p e c ie s X ,Y, Z
S p e c ie s X ,Y, Z
R oad
S p e c ie s
X ,Y, Z
S p e c ie s
X ,Y, Z
1km
(a)
1km
In Figure 1, state, giving a reason, whether Model A or Model B is better for the
conservation of genetic diversity of species X.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(1)
113
Figure 2
B IO M A S S
P re c ip ita tio n
L IT T E R
S O IL
R u n o ff
L e a c h in g
W e a th e rin g
(b)
Figure 2 is a nutrient model for a rainforest ecosystem. The size of the circles represents
the amount of nutrients stored and the width of the arrows represents size of the flow of
nutrients.
(i)
Explain why the nutrient store for the biomass is so large.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii)
Explain why losses due to leaching are so large.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
114
(iii)
State, giving a reason, whether the model in Figure 2 shows an open or closed
system.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(iv)
Evaluate the strengths and limitations of the model shown in Figure 2.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(c)
Outline two reasons why tropical rainforests are vulnerable to habitat destruction.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 8 marks)
42.
Figure 1 Introduction
Svalbard is a group of islands within the Arctic Circle and 1000 km north of Norway. For
nearly four months of the year it is in complete darkness. Glaciers and snowfields cover 60%
of the total area. The sea freezes for part of the year. Spitsbergen is the largest island in the
group, with the only permanent settlements. There are no roads except within and close to
these settlements.
115
Figure 2 Fact file on Svalbard
the warm, North Atlantic Current flows along the west and north coasts of Spitsbergen
Svalbard has a permafrost layer 450 metres deep, only the top metre of soil melts during
the summer
natural resources include coal, iron ore, copper, zinc, phosphate, wildlife and fish
reserves of oil and gas are believed to lie beneath the seas round Svalbard
there are no trees
many scientists come to the islands to study the glaciers and the regions unique wildlife
a global seed store for conserving seeds collected from all over the world has recently
been built on the island
tourism is becoming increasingly important
Figure 3 Temperature and precipitation data for Svalbard

The mean monthly air temperature for two consecutive
time periods (19611990 and 19912004)
10
T e m p e ra tu re / C
K ey:
19611990
19912004
-5
-1 0
-1 5
D ecem ber
N ovem ber
O c to b e r
S e p te m b e r
A u g u st
J u ly
June
M ay
A p ril
M arc h
F e b ru a ry
Ja n u a ry
-2 0
M o n th
[Source: data adapted from Norwegian Meteorological Institute]
116
The mean monthly precipitation for two consecutive

time periods (19611990 and 19912004)
45
35
K ey:
30
M e a n p re c ip ita tio n
19611990
25
20
M e a n p re c ip ita tio n
19912004
15
10
N ovem ber
O c to b e r
A ugust
S e p te m b e r
M o n th
J u ly
June
M ay
A p ril
M a rc h
F e b ru a ry
D ecem ber
5
Ja n u ary
P re c ip ita tio n /m m
40
[Source: data adapted from Norwegian Meteorological Institute]
117
Figure 4 Plants and animals of Svalbard
Svalbard reindeer
(Raingifer tarandus
platyrhynchus)
[Marius Fiskum,
www.fotopia.no]
Common_eider
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Arctic fox
(Alopex lagopus)
[Source: Mr Per Herald
Olsen, no.wikipedia]
Snow bunting
(Plectrophenax nivalis)
Purple Saxifrage, Saxifraga

oppositifolia, Svalbard, July
2002, Michael Haferkamp.
This file is licensed under
the Creative Commons
Attribution ShareAlike 3.0
Rock ptarmigan
http://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Rock_ptarmigan
Mosquito
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
File:Aedes_aegypti_biting_
human.jpg
Boreal jacobs-ladder
(Polemonium boreale)
[Source: Michael
Haferkamp, wikipedia
[Sources: www.wikipedia.org and www.arcticphotos.co.uk]
118
Figure 5 Reindeer on Svalbard

Some of the animals and plants found on Svalbard are unique. The Svalbard reindeer (Rangifer
tarandus platyrhynchus) is a different subspecies to the wild reindeer of Scandinavia and Russia
and the caribou of North America (Rangifer tarandus). Svalbard became an island about 40 000
years ago when sea levels rose, leaving a small reindeer population trapped on the island.
WILD REINDEER / CARIBOU
SVALBARD REINDEER
IMAGE REMOVED FOR

COPYRIGHT REASONS
IMAGE REMOVED FOR

COPYRIGHT REASONS
[Source: www.uncommonyukon.com]
[Source: www.sciencemuseum.org.uk]
Physical features
long legs
lean body
large antlers
short legs
large amounts of body fat stored
for winter
small antlers
extra large stomachs to digest poor
quality food
Behaviour
live in large herds

move frequently while grazing
as food supply is rapidly
exhausted
can run fast, even when very
young
live singly or in small herds

remain in the same grazing area
for long periods
move slowly
Food
a lichen called reindeer moss,

often found beneath snow cover
in winter
small Arctic flowering plants of

very low nutrient value,
containing natural toxins
Intraspecific competition
compete for food and mates with

other members of herd
little direct competition for

grazing because animals are
widely dispersed in their habitat
Predators
wolves
none
Parasites
warble flies burrow under their

skin and lay eggs, that then
hatch into maggots
no warble flies live on Svalbard
Common causes of death
predation, parasites, injuries

caused by fighting other reindeer
starvation when teeth are lost or

worn out
119
Figure 6 Coal mining on the coast of Svalbard

Coal has been mined on Svalbard for over 100 years. There are plans to open a new coal mine.
The diagram below shows the potential environmental problems of opening a new coal mine.
[Source: http://www.fennerdunlop.com/arctic_Mining, Fenner Dunlop, used with permission]
Figure 7 Model to show fate of coal extracted from mines on Svalbard

C o a l s o ld
(1 .2 1 0 6
to n n e s y r
C o a l e x c a v a te d
in m in e
B lo w n a w a y
as dust
C oal dust
( 0 .0 2 5 1 0 6
to n n e s y r 1 )
D e p o s ite d lo c a lly
o n s o il, ic e a n d
v e g e ta tio n
120
Figure 8 Svalbard International Seed Vault

S e e d v a u lts
A irlo c k d o o rs
O ffic e a n d h a n d lin g a re a
T u n n e l e n tra n c e
S le e v e to p ro te c t tu n n e l fro m
e ro s io n a n d c lim a tic c h a n g e s
B rid g e
[Diagram of Svalbard International Seed Vault - www.croptrust.org/main/arctic]
Species are becoming extinct at an alarming rate. The Svalbard international seed vault has been
built to preserve up to 2 billion seeds from around the world, because other seed collections
elsewhere could be lost. Threats to other seed banks include war, natural hazards, power cuts
and poor management.
The Svalbard seed vault has been dug out of a permanently frozen hill side. Even without
electricity the samples will remain frozen because of the permafrost. Seeds will only be released
from the vault if all other seed sources have been lost.
Figure 9 Arctic polar projection

IMAGE REMOVED FOR COPYRIGHT REASONS
[Source: adapted from www.britannica.com/eb/art-58/Southern-limit-of-Arctic-tundra-and-approximate-line-ofdemarcation]
43.
(a)
(i)
State which major biome is found on Svalbard.

...........................................................................................................................
(1)
121
(ii)
Explain why productivity in the biome named in part (a)(i) is low.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(b)
(i)
Using the data given in Figure 3, compare the climate on Svalbard from
19611990 with the climate from 19912004.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)
(ii)
Suggest one possible reason for the differences in mean air temperature between
the two periods.
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(c)
(i)
Describe two factors that have caused the speciation of Svalbard reindeer.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
122
(ii)
Using the information in Figure 5 draw a food chain or food web for wild reindeer
and another for Svalbard reindeer.
(2)
(iii)
Identify, giving a reason, which of the food chains or webs drawn in part (c)(ii) is
least stable.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(d)
(i)
Distinguish between positive feedback and negative feedback.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
123
(ii)
Coal dust and gases from mining may affect local or global climate.
Using Figure 6 and Figure 7, describe and explain one example of positive
feedback and one example of negative feedback caused by coal mining emissions
that may affect the climate.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(4)
(e)
(i)
Describe two advantages of Svalbard as a location for a seed vault.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(ii)
Explain the importance of preserving seeds for future generations.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
124
(iii)
Suggest two reasons why interest in exploiting oil and natural gas reserves under
the Arctic Ocean is increasing.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 24 marks)
125

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1.

Outline the Gaia philosophy.

Explain the difference between an open system and a closed system.

Compare the agricultural properties of sand and clay soils.

All units in KJm yr

Insolation on open sea

Farmed shrimp consumed by Inuit

Gross primary production by phytoplankton

Shrimp consumed by kawai

Respiratory loss by kawai (open sea)

Shrimp consumed by salmon (farmed)

Respiratory loss by salmon

Kawai consumed by Inuit

Salmon consumed by Inuit

Energy used in managing salmon farm

Energy used in fishing for kawai

Energy used in managing shrimp farm

Energy used in other human activities including trading furs

Use the data in figure 1 to complete the diagram below.

Define what is meant by the term gross primary productivity (GPP).

State how GPP differs from net primary productivity (NPP).

Distinguish between global warming and the greenhouse effect.

A lte rin g h u m a n a c tiv ity th ro u g h in c e n tiv e s a n d

Define the following terms.

Suggest why most ecosystems are negative feedback systems.

The diagram below represents a coal fired power station.

.... ......... ....

Discuss the value of age-sex pyramids in analysing population change.

The figure below shows a model of the climatic system.

Define the term model.

List four gases which are part of the atmosphere.

Complete the figure above for diversity and size of organisms.

Distinguish between r-species and K-species.

Explain why the amount of organic matter increases as succession occurs.

Outline what is meant by the term ecosystem stability.

State the first law of thermodynamics.

Calculate the amount of energy output in the model below.

The diagram below represents a simplified hydrological cycle.

ATM O SPH ERE

Identify the processes corresponding to the arrows labelled 1 to 4 in the diagram.

Suggest one weakness in the model above.

Describe the role of greenhouse gases in maintaining mean global temperature.

State two functions of producers in an ecosystem.

Explain the role of decomposers in an ecosystem.

[Source: C B Huffaker, (1958), Hilgardia, Volume 27, pages 343383.

Determine the numbers of both organisms on September 30.

Determine when the difference in numbers between both populations is at a

Suggest a reason for this time lag.

Outline two examples of feedback in global warming.

Outline two management strategies for dealing with solid waste.

Justify your answer to (c) (i).

A model is a simplified description designed to show the structure or workings of

Compare the characteristics of ecosystems and social systems.

Describe how populations of individual species interact within an ecosystem, using

Figures 1 and 2 represent the food webs for two ecosystems.

Figure 2. Marine Food Web

Figure 3. Antarctic Marine Food Web

if humans hunted for seals and fish.

if humans harvested krill.

Current production may not be sustainable under present circumstances.

Define the term sustainable.

The table below shows the productivity of different farming systems.

Migratory pastoralist, Kenya