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besity is as an epidemic
in the United States and
other industrialized countries (National Heart,
Lung, and Blood Institute [NHLBI],
1998). The overall prevalence of
obesity (body mass index [BMI] of
30 or more) continues to increase
at a dramatic pace. An increase
in the obesity rate of 15% to 27%
of Americans has occurred in just
the past 20 years (Department of
Health & Human Services, 2001).
In addition, nearly 66% of
Americans are overweight (BMI
25-29). Approximately 325,000
deaths and $39 to $52 billion in
health care costs have been
attributed to obesity annually
(Flegal, Carroll, Ogden, &
Johnson, 2002). Obese individuals have a greater risk of early
mortality versus the nonobese,
especially from cardiovascular
disease (NHLBI, 1998; Singh &
Lindstead, 1998; Solomon &
Manson, 1997). For example,
some studies have found as
much as a seven-fold increase in
coronary heart disease with a
BMI of 35 or greater (Ellis, Elliott,
Horrigan, Raymond, & Howell,
1996). Obesity is also associated
114
Table 1.
A Partial Alphabetical List of Potential Conditions
Associated with Obesity
Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH)
Cancer (breast, cervical, colorectal, endometrial, gallbladder, kidney,
prostate)
Cataracts
Coronary artery disease
Dyslipidemia
Diabetes
Erectile dysfunction
Gallbladder disease
Gout
Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD)
Hypertension
Osteoarthritis
Respiratory compromise
Sleep apnea
Defining Overweight
And Obesity
Obesity is generally defined
as an excess concentration of
body fat or adipose tissue.
Obesity and overweight are terms
often used interchangeably, but
they do not necessarily represent
the same situation. Some individuals may be overweight but
not obese, while obese individuals are overweight to a certain
defined degree.
Adipose tissue or storage fat
and lean tissue are two of the primary compartments of the
human body. Adipose tissue is
generally regarded as metabolically inactive in terms of energy
and nutrient requirements, and
its primary energy needs are for
cargo transportation from one
location to another. Adipose tissue consists mainly of storage fat,
mostly in the form of triglyceride, which is one of the reasons
that individuals who lose fat generally experience an adequate
reduction in their serum values
of triglycerides. On the other
hand, when someone gains a significant amount of adipose tissue, especially in the abdominal
area, his or her triglyceride level
may increase. Again, adipose tissue is less metabolically active,
Bioelectrical Impedance
Analysis
Bioelectrical
impedance,
conductance, or resistance measurements to determine lean
body mass and body fat composition, or the percent body fat, are
popular. The thought behind this
test is that lean body mass, which
contains mostly ions in a water
solution, can conduct electricity
to a greater degree than fat tissue
(Baumgartner, 1996). The resistance of the human body to an
electrical current is inversely correlated with the lean body mass,
so that the greater the electrical
resistance, the less the body concentration of lean tissue, and the
less the resistance the greater the
115
116
Crude Weight
Measuring crude weight is
most likely the simplest method
to determine obesity (Najjar &
Rowland, 1987). Mild obesity is
defined as 20% to 40% overweight. Moderate obesity is 41%
to 100% overweight. Severe obesity is a weight greater than twice
the actual weight for a standard
or specific height. Crude weight
does not adjust for more muscular frames at different heights,
because it is as simple as getting
on a scale and measuring the
value.
Densitometry
Densitometry is also known
as hydrostatic weighing and
has been one of the past standard
measurements used for several
decades (Going, 1996). It is based
on the finding that adipose tissue
does not weigh as much as fatfree tissue. The ratio of weights
measured in air and under water
can provide a prediction of the
percentage of total body mass
that is made up of fat tissue. The
most popular method involves
wearing a swimming suit. The
individual sits on a scale and is
briefly submerged in a tank of
water. A weight is also attached
to the body so the individual is
not able to float. Residual lung
volume is also measured by having the subject breathe through a
snorkel into a device. This volume must be measured because
the air in the lungs can affect precise weight measuring under
water. When the data are
obtained, the percentage of body
fat can be calculated using a
mathematical formula (Brozek,
Grande, Anderson, & Keys, 1963;
Siri, 1961). A variation in the
water amount of the lean body
mass, bone size, and in the density of bone are generally the primary sources of error (Lohman,
1981; Lukaski, 1987).
Errors of 3% to 4% have
occurred with this method. The
primary disadvantage of this
method is the cost and time it
takes to measure this parameter.
This does not make it a useful
approach for large-scale studies,
and in terms of precision, the
dual energy x-ray absorptiometry
scan is beginning to replace this
older method of measurement.
Skinfold Thickness
(Skin Calipers)
Skinfold measurement has
been the most popular method to
measure body composition in
epidemiologic studies apart from
combinations of weight and
height, such as BMI. A skin
caliper is needed to measure
skinfold thickness or to determine adipose tissue amounts.
This method has been appealing
because it provides a direct measure of body fat. However, it is
limited because not all body fat is
accessible to the calipers, such as
intra-abdominal and intramuscular fat, and the distribution of
subcutaneous fat can vary significantly over the human body
(Bellisari, Roche, & Siervogel,
1993; Rosenbaum, Leibel, &
Hirsch, 1997). The subcutaneous
fat variability can be a problem
when measurements at one or
several sites are used to represent
overall body fat composition.
These measurements overall are
substantially less reproducible
than most other anthropometric
measurements (Bray et al., 1978;
Lukaski, 1987).
Past investigations of the
variation in skinfold measurements have revealed the problems with this method of measurement. For example, one
study observed that a small difference of only 2.5 cm in the site
of measuring the triceps skinfold
actually resulted in a difference
as great as 50% in the average
skinfold (Ruiz, Colley, &
Hamilton, 1971). Other factors
117
Conclusion
Before health professionals
can begin consulting the patient
on various methods to lose or
maintain weight, the precise distribution of adipose tissue and
whether or not the patient is truly
overweight or obese must be accurately determined. Therefore, this
manuscript should provide the
health professional with a fairly
strong foundation into the advantages and disadvantages of using a
variety of weight measurements
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Table 2.
A Partial Summary (From A-Z) of the Advantages and
Disadvantages of a Variety of Obesity
Measurement Methods
Method
Advantage
Disadvantages*
Bioelectrical impedance
Equipment is expensive
in many cases.
An increase in muscular
tissue can falsely elevate
this value.
Crude weight
Densitometry
(hydrostatic weighing)
DEXA
Accurate current
assessment of fat tissue
and the gold standard for
osteoporosis screening.
Assumes a complex
formula fits for a population, and more muscular
frames are not taken into
account.
Skinfold thickness
(skin calipers)
Poor measurement
of abdominal adipose
tissue.
Intra-abdominal tissue
(area of interest) is
difficult to differentiate
between subcutaneous
tissue and measurement
can be affected by the
individuals postprandial
status, depth of
inspiration, standing
position, etc.
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Additional Reading
Freedland, S.J., Aronson, W.J., Kane, C.J.
Presti, J.C. Jr., Amling, C.L., Elashoff,
D., & Terris, M.K. (2004). Impact of
obesity on biochemical control after
radical prostatectomy for clinically
localized prostate cancer: A report by
the Shared Equal Access Regional
Cancer Hospital Database Study
Group. Journal of Clinical Oncology,
22(3), 446-453.
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