Public Administration

Public Administration Notes

Administrative Thinkers
1. Administrative Thinkers- Introduction
2. Taylor and Scientific Management- Administrative Thinkers
3. Henri Fayol- Administrative Thinkers
4. Principles by Gulick and Urwick- Administrative Thinkers
5. Max Weber- Administrative Thinkers
6. Mary Parker Follett- Administrative Thinkers
7. Human Relations Approach and Elton Mayo- Administrative Thinkers
8. Chester Barnard- Administrative Thinkers
9. Rensis Likert and Participative Management- Administrative Thinkers
10. Douglas McGregor- Administrative Thinkers
11. Chris Argyris- Administrative Thinkers
12. Criticisms (Classical Theory)- Administrative Thinkers
Administrative Behaviour
13. Models of Decision Making- Administrative Behaviour
14. Techniques of Group Decision Making- Administrative Behaviour
15. Quantitative Techniques for Decision Making- Administrative Behaviour
Leadership
16. Theories of Leadership
17. Path Goal Theory of Leadership
Motivation
18. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs- Motivation
19. Herberg's Two Factor Theory
20. Contemporary Theories on Motivation
21. Contemporary Theories on Motvation- II
22. Contemporary Theories on Motivation- III
Meaning, Scope and Nature of Public Administration
23. Meaning of Public Administration
24. Scope of Public Administration
25. Nature of Public Administration
26. Public Administration v. Private Administration
27. Wilson's Vision on Public Administration
New Public Administration
28. New Public Administration
29. Overall Character of NPA
30. NPA- II or the Minnowbrook Conference- II
31. Minnowbrook Conference- III
32. A Projective View of the Minnowbrook Conference- IV
Public Choice Approach
33. Public Choice Approach
34. Public Choice Approach Theorists

35. Generalized Arguments relating to the Public Choice Approach

New Public Management
36. New Public Management
37. Challenges to NPM
38. Digital Era in the Context of NPM
39. Challenges of Globalization
Post-Weberian Thoughts
40. Post-Weberian Developments and Post-Weberian Views
41. Post-Weberian Structures
42. Views of various Theorists on Weberian Bureaucracy
Evolution of Public Administration
43. Evolution of Public Administration- Introduction

1.Administrative Thinkers- An Introduction

Administrative Thinkers

I will start with my notes on Administrative Thinkers.

Every organization is associated with a phenomenon called administration. The state will
become successful only when the administration is good. The goal of the state is society
itself. Hence, administration assumes criticality in a state. State is considered to be a
deliberately created institution in order to achieve the goals of the society.
The study relating to public administration has been taking place from quite some time. In the
due course of time, there have come up a number of crystallized ideas. These ideas explain
what, why and when of good government administration.
There have been hundreds of individual efforts in this subject. They can be divided into three
broad categories.
1. Classical- Classical group has tried to explain this phenomenon by focusing on 2- Ms
(Machine and Method). They have focused on the non-living or inanimate aspect of the
organization.
a. Scientific Management- Taylor
b. Administrative Management- Henry Fayol, Gulick & Urwick
c. Weberian- Max Weber
2. Humanistic- Bernard, Herbert Simon, McGregor, Chris Argyris, Likert- Humanist Group
has tried to explain this phenomenon by focusing on Man i.e. the living or the animate
aspect of the organization.

3. Contemporary- Systems Approach and Contingency Approach- Contemporary group

focuses on every aspect of the organization including the surroundings or the environment.
Other Theorists1. Folett (This theorist is considered to be a link between classical and humanistic school of
thought)
2. Mayo (Initiated Humanistic Theory but somehow he is not considered to be in the
humanistic school of thought)
Every organization has a number of individuals. They carry certain responsibilities and at the
same time they also exercise power. But, all the individuals do not have same amount of
responsibility or same amount of power. Responsibility and power are directly proportional
to each other. This makes an organization, a layered organization or hierarchy.
In most of the organizations, we will find that at the lower level, more numbers of individuals
are present. As we move to the higher layers, the numbers of individuals go on decreasing.
Thus, organizations are normally in a pyramidal form.
Every organization comprises of 3-Ms.
1. Machine- Structure of the organization (design or shape)
2. Method- Process, procedure, tools or techniques through which the organization operates.
3. Man- The organization operates through human beings.
Scientific Management Movement
Management is the art of getting things done.
There have been two important events in history which influenced the nature of the
organizations and organizational management.
1. Enlightenment (Renaissance- 16th Century)- This was the era where there was restlessness
and rejection pertaining to control of church, irrationality, superstitions, unscientific
approaches, feudalism, monarchies etc. This era brought new concepts such as rule of law,
sovereignty, democracy, citizenship, science, justice, equality, rationality etc. These
developments had a deep impact on the nature of the state. Thereby, it affected and increased
the size and operations of the state. The responsibilities of the state increased and acquired a
positive character.
Democracy is a spiritual concept because it enshrines a society where people can live a life of
dignity and choice.
2. Industrial Revolution (17th and 18th Century)- It replaced the hands with machines. The
production increased manifolds. They organizations became larger and more complex in
nature. The style of management which were used pre- industrial revolution continued postindustrial revolution as well. This created incongruence between the nature of management
and the requirements of the organizations. This led to failure, malfunctioning and inefficiency
of the organizations. This worried a large number of management practitioners.
There was a concern regarding the failure of the organizations. They required a type of
response which was not available at that point of time. This concern was more visible in the
context of the functionaries or practitioners of the private industrial organizations. Few of the
important names being
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Charles Babbage
R.H. Towne
Metcalfe
Halsey
Gantt
Gilbreth

7. Taylor
F.W. Taylor assumes importance in this regard. He is considered to be the father of scientific
management. All of the above agreed that as far as organizational management is concerned,
it should be based on the science of management. And this science of management should
be replacing the rule of thumb.
Rule of Thumb- It refers to an approach towards work which is based on limited experience
and limited memory being devoid of scientism, professionalism and rationalism.
Science of Management- It refers to a systematized study of the part of the reality in order to
develop cause- consequence relationship of that reality. Management should be based on
scientific approach and not memory and experience or ad-hocism. It refers towards a
scientific approach to understand and explain management.
This idea became popular and acceptable to the extent that almost all the organizations
(private and public) started emphasizing on science of management. It created an
environment called as Scientific Management Movement. Scientcism in Management
became popular.

2
Taylors Views
Some theorists say that Taylor has not been the first one to discuss Scientific Management.
Theorists like Charles Babbage, R.H Towne etc. are prior to Taylor. Taylor has also not been
the one who coined the term Scientific Management. Few other theorists have even said
that there is nothing such as Management and there is no philosophy in that regard.
Frederick Winslow Taylor
1. Life- He was very influenced by his mother, E.W. Taylor especially mothers puritan (high
morals, discipline, austerity and sincerity along with a sense of enquiry, dissatisfaction,
dissent, revolt and also an emphasis on new vision) background. Taylor was very influenced
towards mechanization; this was very visible at an early stage of his life. While playing, he
used to very frequently use mechanistic innovations in sports activities and equipments.
Taylor started working at a very early age. Before he could complete his studies as a student
of law, he started working in a firm called Enterprise Hydraulix Works as an Apprentice
Machinist. After a small period of time, he shifted to Midvalle Steel plant and started as a
labourer. Within a very small span of time, he rose to the post of Chief Engineer. He started
working on his ideas in this plant. But, the final consolidation of ideas came about in
Bethlehem Steel Plant.
Taylor had a unique distinction as a functionary since he had experience at all the levels of
organization (top, mid and bottom). Taylor was a practitioner and not a theorist. Bottommost
Level of the organization is referred to as Shop Floor. It is at the Shop Floor where all the
work of the organization is done whereas at the other levels only the art of getting things
done is performed.
2.
Philosophy

a. Failures of the organizations- The responsibility for the failure of the organizations lied
both with the managers as well as the workmen. But, a greater share of responsibility lied
with the managers (Nine- Tenth of the responsibility lied with the managers and one- tenth
lied with the workmen).
i. Managers Failure- The managers were responsible for the failure because of two Is :
1. Ignorance or lack of knowledge about a good days work-The capability or potentiality of
a worker to produce an amount of work in a given day.
It is the managers responsibility to make sure that the worker is performing to the best of his
capabilities. They were not able to perform this task and suffered from ignorance.
2. Indifference towards good managerial practices- The managers were simply not
concerned and lacked a commitment about getting a higher productivity and more efficient
strategies.
The managers were managing the organization based on traditional practices. Hence, they
were indifferent towards good managerial practices. Managers were performing a driving
style of managementand unscientific incentive system. Driving Style Management means
the type of management which is based on authoritarianism and an emphasis on physical
compulsions.
The managers were very authoritarian, thereby, leading to a disconnect between the
management and workers. The work used to be done by the manual or physical exertion or
capacity of the workers.
The incentive system was unscientific. He said that one of the incentive systems being that
the payment is made to the position and not to the job or paying the position, not the
job or paying the attendance and not the performance. This type of system restricts the
productivity because in this type of system, the performance is not recognized.
Taylor has also identified another kind of incentive system. It is called as Piece Rate Wage
System. This was a wage system based on decreasing piece rate as the productivity also
contributed towards restricting productivity.
Piece rate means for each unit produced, the worker is paid separately. But, as the number of
produced units increased, the rate per unit/piece decreased, the overall pay increased with
increased work but it acted as a demotivation since piece rate had diminishing returns, more
work did not really mean very high pay, the amount of work to increase returns beyond a
threshold was way more than the returns itself.
This traditional approach has been referred to as Initiative and Incentive Approach or an
Approach based on Lazy Managers Philosophy. He says that the initiative/effort/volition
lies with the worker and he takes up the job because he needs money/incentive.
To define the job, the responsibility lies with the manager. If a manager does not perform this
responsibility, it is being referred to as Lazy Manager. This leads to loss of productivity.
ii. Workmens Failure- The workers were indulging in large scale soldering. Soldering
refers to restriction of work output. Taylor says that there are two types of soldering.
1. Natural Soldering- It refers to restriction of the work output because of certain inherent or
ingrained limitations with the workers like laziness, indolence, shyness etc. Natural Soldering
is a comparatively easier situation to deal with. In this case, the workers should be persuaded.
If Persuasion does not work, they should be retrenched.
2. Systematic Soldering- It refers to restriction of the work output based on Second Thought
Reasoning i.e. a deliberate or a planned approach towards reducing the productivity.
Systematic Soldering can be addressed through Scientific Management with a special
emphasis on Time and Motion Study and Differential Piece Rate System.

Systematic Soldering is a by-product of both managerial inefficiency and workers urge to

earn more wages and avoid unemployment. This problem could be rectified through
Scientific Management.
Success or Efficiency of the Organization
Organizational Success lies in bridging the gap between the 1stclass workers (Workers having
higher potential but also acting to achieve that potential) and the 2nd class workers (Workers
who though high on potential but are not achieving that potential). It depends on a managerial
style where the managers help or enable the workers to attain their true potential.
Efficiency in Organizational Management lies in identifying and establishing the best way of
doing the job and ensuring the performance of the job in accordance to the best way. In this
context, Taylor has discussed three methodologies.
A. Time and Motion Studya. One best way should be established- Time and Motion Study.
b. The workers should be made to follow this one best way.
Time and Motion Study is a methodology using which the best way of performing a job can
be established. It is a mechanism to establish the optimal routine/sequence of activities along
with technology standard and time standard (minimum time taken to complete an activity) in
order to perform the job maximally.
I.
Breaking down the job into as many component acts or activities.
II.
Finding out the most appropriate sequence of the component activities while eliminating
wasteful and duplicating activities.
III.
Establishing the appropriate implements or tools and techniques to be used in each of the
component activities.
IV.
Using a stop watch, the minimum time to perform a component activity and the whole of
the act is to be established. Time standard has to be defined for each one the sub-activities as
well as the whole activity.
V.
The optimal routine of the activities along with the technology standards and the time
standards is to be defined.
B. Differential (non-uniform) Piece Rate System- This system ensures that workers follow
the best method mention above. It is an incentive system by Taylor in which he has
emphasized on a wage system where the payment will be for performance rather than for
attendance. He said that Group performance should not be incentivized; rather individual
performance should be incentivized. Taylor has promoted two types of Wage Rate System.
a. Extraordinary Wage Rate- It is a higher wage rate. Workers who will be able to achieve
the target within a given time frame will be eligible for Extraordinary Wage Rate.
b. Ordinary Wage Rate- It is a lower wage rate. Workers who will achieve the target
exceeding a given time frame will be eligible for Ordinary Wage Rate.
Piece Rate refers to the concept of work more, get paid more and work less, get paid less.
Lower productivity needs to be discouraged and higher productivity needs to be rewarded
and recognized.
C. Functional Foremanship- It is a type of supervision that Taylor has promoted at the Shop
Floor Level which is based on the idea of multiple supervision on account of functional
specialization. While establishing the concept of Functional Foremanship, he rejected the
well- established principle of his time of Unity of Command (It refers to a type of
supervision where a subordinate receives from one super-ordinate).
Functional Foremanship is a type of supervision which is based on multiple supervisors on
account of functional specialization. Each supervisor will be specializing only in one

A.
B.
C.
D.

A.

B.
C.

D.

A.
B.

function. Taylor believed that division of work and specialization is required to increase
productivity. He further said that Specialization does not go well with Unity of Command.
Every job has a number of aspects; a supervisor cannot effectively evaluate all those aspects
because a supervisor cannot be a specialist in everything. So, multiple supervisors are needed
to evaluate every aspect of work and Unity of Command would forfeit this.
Taylor said there should be 8 supervisors (4- Planning Supervisors, 4- Execution Supervisors)
Planning Supervisors
Route Clerk- His work is to undertake a scientific investigation of the job and find out the
best way of performing the job along with the technology and time standards.
Instruction Card Clerk- He is responsible for converting the findings of the Route
Clerk into understandable language in the form of Instruction Cards meant for the workers.
Time Clerk- He is responsible for maintaining a regular record of the individuals or workers
eligible for the payment under the extraordinary wage rate and ordinary wage rate.
Shop Disciplinarian- He is the Personnel Manager at the Shop Floor Level. His job is to
recruit, hire and fire the workers. He also resolves disputes and addresses the grievances. He
ensures that proper management of the workers/man power at the Shop Floor level takes
place.
Execution Supervisors
Gang Boss- He is the supervisor at the work or the foreman at the field. He is responsible for
preparing the work environment, providing the implements of the work and handing over of
Instruction Card to the workers.
Speed Boss- He is responsible for ensuring the performance of the job within the time limit
and if required, the speed boss has to demonstrate the actual way of doing the work.
Repair Boss- He is the Maintenance Supervisor. He is responsible for cleanliness or hygiene
of the workplace and implements. He is also responsible for the maintenance, repairing and
replacement of various implements or work equipments.
Inspection Boss- He is responsible for Quality Control. He does regular inspection of the
units or the produce or the manufactured goods and undertakes Quality inspection. He rejects
all those goods which are of inferior or defective quality.
Principle of Exception
Managers should not interfere with the work of the foreman. The relationship between a
manager and a foreman is based on the idea of decentralization. Whereas, the relationship
between a foreman and a worker is based on the idea of centralization. It is because the
foreman decides and the workers follow.
The manager should not interfere with the working of the foreman except two conditions.
Excessively Lower Production below the target.
Excessively Higher Production above the target.
Principles of Scientific Management
Taylor has discussed his generalized views with regard to Organizational Efficiency. He has
emphasized that the Organizational Efficiency lies in the Efficiency in Management. His
principles are not only meant to explain Organizational Efficiency but they are also the
principles or ideas of Social Reform. This is because efficiency in management will increase
the wages of the workers, increases the profit of the organization and will protect and
promote the rights of the people or citizens. Inefficiency in management reduces the wages of
the workers, reduces profit of the organization and compromises the rights of the people.
Efficiency in management will lead to an efficient society.
In this context, he has discussed four principles of Scientific Management.

A.

The Science of Management- Taylor is emphasizing that an organization can be efficiently

run provided the rule of thumb is replaced by the Science of Management. The manager
should systematically study the job or scientifically investigate the job in order to establish
the best way of doing each job along with bringing in such condition to enable the workers to
pursue the best way to become maximally productive.
B. Scientific Selection, Training and Development of the Workers- The manager should
recruit the workers while preferring the brain workers over the hand workers. Workers,
according to their suitability towards the job, should be recruited and once recruited, workers
should be adequately trained and educated to handle the job.
C. Bringing Science of Work and the Workers Together- Science of work refers to Manager.
This principle refers to bringing the managers and workers and together. This is the core of
Taylors theory. It forms the heart and soul of his philosophy. It has been explained through
the concept of Mental Revolution. It is the wilful cooperation between the manager and
the worker. Taylor says that:
As the various tools and techniques of management such as Time and Motion Study, Piece
Rate System, Functional Foremanship, Tools standardization, High Speed cutting of steel,
use of stop watch and mnemonic classification are the appendages of my scientific
management are also the appendages of other scientific management. The idea that makes
my scientific management different from others is the concept of Mental Revolution. Mental
Revolution requires a psychological reorientation of the managers towards the workers and
vice-versa. In order to realize it, instead of focusing on sharing the surplus, the managers
and workers should focus on increasing the size of the surplus. The Mental Revolution will
increase the wages of the labour, the profits of the managers and bring satisfaction to the
customers.
The Mental Revolution is the key concept in the Taylors Arc of Scientific Management. The
manner in which the managers are psychologically disposed towards the workers and viceversa should change. The mutual suspicion and lack of cooperation between workers and
managers is self- defeating. It is required that the traditional and stereotypical mind set of the
workers and the managers should change and there should be a psychological reworking
leading to mutual cooperation and no suspicion.
In order to bring about Mental Revolution, one should stop thinking about the sharing of
surplus rather they should focus on increasing the size of the surplus.
The traditional approach of the management and the workers towards the surplus has been
based on Zero Sum Gain Approach of Constant Sum Gain Approach. Under this
approach, the value under consideration is considered to be constant and the competing
parties striving to share the value believe that each of their respective gain can be only at the
cost of the other.
Taylors Mental Revolution is based on the concept ofVariable Sum Gain Approach.
Under this approach, the value under consideration is considered to be variable and can be
increased. Thus, the size of the surplus will increase leading to better goods and services at a
lower cost. It is a win-win situation for both, managers and workers as well as the customers.
D. Equal distribution of work and responsibility between the management and workersThis principle is a mere extension of the last principle. The manager should willingly take up
his part of responsibility without shifting it towards the workers and the worker should also
take up his part of responsibility. The responsibility of the manager is the science of
management i.e. to establish the best way of doing job and the responsibility of the worker is
to willingly follow the directions given by the management.

Taylor says that if these principles are followed, the rule of thumbwill be replaced by
the science of management, discord will be replaced by harmony, individualism will be
replaced by cooperation and restricted output will be replaced by maximum output.
b. Solutions
i. Methods- Already covered.
ii. Scientific Management Movement- Already covered.

1.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

Fayol is considered to be the father of Modern Science of Management. Fayol, as a theorist,

has been contemporary to Taylor. But, Taylors ideas got recognized much earlier to Fayol.
Fayol being French wrote his ideas in French making them inaccessible to the outside world.
Fayols idea got due recognition only when it got translated in English. What is Taylor to
America is Fayol to Europe.
Fayol has been a multi-faceted personality because he was a geologist, a mining engineer and
he went on to win a Nobel Prize in metallurgy in 1921. At the same time, he was a very
successful administrator and a renowned administrative philosopher. He penned down his
ideas out of his successful experience as being a functionary in a private industrial
organization. Unlike Taylor, Fayol did not have the experience of whole of the organization.
Fayol started his career as a Manager and went on to occupy the highest position in the
organization. This difference in experience contributed towards difference in orientation
towards the Organizational Management.
Fayol, as a theorist, considered management and administration to be the same. According to
him, in essence, both of these words represent same type of activity. Fayol believed that
whatever mechanism works in the context of the private organizations works in the same
manner in the context of government organizations. The manner of managing a private
organization is same as that of manner of managing a government organization. He
developed a generic view of administration or management. Fayol promoted this generic
view of administration.
Administration is administration, nothing public about it.- Anonymous- Wherever there
is administration (small organization or big organization), administration carries essentially
the same meaning and the same character. In this statement, public refers to government. The
statement is trying to emphasize that if administration is being carried out in the context of
the government, it wont make any difference and the nature and character of the
administration shall remain unchanged.
Fayol says that every organization carries on six essential functions.
Segmental- These activities can be undertaken with relative isolation from each other.
Technical- Manufacturing, Production etc.
Commercial- Sales, Purchase, Exchange, Trade etc.
Financial- Optimal Utilization of the Financial Resources.
Accounting- Systematized Keeping of Records of Daily Expenditure and Revenue.
Security- Protection of Life and Property of the Organization and its Members.

2. Integral- None of the functions can be undertaken in isolation from administration.

Administration pervades all other functions, Administrative activities are activities
Involving the Management of the Human Resource and enabling them to achieve their
Potential.
When an individual, moves up in the hierarchy or up in the layer, from the bottom of the
organization towards the middle of the organization, the share of the segmental activities
keeps on increasing.
At the mid-level, maximum segmental activity takes place.
But, when an individual moves from the middle of the organization to the top of the
organization, the share of the integral activities keeps on increasing. At the top level, the
activities are only integral and not segmental.
Out of the six activities mentioned above, the most important activity is administration. If
administration weak, everything will be weak and if administration is efficient, everything
will be efficient.

1.

2.

3.
4.

5.

1.

Fayol on Administration
Fayol emphasizes that administration to be successful requires undertaking five important
functions (POCCC).
P- Planning- He refers planning as prevoyance. Planning is the process that involves
envisioning the future goals and laying down the strategy or plan of action to achieve that
goal. Planning provides purpose to the organization. Without it, the organization will become
directionless.
O- Organizing- Organizing is a process that involves creating a dual structure of men and
material within the organization. It is a process of systematizing the human resources and
material resources within the organization. Without organizing, the organization will lack
systematization, efforts and activities will be chaotic and ultimately, there will be a loss of
purpose.
C- Commanding- It is a process which involves issuing instructions or passing authoritative
communications in order to maintain the performance or activities among the personnel.
C- Coordinating- It is a process of bringing about harmonious operation among various
activities and efforts within the organization. The process through which complementarity is
achieved among various activities and efforts are referred to as coordination.
C- Controlling- It is a process that involves ensuring the compliance of the personnel
towards the activities through the threat of punishment and the allurement of reward.
Fourteen Flexible Principles of Administration
Fayol believed that there are some hidden levels in the management of an organization. These
hidden levels or laws can be derived through experience and close observation. He refers to
these laws as principles of administration. These principles explain, equally, the success of
every organization.
He calls them flexible because Fayol believes that these principles have the capacity to adjust
and accommodate itself to every kind of organization irrespective of the nature and the size
of the organization.
Division of Work- Fayol believes that division of work or division of responsibilities among
the individuals within the organization results into increase in the ability and accuracy,
thereby, increasing the overall productivity. Thus, every organization should bring about
division of work. Division of Work belongs to the Natural Order. As the organization
increases in size and operation, the division of work emerges spontaneously or naturally. But,

the division of work should not be overdone; rather, it should be maintained at the right
proportion. Overdoing will lead to overlapping of the responsibilities, confusion, conflict of
interest and inefficiency in the organization.
2. Authority and Responsibility- Within the organization, there should be a rational
distribution of duties among various positions within the organization. Along with that, there
should be allocation of a co-equal amount of authority. When authority is more than
responsibility, it leads towards authoritarianism or dictatorship. On the other hand, when the
responsibility is more than authority, it leads towards anarchism.
3. Discipline- It refers to compliance by personnel towards the laws, rules and regulations of
the organization. Adequate mechanism should be put in place to ensure discipline and
penalties should be imposed on behaviour which violates the code of conduct.
4. Remuneration- The payment should be made on the basis of fairness i.e. the performance
should be rewarded.
5. Unity of Command- It is a kind of supervision which provides that a subordinate should
receive command only from one superordinate. If there is more than one boss, it would lead
to confusion, conflict of responsibility and possibly, the subordinate playing one
superordinate against the other.
6. Unity of Direction- He says that as far as group of activity is concerned, there should be one
single established goal. In the absence of a clearly established goal, the activities will lose
direction and might operate at cross- purpose. Unity of Command cannot be there without
Unity of Direction but does not flows from it.
7. Centralization- Centralization belongs to the natural order. When an organization grows in
size and operation, numbers of intermediaries emerge between the management and the
workers which result into the tendency on part of the management to standardize the jobs and
activities, thus giving rise to centralization. The degree of centralization or decentralization
should depend upon the nature of workers. Here, standardization of work means defining the
work in advance. If employees are sincere and competent, the manager should give them
freedom and space to work.
8. Equity- Equity as a principle on the same plane is a broader concept than remuneration. He
emphasizes that management should treat the functionaries of the organization on the basis of
fairness. The overall approach of the management towards the functionaries should be based
on fairness.
9. Order- He refers to the idea of placement i.e. the right man at the right position.
Management should recruit on the basis of the skill and the job should be assigned on the
basis of the persons skill.
10. Scalar Chain- The communication within the organization should always follow the lines of
hierarchy. The communication should not break or jump the hierarchy as that will create
indiscipline, insubordination and mismanagement. The formal line of communication should
not be followed at the cost of organizational interest. In such cases, there should be level
jumping.
Gang Plank- If information arises at Level A and requires communication to Level D. Fayol
says the communication must travel through proper channel. The communication should go
to level B, from level B to level C and from Level C to level D. But, sometimes, this time
consuming process might jeopardize the interest of the organization. As a normal rule, this
line should be followed but in cases of urgent information, an exception needs to be
created. A horizontal line of communication should be built across the departments between

the concerned positions provided the required approval or permission is obtained from the
respective immediate bosses.
11. Initiative- Management should encourage the functionaries to undertake voluntary decisions
and comply with those decisions.
12. Stability of Tenure- The managers should allow functionaries to occupy and operate in their
position for a considerable period of time. This is required not for emotional but professional
reasons.
13. Esprit de Corps- Managers should strive to maintain harmony within the organization. They
should not go for divide and rule because it weakens the organization.
14. The Subordination of the Individual Interest to the General Interest- In case of the
contradiction of the views between various units or entities within the organization. The view
of the higher unit will prevail over the lower unit or the view of the lower unit has to be
sacrificed for the view of the higher unit.
Fayol says these fourteen principles are not exhaustive in nature. Through further
observations, new principles can be generated. Fayol wrote his theory at a time when there
was a concept of Engineer Managers i.e. engineers themselves were the managers. At that
point of time, a separate cadre of managers or administrators did not exist. The general belief
was that any individual with an able mind can handle administration or management. Fayol
rejected this view while emphasizing that administration or management is a specialized area
of activity and thereby, an individual without adequate training and education in management
cannot manage an organizational effectively. Thus, he emphasised on the training and
education for administration or management. He was one of the initial theorists to emphasize
on the professionalization of administration.
Fayol v. Taylor
1. Both have penned down their theories out of their experiences as successful functionaries.
2. Both are from Private Industrial Undertakings.
3. Both believed in the generic view of administration (administration as a activity is same in
every organization (private and public).
4. Both emphasized on science of management or administration.
Differences
1. Taylor while focusing upon the organizational efficiency, he focused on the efficiency on
account of production (efficiency in doing the activities). Thus, Taylor focused on the shop
floor level of the organization. In order to explain the efficiency, he has referred to the
knowledge of engineering (use of stop watch, time and motion study, high speed cutting of
steel etc.)
2. Fayol while trying to explain organizational efficiency, he believed that organizational
efficiency is dependent on the administration i.e. the art of getting things done. Thereby, he
focused on the higher level of the organization. Thus, he has referred more to the knowledge
of management.

Now, I will discuss the principles given by Luther Gulick and Lyndall Urwick. I won't be discussing
their theories in detail. I will simply give the eight important principles given by them.

Principles by Gulick and Urwick- Eight Most Important Principles for the Organization
1. Fitting people into the Structure- They say that the first important managerial activity is to
create a proper structure of the organization and subsequent to that, to recruit people on the
basis of their suitability towards the job and thereby, placing them at the right position.
2. Principle of Specialization
3. One Top Executive- This is also being referred to as Unity of Leadership. The whole of the
organization is to be headed by one executive. The organization when headed by a board or a
commission, then in case of the things going wrong, there would be nobody to ask and
nobody to kick. It also delays the decision making.
4. Unity of Command- A subordinate should follow the orders of only one superior or superordinate.
5. Span of Control- This principle is developed with regard to supervision. Under this principle, Gulick
emphasizes that for supervision to be effective, the number of subordinates should be limited which should
be at most five or six.
Gulick, while being influenced by V.A. Graicunas and his formula, has emphasized that while the number of
subordinates grow arithmetically, the amount of supervision multiplies. It is so because the supervisor has
to supervise three types of relations.
1. Direct single relation
2. Direct group relation
3. Cross relation.
Total Relationships that a supervisor has to supervise when the number of subordinates is n,
T = n (2^n/2 + n 1)
When the subordinates are undertaking similar type of activity, the span of control will be more in comparison
to a situation where the subordinates are undertaking dissimilar type of activity.

6. Line and Staff

a. General Staff Functionaries- There are certain staff functionaries who are involved in
assisting the line functionaries on account of managerial functions such as planning, coordinating etc.
b. Special Staff Functionaries- They are involved in assisting the line functionaries on account
of technical functions.
7. Delegation- Within the organization, the managers should go for delegation. One of the
major failures of the organization is lack of delegation or lack of knowledge about what to
delegate and how to delegate.
8. Matching Responsibility with Authority- Principle of Authority- He says that the location of the
Supreme Authority within the organization should be clearly established and the line of command and line
of authority running from the top of the organization till the bottom of the organization should be clearly
laid out. Principle of Responsibility- He says that the superordinate should be responsible for the acts of
the subordinate.

Later theorists have referred Gulick and Urwick as Structuralists while Fayol has been
referred to as a Functionalist. Fayol was not completely blind towards the structural aspect of
the organization; he discussed them in his fourteen principles. Similarly, Gulick and Urwick
have not been blind about the functional aspect of the organization. Gulick while being

influenced by POCCC came out with a new acronym called as POSDCORB to elaborate the
functional aspect of the organization. This acronym was also adopted by Urwick.
P- Planning
O- Organizing
S- Staffing
D- Directing
CO- Co-Ordinating
R- Reporting (Keeping the superior regularly informed)
B- Budgeting

5
Weber was primarily a sociologist. Referring to his work, he can be referred to at most as a
political sociologist or a political economist. His contribution to Administration has been
incidental to his sociological studies. His study on rationality and process of rationalization in
the modern world has contributed towards the theory on bureaucracy. His theory on
bureaucracy has gained status to the extent that the name Weber and the concept of
Bureaucracy is being treated synonymous. Weber is the first theorist who took the concept
bureaucracy out of its pejorative meaning.
Unlike the other theorists of the classical period, Weber was an academician. He developed
his theory in the context of the government organizations. Since, he also believed in the
generic view of administration, his theory of bureaucracy was also applicable to the private
organizations.
One of the important characteristics of the modern western society is rationalization. It is a
process that involves consistency, logic or reason. It also involves a logical correlation
between the means and the end.
Weber says that Rationalization is a process that does not involve magical elements. Weber
came across a phenomenon called as Domination. Domination is a relationship between
the ruler and the ruled whereby the ruler has the right to rule and the ruled has the duty to
obey.
Weber has studied domination in the context of various organizations such as religious
bodies, economic bodies, government bodies etc. While studying in the context of religious
and economic bodies, he referred to domination being based on the constellation of
interest. While studying in the context of government bodies, he referred to domination as
authority.
Domination based on Authority
Power is the ability to get things done irrespective of resistance in a communal or social
situation.
Legitimacy refers to exercise of power based on values those are accepted by the subjects in
a society.
A legitimate exercise of power is Authority. (Power + Legitimacy = Authority)

1.

a.

b.
2.
3.

1.

In order to study Authority, he used a methodology called as Ideal Type. Ideal Type is
not something which is perfect or could be considered as a role model or something which is
average. It is derived from the concept of idea. Ideal Type is a mental construct or a
mental map of the researcher or it is a one sided exaggeration of the reality or it is a
researchers imagination in order to act as a reference point so as to observe compare and
classify the reality so as to derive hypothesis and generalizations. It is a utopia which is
though derived from reality is not found in reality.
Webers study was very comprehensive. It was both, historical and contemporaneous. It was
based on both primary sources and secondary sources. It was historical in the sense that
Weber undertook his studies during the latter part of the 19th century. By that time, a lot of
study had already taken place on these subjects. It was contemporaneous in the sense that he
took present existing conditions into regard.
By using Ideal Type, Weber came out with a Threefold Classification of Authority.
Traditional Authority- Weber refers to a type of authority, obedience to which is based on
tradition, customs and conventions. It is a type of authority which is based on the fact that
certain things are to be obeyed because those are used to be obeyed. It emphasized on the
importance of the eternal past.
Patriarchal Traditional Authority- It refers to a type of authority obedience to which is
based on age. The individual who is the eldest exercises the power. Most of the societies are
male dominated so normally the eldest male exercises the power.
Patrilineal Traditional Authority- It refers to a type of authority obedience to which is
based on lineage.
Charismatic Authority- It refers to a type of authority obedience to which is based on the
extraordinary qualities or exceptional personality.
Legal Rational Authority- It refers to a type of authority obedience to which is based on
law. According to Weber, this is the most rational form of authority. He says laws are
established through a process and carries a purpose.
Charismatic Authority is the most temporary or provisional form of authority. Charismatic
Authority is based on the exception qualities which are relevant to the situation. Weber says
situation changes and as the situation changes, the charismatic authority comes under threat.
The charismatic authority which comes under threat will either dismantle itself or it might
decide to continue. If it decides to continue, it can continue by converting itself into
traditional authority or legal rational authority. But, in modern society, it mostly converts
itself into legal rational authority. This is the process through which charismatic authority
continues itself. This is referred to as routinization of charisma or institutionalization of
charisma.
Weber has considered the charismatic authority of being capable of bringing about fastest
possible changes because under the traditional authority, change affects the source of
authority and under the legal rational authority; the change has to follow the due process. But,
charismatic authority has little limitations.
Weber was not only interested in understanding the relationship between the ruler and the
ruled but also the manner in which the ruler exercised their rule over the ruled. In that
particular context, he entered into the domain of administration. In this context, in order to
understand administration, he also used the Ideal Type Methodology.
Administrative Systems
Traditional Authority

a.

b.

2.

3.

a.

b.
c.

d.

e.
f.

Patrimonial Administrative System- It is a highly centralized administrative system. The

functionaries are treated as the personal servants of the Supreme Authority. Various
functionaries derive their power out of their loyalty towards the Supreme Authority. It is
based on the principle ofloyalty is bartered with power. It is a type of system where there
is a heightened importance of primordial identities such as region, caste, language etc.
A good example is that of Monarchical Administration. In such a system, king is considered
to be the supreme authority. Every other functionary owes his/her position to the king.
Feudal Administrative System- It is a comparatively autonomous administrative system.
Functionaries for their remuneration are not dependant on the Supreme Authority rather they
have their own source of remuneration. Rest of the characteristics of this system are in close
resemblance with that of the Patrimonial System. Weber has conceivedFeudal
Administrative System in the background of the Western European Feudalism.
Western European Feudalism- In Western Europe, Kingship System was prevalent. The
head of the state was the King. The kingdom was divided into various feudal areas which
were owned by the Feudal Lords. A king might himself be a feudal lord of any feudal area.
The entire authority relating to the Feudal Area was vested with Feudal Lords. Feudal Lords
used to raise taxes and were not dependent upon the king for remuneration. Feudal Lords
shared a part of their taxes with the King and in turn, King provided them protection through
his army.
Charismatic Authority- It has no Administrative System. There are only followers and
disciples. There have been certain exceptions where the charismatic authority tried to
establish administrative system and wherever it had been, it had been the Patrimonial
Administrative System.
Legal Rational Authority- The administrative system under this type of authority is called
as Bureau or Bureaucracy. Weber says that Bureaucracy is the most rational form of
organization. Even though Weber was not the first one to theorize on bureaucracy nor did he
coin the term bureaucracy nor did he define bureaucracy, both prior to Weber and postWeber, his idea on bureaucracy has been one of the most important conceptualization on
bureaucracy. Yet, his theory assumes critical significance. His importance lies in providing a
detailed, elaborate, functional and structural characterization of bureaucracy.
Bound by Impersonal Law- Bureaucracy is a type of organization in which the
functionaries do no act as per their own choices or whims and fancies. Rather, they act as per
the prescriptions of the law or the provisions of the law. These laws are impersonal or neutral
to various individuals occupying the positions within the organization.
Sphere of Competence- Within bureaucracy, every position carries a defined area of
responsibility while carrying the required authority and skill.
Hierarchy- Bureaucracy is a hierarchic or layered organization in which there is a clearly
established relationship between the superordinate and the subordinate. Further, the line of
authority from the top of the organization to the bottom of the organization is clearly
established.
Meritocracy- The recruitment into bureaucracy is based on expertise or ability. Further, the
individual within the organization operates with a contractual relation i.e. while individual
remains under obligation towards the job but personally remains free.
Impersonal Detachment- Within bureaucracy, there is a separation between the personal
office and the public office and personal property and private property.
Career Service- For an individual functionary, the occupation in bureaucracy is a career i.e.
a lifelong engagement and the engagement in bureaucracy is the only engagement.

Individuals in bureaucracy gradually move from lower amount of responsibility, authority

and remuneration towards higher amount of responsibility, authority and remuneration.
g. Written Records- In this administrative system, the administrative acts, decisions and rules
are maintained in writing. They are not conducted orally.
h. Non- Appointed Head- Bureaucracy is an appointed body of officials being headed by a
non-appointed official or having a political head. Weber has conceived the concept of
Bureaucracy in the context of Modern Democratic Setup.
4. Functional Characteristics of the Bureaucracy- Bureaucracy is scientific, rational,
technical, impersonal, impartial (non-discriminatory), neutral (politically unbiased), carrying
honesty and integrity and operating with precision and predictability (it operates on the basis
of impersonal laws and scientific approach). Thereby, according to Weber, it is the most
efficient form of organization. It is said that Weber is the first theorist who took out
bureaucracy from its negative meaning. But, Weber has not blind towards the limitations of
Bureaucracy.
5. Limitations of Bureaucracy
a. Problem of Alienation within the Bureaucracy- Here, Weber is referring to the separation
of the individual from his own self. Weber further says that because of Impersonal
Detachment and Career Service, the members of the bureaucracy gradually face the
problem of alienation i.e. they gradually get separated from their own self. Bureaucracy turns
out to be an iron cage from where there is no escape. This phenomenon has been referred to
as Phenomenon of Golden Cage (Golden because it provides power and privilege and
Cage because it curtails freedom and makes the person an automaton) by various other
theorists. C. Wright Mills has called this phenomenon as Prostitution of Personalities (In
order to suit the job, the person adopts a separate personality other than his own self).
b. Problem of Institutional Character of Bureaucracy- Weber has theorized his concept of
bureaucracy in light of Modern Democracy. As per Weber, the State is an instrument to
achieve the purpose of the society and goals of its citizens. State is a means to an end and not
an end in itself (Staatraison- German Term). State cannot achieve its purpose without
expertise or technicism or without a disciplined group of professional manpower.
Bureaucracy is a form of organization which is ingrained in the purpose of the state.
Bureaucracy is also a means to an end rather than an end in itself. Bureaucracy is
instrumental in character.
Weber says that Bureaucracy is a professional body of official which exercises power. But,
there is a possibility that bureaucracy instead of using power or exercising power for the
purpose of the state or the society, it might misuse or abuse the power for its own private
purpose or goal. Thereby, it being instrumental in nature, it might turn
institutional.Institutional here refers to becoming an end in itself rather than being a means
to an end. But, Weber is not pessimistic on this account. He is optimistic about a solution for
this problem in bureaucracy. He considers certain solutions such as:
i. Separation of Power
ii. Collegiality
iii. Amateurism
iv. Direct Democracy
v. Representative Democracy
He finally accepted Representative Democracy as a viable solution to address the
problem of Institutional Bureaucracy. Representative Democracy being a loop-based
democracy, the citizens will be able to control bureaucracy, its actions and intention through

6.
a.

b.

c.

d.

the exercise of control over the representatives who in turn will control bureaucracy as per
the views and interests of the citizens and the society.
Emergence of Bureaucracy- According to Weber, the rise of bureaucracy has been because
of
Capitalism- It is a type of economic system which is based on the idea of private investment
and profit. It is a type of economic system which prefers stability in the environment.
Bureaucracy as an institutional development which is based on an impersonal law provides
stable and predictive environment. Thus, Capitalism became one of the factors for the rise of
bureaucracy.
Industrialization-Industrialization had a critical impact on the size and functioning of the
organizations. Organizations became big in size and large in operation. They could be no
longer managed in an unprofessional and unscientific manner. They required a scientific
approach. This provided a basis for the rise of bureaucracy.
Democracy- Democracy as a philosophy promotes impartiality, ensures equality and
envisages a state which works towards the welfare of the people. Democratic spirit can only
be furthered where discrimination does not exist. This is only possible when the law is
impersonal in nature. Bureaucracy works within the framework of impersonal law. Hence,
bureaucracy grew with democracy.
Democracy promotes welfare of people but this cannot be provided without the requisite
expertise or professionalism. This expertise and scientific approach can be provided by
bureaucracy. Thus, democracy provided a suitable environment for the bureaucracy to
nurture.
Money Economy- Money economy provided a basis for the mode of exchange. The prices
of goods and services were fixed. Bureaucracy is a hierarchic organization with a sphere of
competence i.e. every position has ad defined responsibility and authority. Bureaucracy being
hierarchic in nature, responsibility and authority within the organization is unequally
distributed. Thereby, different remuneration is given to persons performing different types of
responsibilities. This required standardization of remuneration in the mode of payment and
this standardization is only possible in case of a Money Economy. Thus, Money Economy
provided a basis for the rise of bureaucracy.

6
She was the first female administrative thinker. Though, in terms of time period, she
belonged to the classical era, but in terms of the content of her theory, she was much ahead of
her times. She discussed ideas that were subsequently discussed during the Humanistic
period and the Contemporary period. She was very dismissive of the classical theories of the
organization as being mechanistic in nature. She can be considered as a precursor to the
Humanistic Period or Behavioural Period. Unlike the theorists of her time, she was an
academician and not a practitioner. She was a lecturer in Political Science. Her theory was a
by-product of her academic research which was based on both secondary as well as primary

sources. Many of her contributions were path-breaking. She is considered as a link between
the classical theorists and the future theorists.
Her Views on various issues
1. Individual- Human being a social animal likes to associate with others. This very nature
gives rise to the formation of group. Individual previously was independent but weak,
subsequently individual became dependant but strong. As the time progressed, goals became
many and human being could not achieve those goals on his own. Human-being being an
intelligent individual and innovated his own strategy to achieve goal which was by
cooperating with others.
2. Group- The group is an outgrowth of Human Nature. Human being cannot remain in
isolation. The group is as well an outgrowth of human purpose. Group is created out of the
deliberate effort of the human being because Individuals believe that it cannot achieve certain
goals which it can achieve through a group process. This results into the formation of groups.
Group is a natural creation as well as a planned initiative. Within a group process, individuals
interact with each other. This Interaction is a process of interpenetration. This doctrine talks
about interinfluencing of each other. This interaction gradually evolves into a synthetic or
composite view which Folett has explained through her doctrine of Whole. This provides the
identity or view of the group.
3. State- Group evolves out of the individuals but it carries an identity different from the
individual. The group and the individual enjoy a symbiotic relationship. The group represents
the individual and the individual represents the group. The interest of the individual lies in the
interest of the group and vice-versa. In modern times, the highest form of the expression
of the group is a State. The state and the individual also enjoy a symbiotic relationship with
each other. The interest of the citizen lies in the interest of the state and vice-versa. The
identity of the citizen and the state flow from each other. Folett says that the home of my
soul lies in the state. True nature of the state of this type is found only in democracy. State is
also a type of group but it has a special place since it operates at a higher level. The very
process of state emerging out of an individual does not take place in systems such as
dictatorship or tyranny.
But, Folett has rejected the representative form of democracy. She subsequently emphasizes
that such a relationship (discussed above) cannot exist in the representative
democracy. Representative democracy is based on the law of consent rather than the law
of co-action. In a representative democracy, few decide and many follow. In reality it is
nothing but a rationalization of arbitrary exercise of power. That is why Folett has
emphasized on the concept of Participative Democracy. In such a democracy,
institutional mechanisms are put in place through which people regularly participate in the
process of decision-making. She is stressing on Collective or Group Orientation and
underemphasizing the Individualistic Orientation.
Evans & Burns- In a representative democracy, liberty vanishes into the ballot box in two
seconds after which the people consume others politics. Democracy is a philosophy based on
the idea that people consume their own politics.
The liberty of the voter is till the person casts his vote. Once the vote is cast, representatives
no longer follow the diktats of the voters and no longer act on their behalf. They became
masters of themselves or usually, there is a small group of powerful individuals which
dictates terms to the representatives and others consume it.
Folett on Administration
She has contributed on various phenomenon such as

1. Conflict- She has been dismissive of the classical view as being mechanistic. Here also,
while referring to Conflict, Folett differed from the classical view on Conflict.
Classical theorists believed that Conflict is dangerous and destructive to the organization.
Conflicts should be avoided in the interest of the organization. Thus, they believe that it is
possible to avoid conflict in the organization. They emphasize that conflict is a by-product of
flaws or inadequacy in the organizational structure. Conflicts within the organization must be
immediately eliminated.
We see that classical theorists assume that persons with same set of skill will perform /in the
same manner if same position is assigned to them and same remuneration is being provided.
They fail to take into account the behavioural or psychological aspect of the management or
administration. Folett says that two persons with same set of skills might not perform in the
same manner because they are two different human beings or two different psychological
beings. Human beings are not automatons or mechanical in nature. Thus, classical theorists
have ignored the human element of the organization and hence are being referred to as
mechanistic.
Folett also says that Conflict refers to a difference in opinion among the various positions
with regard to the job under consideration. Conflict is natural and thereby, cannot be
avoided. This is because Conflict arises out of the human nature which is different from each
other. The organization is a group and therefore, it is an assemblage of human beings. These
are social beings with different social and psychological nature. Thereby, the difference of
opinion is natural to emerge. Hence, Conflict cannot be avoided and is natural. Conflict, in
itself, is not dangerous or destructive; rather the manner in which it is managed or handled
makes it destructive or even constructive in nature. In this context, Folett has considered three
types of strategies to manage Conflict.
a. Domination- Domination is a strategy in which the view of one is imposed upon the others
in a conflict situation. Folett believes that it is a dangerous or destructive strategy. Under
domination, the conflict is not addressed; rather the conflict continues and manifests itself in
the next opportune moment. At the same time, domination creates or leads to resentment and
makes the organization more and more conflict ridden or conflict prone. Conflict is an
opportunity for the organization because it provides new ideas which can become the basis
for the reform within the organization or better initiatives within the organization. Through
domination, this opportunity is not utilized, rather it is lost. Domination as a strategy is a
destructive strategy.
b. Compromise- Compromise is a process of mutual adjustment. It is a process in which each
party in a conflicting situation gains something as well as loses something. Thus, each party
partially wins and partially loses. This is one of the most frequently followed strategies to
address Conflicts in the organizations. But, she says that Compromise is also a destructive
strategy to handle Conflicts. She similarly believes that through Compromise, the conflict is
not addressed and it continues. Compromise does not take advantage of the opportunity
provided by the Conflict to reform or improve the organization or job performance.
c. Integration- It refers to a process of establishing creative synthesis among the conflicting
parties through the principle of Evocation. The views should come to the open and confront
each other rather than supressing the views. The confrontation of views should be in
conformity with scientism and rationalism. This will gradually bring a synthesis between
both the parties. The synthesis or the synthesized idea will belong to both the parties and not
just to any one party. Integration is a strategy which is based on Win-Win Basis.

2.

a.

b.

c.

3.

Integration is a constructive strategy of managing conflict because first of all, it addresses to

the conflict as well as able to take advantage of the available opportunity. Integration is a
difficult process to be established within the organization. For it to exist, it is required that the
contracting parties be flexible, skilled and rational. Through Integration, the conflicting
parties develop a sense of participation. Thereby, the organization becomes less and less
conflict prone. The organization is also able to take advantage of the available opportunities.
Integration may not be possible in every situation. She has rejected the principle of Lineal
Response and replaced it with the principle ofCircular Response. The dialogue should not
be unidirectional. She emphasizes on a dialogic approach rather than monologue approach.
Leadership- Leader is the one who is able to understand the situation in totality and
successfully move from one situation to the other. Folett says leadership is a critical function
within the organization because organization is nothing but a group of individuals working
towards a common goal. The job of the leader is to successfully influence the group towards
achieving the goal. There are three different types of leadership.
Leadership by Position- An individual acts as a leader by the virtue of occupying a superior
position within the organizational hierarchy. This view is also promoted by the classical
theorists of administration. The superior decides and the subordinates follow. The individual
who carries the skill or the ability relevant to the job is most capable of acting as a leader and
it is not necessary that the superior shall always possess the requisite skill set. Thus, she has
rejected the concept of Leadership by Position.
Leadership by Personality- It is a style of leadership where the one having the appropriate
skill or the ability relevant to the job acts as the leader. Folett agrees in principle with this
type of leadership. But, Folett also highlights some operational difficulties in this kind of
leadership. She rejects Leadership by Personality but promotes Leadership by Function.
Leadership by Function- This is a combination of Leadership by Position and Leadership
by Personality. Folett says that it is the kind of leadership based on the principle of Circular
Response. It is based on an associative or participative approach. The advantage of
Leadership by Position is that it ensures discipline and the advantage of Leadership by
Personality is that the person will always have the requisite skills.
The leadership exists not just because of the virtue of the position but also the ability and the
skill the person possesses. The deficiency in the ability and the knowledge of the leader can
be fulfilled by adopting a participative approach of sharing knowledge within the
organization.
Power and Authority- Folett says power is the ability to get things done. According to her,
Authority is a vested power i.e. a legally assigned power. It is merely a right to develop and
exercise power. Authority may not actually result into power Authority to be meaningful
should be functional, pluralistic and cumulative. Power being given or powers being
exercised are two different things. By pluralistic, she is referring that the authority should be
exercised in association and not in isolation. Cumulative means that the authority should be
exercised meaningfully using the ability of others. She also says that Authority is objective
and responsibility is subjective. Within the organization, the responsibility is delegated,
authority is not because authority lies in the job and stays with the job. Delegation of
Authority is a misnomer. Authority being a vested power remains objective and does not
vary. Responsibility, being the expected duty of the individual within the organization, varies
because of the infusion of perception or thought process in the job. Within the organization,
there can be assigning of the responsibilities and not the authority. When responsible is

4.

a.
b.
c.
d.

5.

6.

a.

b.

c.

d.

assigned, the associated authority automatically goes to the assignee. Responsibility should
also be functional, pluralistic and cumulative.
Order- She differs from the classical theories and does not accept their view of exercise of
order based on the principle of Power-Over and replaces that with the concept of PowerWith. Within the organization, the order might be complied, obeyed, disobeyed or partially
obeyed. Whereas, the classical theorists say that the order is necessarily obeyed and will
exactly follow what the superior has said. Folett differs from this view. She says for Order to
be exercised meaningfully, it should be based on certain conditions.
Conscious Attitude- There should be awareness about all the principles based on which the
order is to be exercised.
Responsible Attitude- One should be able to identify the appropriate principle based on
which the order is to be exercised.
Experimental Attitude- In certain cases which are unprecedented or unusual, newer
initiatives should be taken.
Pooling of the Resources- Within the Organization, data and information on various aspects
of the organization should be meaningfully consolidated and maintained.
Order to be exercised meaningfully should be based on depersonalization of
power i.e.power should seem to be flowing from the situation rather than the position. The
depersonalization of order is based on law of situation. Depersonalization of Order leads to
effective exercise of the Order. Human beings want to remain free. Thus, they resist
domination because domination leads to resentment. This resentment restricts or retards
compliance. The one who is exercising the order should act as a Salesman. The superior
should always try to bring about awareness among the subordinates and try to develop the
relevant attitude and only when the relevant attitude is manifest, the order should be
exercised.
Control- Within the organization, the Fact Control should replace the idea of the Man
Control. The control should be exercised by the job and situation rather than the control
being exercised by the superior. The responsibility should exist towards what rather than
responsibility towards whom.
Co-ordination- Co-ordination is the harmonization or the synchronization of the
organizational activities. In order to establish co-ordination, Folett has provided four
strategies.
Co-ordination through Direct Contact- Within the organization, the effort should be to
establish as direct a contact as is possible between the concerned parties involved in the
problem of co-ordination.
Co-ordination at an Early Stage- While making policies, laws or rules and regulations, the
concerned entities or functionaries should be involved. This will make the policies and laws
more realistic and it will not subject the laws to multiple interpretations.
Co-ordination as a Continuous Process- A specialized unit should be set up continuously
to look into the problems of co-ordination within the organization and suggest measures
accordingly. (e.g.- Ministry of Plan Implementation)
Co-ordination through the Reciprocal Relationship of all Concerned- The process of
resolving the problem of co-ordination should involve all those who are concerned with the
problem of co-ordination.
Folletts analysis and conceptualization of administration has been dynamic in nature as
compared to the classical theorists whose conceptualization was static in nature. Classical

theorists developed a very machinist view of the organization. Whereas, the views developed
by the later theorists were pretty vivid and dynamic.

7
Elton Mayo is considered to be the initiator of the Social Psychological analysis or Human
analysis in Organizational Management. His theory is post- Follett. But, Folletts ideas
became known much later. Mayos theorization is based on a number of studies he conducted
along with a number of researchers and functionaries. Mayos theory is not only based on
studies and experiments but at the same time, it came out with a novel analysis which became
the subject of theorization for the later theorists such as Bernard, Simon etc.
A Preliminary View of Mayo on the Individual and the Society
He believes that the modern society is in a state of disorganization or anomie or planlessness.
The traditional society was based on a routine which has been broken down by science and
rationality but has not been adequately replaced with a new set of routine. This has resulted
into disorganization. The disorganization manifests itself today in every aspect of the society
(politics, culture, economy, industry etc.).
This can be addressed by bringing about an Adaptive Society. It is a type of society which
has the capacity to accommodate or adapt to the newer conditions or newer situations. It is a
society which emphasizes on education and administration. The emphasis is on value based
education. Value based education intends to impart wisdom i.e. the ability to distinguish
between the right and the wrong. While referring to administration, he says that the
administration is managed by the Administrative Elites. Administrative Elites means
administrators which are not only equipped with the technical skills but also the social skills
i.e. both the hard and the soft skill. Thus, he emphasizing on a participative approach.
Hawthrone Study
Mayo along with a team conducted this study in the Hawthrone unit of the Western Electrical
Plant in USA.
1. Philadelphia Textile Mill Study or the First Enquiry- Philadelphia Textile was a model
and a successful organization. But, during the early 20th century, a spinning unit of this mill
developed certain problems such as absenteeism, high labour turnover (250%- number of
workers joining and leaving the organization. Thus, an organization will require hiring much
more persons than it would originally require to maintain the organization in a working
condition) and thereby, inefficiency and loss persisted. The mill took the help of a number of
Engineer-Managers to address this problem. All this went in vain. Finally, it was referred to
the Harvard School of Business Administration. In that context, it was assigned to Elton
Mayo.
When Mayo visited the unit, he found that the work condition inside the unit is very noisy
and the workers were working for very long work hours without any rest. Mayo took a simple
initiative by introducing few rest periods or rest pauses between the work hours. Very
surprisingly, the absenteeism reduced, turnover vanished and productivity increased.

Subsequently, after some time, the managers withdrew the Rest Periods. Previous condition
of absenteeism and loss of productivity revisited. Alarmed by the condition, the managers
introduced the rest periods with conditions and linking it with production. Again, the
absenteeism reduced but productivity did not increase to the previous levels. So, Rest Periods
were introduced without conditions which brought the productivity to the previous level.
Mayo said that the nature of work being monotonous, work condition being noisy and work
duration being long, the workers are suffering from fatigue and witnessing melancholic or
pessimistic reveries. The workers were not able to interact with each other and were not able
to enjoy the social or optimistic reveries. The introduction of Rest Pauses enabled the
workers to interact with each other and able to adjust to the boredom of the work. It also
relieved their fatigue. Because of this the absenteeism stopped and the workers were able to
concentrate on work.
2. Western Electrical Plant was a well-developed, profit making organization. It witnessed
similar problems. The organization responded in a usual manner by employing Engineer
Managers. It failed miserably. So, the organization initiated some studies.
a. Illumination Experiment- Under this experiment, the very aim was to understand the corelation between the physical condition of the work and productivity. In this experiment, the
effort was to understand the effect of lightning on the productivity.
Two teams were created and each team comprised of six females workers. In the beginning,
the level of lighting was maintained at a constant level. The workers were allowed to work
under a particular level of lighting for a particular time so that they were able to acclimatize
themselves with that level of lighting. After a period of time, in the context of one of the
teams, the level of lighting was gradually increased. Interestingly, as the lighting was
gradually increased, the productivity also increased simultaneously. After reaching a point,
the level of light was gradually decreased. As, the level of lighting was reduced, the
productivity increased. The productivity went on increasing till the level when the lighting
became so dim that the workers were not able to see at all.
With the other team, the level of lighting was maintained at a constant level. Interestingly, the
productivity with the second group also increased. By this time, Mayo joined the experiment.
Mayo and his team started with a new experiment called as Assembly Relay Test Room
Experiment.
Under this study, Mayo selected six female workers. In this study, gradually numbers of
incentives were provided. They were provided with shorter work hours, bonuses, rest periods,
refreshments etc. While, these incentives were being provided, the productivity went on
increasing. After a point of time, these incentives were gradually withdrawn. As the
incentives were being withdrawn, the productivity was increasing.
Subsequently, Mayo came out with an explanation to explain these findings. The reason for
the increase in productivity is social and psychological. Thus, the reason is human and not
mechanical in nature. The workers are aware that they are being observed and are part of an
experimental team. This is giving them a sense of importance and recognition. Here, the
supervisor is friendly and consistently interacting with the workers. The observers were also
interacting with the workers. The changes introduced were introduced with the knowledge of
the workers. These conditions resulted into creation of a group feeling and developed a
sense of participation among the workers. This particular social interaction and feeling is
responsible for the rise in productivity.
With this, the team wanted to conduct further studies to concretize their findings.

b. Interview Experiment- This is also referred to as Human Relations and Sentiment

Experiment. The aim was conduct as many interviews of the workers as possible. The
Hawthrone Plant employed around 40,000 workers. Under this program, around 21,000
workers were interviewed. Interviews were recruited for the said purpose. The interviewers
were asked to be patient and attentive towards the remarks of the workers. They were also
asked to maintain records and not interfere even though the workers deviate from the
questions and gave vague answers. Also, the views of the workers were not shared with the
management.
While the interviews were being conducted, the productivity went on increasing. Later on,
when Elton Mayo went through the data, he found that the workers have come out with a
diverse range of views. Most of these views were negative in nature related to the
management and the working conditions. Some even mentioned the problems in their
families and neighbourhood. Mayo concluded that the increase in productivity was because
of the interview program which acted as a Ventilation Therapy for the workers and at the
same time, the workers developed a sense of Wefeeling. This was the reason for the
increase in productivity. Workers developed a feeling that their views were important for the
organization and those views will be incorporated in the work process. This view of the
workers was reinforced by a changed behaviour of the supervisor towards them because
supervisors were instructed to be friendly. This feeling resulted into a sense of participation
and the workers were psychologically attached with the organization.
Mayo was aware of the fact that the studies have been conducted in an artificial environment
i.e. the workers were aware that they were being observed. Mayo wanted to conduct further
studies in a natural or a spontaneous environment.
c. Bank Wiring Experiment- This is also being referred to as Social Organization and
Disorganization Experiment. It was conducted through Participant Observation method.
Under this, the researchers became a part of the workforce. The study found out that the
supervisors have set a target but the workers were not working as per the targets set by the
supervisor. Rather, they are working and producing an amount of work which was less than
the target fixed by the supervisor. Very interestingly, the productivity of all the workers was
similar. The study found out that the group itself has set a target which is below the
supervisors target. The group, in order to ensure compliance of the workers towards the
group target, introduced several social strategies such as social ostracization or social
ridiculing, name-calling etc. One who produced more than the targets was called
as Ratebuster and one who produced less than the designated target was called as Chiseller.
Also, the one who disclosed secrets to the management was called as Squealer. Mayo
emphasized that there was an informal aspect present in every organization apart from the
formal aspect which is apparent.
Formal aspect refers to that part of the organization which is recognized and established or
the part of the organization which is defined by the rules and manual of the organization. On
the other hand, the informal aspect of the organization refers to that part of the organization
which is not recognized by the organizational rules and manuals. These are rules which
though exist but are not recognized by the organizational rules. Organization does not carry a
single identity. It also has an unofficial identity i.e. the informal aspect. Informal aspects can
be positive as well.
Informal aspect, if not nurtured well, will result into negative behaviour and retard
productivity. If it nurtured well, it will enhance productivity and further the organizational
goal.

Organization is a social group based on an intricate web of Human Relations bound together
by sentiments. This view is contrary to the line of thought adopted by the classical theorists
because they considered individuals as members of the organization who were isolated beings
driven by their own self-interest. Classical theories of the organization have developed a view
of the organization which is merely an assemblage of individuals with hedonistic interests.
This view of Mayo attracted certain comments. Some say that Mayo has promoted a herd
hypothesis (Mayos Theory) as against a rabble hypothesis (Classical Theory). Group
influencing the individual- Herd, all individuals act under self-interest- Rabble. Mayo says
that individuals are influenced by non-economic incentives as well. He also says that within
the organization, there exists an informal aspect to it which influences the productivity.
d. Much later in 1944, after Hawthrone Studies were over, Mayo was invited to view the
California Aircraft Industry which was under similar difficulties such as absenteeism and loss
of productivity. He did not conduct any study here but went to his institute and looked at the
findings which he gathered during the Hawthrone experiment. He applied the same findings
to the California Aircraft Industry. He observed that the organization is being managed
mechanically and not being managed by considering the human aspect within the
organization. He suggested for relaxed supervision, regular consultation with the workers and
allowing their participation in the decision-making. He focused on the human aspect of the
organization. This resulted into a group feeling or a team feeling among the workers and the
absenteeism reduced. This particular event further corroborated the Eltons view under the
Hawthrone Studies.

8
Without discussing his background and life, I will directly come to his theory.He has highlighted three

elements in an organization
1. Common Purposea. Objective Purpose- He refers to the organizational purpose or the common purpose. He
calls this as individual's purpose or individuals goal. Unless the individuals come together,
cooperate with each other, it wont be possible for the organization to exist.
b. Subjective Purpose
2. Willingness to Contribute- Organizational survivability requires that the individuals must
contribute willingly towards the organizational goal. By this, he is trying to explain the
motivation of the individuals. He has dismissed the classical view on motivation i.e. classical
theories are mono-motivational in nature. For classical theories, economic reasons are the
only factors for motivation. He emphasized that the motivation is not just monetary but also
based on non-monetary factors.
He has come out with a concept called as Contribution- Satisfaction Equilibrium to
explain individual motivation. By contribution, he refers to individuals efforts and activities
undertaken in pursuance of the organizational goal. By satisfaction, he refers to the incentives
or the benefits provided by the organization towards the individual in exchange for the
contribution. He says that the individuals motivation depends on individual satisfaction
being more than individuals contribution. Individual becomes fully motivated when he
derives a feeling that individuals satisfaction is more than the individuals contribution.

Equilibrium refers to the balance in the system i.e. system to be functional requires that the
individual contributes towards the organizational goal. Satisfaction of the individual has been
explained through the concept of Inducement. Inducement refers to the factors which are
provided by the organization to the individual to induce him to do work. He has discussed
eight types of inducements. The main purpose of all these theories is to achieve efficiency
in the organization. He has given few important points in this regard.
a. Specific Inducements
i. Material Incentives- This refers to money or salary.
ii. Personal Non- Monetary Opportunities- This refers to personal power or personal
recognition etc.
iii. Desirable Physical Condition of Work- The working space should not be dingy or dirty.
iv. Ideal Benefaction- He refers to the job which satisfies individuals values, ideals or
ideologies etc.
b. General Inducementsi. Associated Attractiveness- This refers to a desirable social condition in the workplace.
Here, social refers to Individual to Individual relationship or the relation among the
colleagues. Undesirable social condition is a disincentive to work. A friendly atmosphere is
always welcomed by the employees.
ii. Adaptation of the Working Condition of Work towards Individuals habits and
attitudes- He refers to the matching of the individuals habits and attitudes to the job
requirements or job conditions.
iii. Opportunity for Enlarged Participation- He refers to the opportunity to participate in
the decision making or the opportunity to participate in various organizational activities.
iv. Opportunity to undertake Desirable Communication- Freer communication with
colleagues and supervisors in the organization acts as an incentive.
c. Authority- He dismissed the classical theories of organization and their view as being
the Positional View on Authority. He developed his own Acceptance View of Authority.
Positional view means that the authority flows from the position and the authority lies with
the superordinate. Whereas, he has emphasized that the authority does not lay with the
position which issues command rather lies with the position which accepts it. According
to him, the authority lies with the subordinate and does not lie with superordinate.
ForAuthority to be meaningful requires that it be accepted first i.e. Command only when it is
going to be accepted by the subordinate. If the command is not accepted by the subordinate, it
wont be complied resulting into non- meaningful authority. The acceptance of command
depends on four conditions.
i. It should be intelligible.
ii. It should be consistent with the organizational goals.
iii. It should be compatible with individuals personal goal.
iv. It should be within the physical and mental limits.
In order to substantiate Authority, he used a concept called as the Zone of Indifference.
Within the organization, individuals carry Zone of Indifference as well as Zone of Denial.
There are individuals who have more of Zone of Indifference. On the other hand, there are
also individuals who have more of Zone of Denial. An individual who carries of Zone of
Indifference, command issued towards them is more likely to fall within the Zone of
Indifference and thereby will be complied. On the other hand, Command issued towards the
individuals having more of Zone of Denial is more likely to fall within the Zone of Denial
and thereby is liable to be disobeyed. The executives within the organization should always

strive to increase the Zone of Indifference while decreasing the Zone of Denial. This can be
done by working on individuals Contribution- Satisfaction Equilibrium. Zone of
Indifference or Denial refers to a psychological condition of being obedient or disobedient.
While being in the Zone of Indifference, the individual being indifferent towards the merit
(four conditions discussed above) of the authority complies with the authority. Within the
organization, while the acceptance of authority lies with the subordinate, the power of Veto
lies with the superordinate. Power of Veto has been symbolically used and it means that the
responsibility for the failure of authority or negation of authority lies with the superordinate.
d. Fiction of Superior Authority- He emphasizes that the manager should be aware of the
myth and the reality about the authority. Functionaries in the organization carry a number of
beliefs such as
i. Superiors carry superior authority.
ii. Disobedience will lead to loss of incentive or even loss of job.
iii. Lack of performance may result into loss of reputation.
These beliefs may not be real but it helps the supervisor to exercise the authority
meaningfully. Such beliefs can be manipulated by the superior to exercise more and more
control over the subordinates. The fiction of Superior Authority will lead to making the
subordinates delegate the authority upwards.
3. System of Communication (Exchange of ideas between the sender and the receiver) Communication helps in conveying the purposes and helps in exercising authority. Because
of this, he believes that Communication is Authority (Everything within the organization is
sustained through communication). Thus, there should be a proper system of communication
within the organization. The characteristics of proper system of communication.
a. The entire channel of communication should be known.
b. Every functionary should have access to the formal channel of communication.
c. The line of communication should be as direct as possible. The communication centres
should be competent.
d. The entire channel of communication should be used. The communication must not jump
layers. Jumping of layers will lead to misgivings, misunderstandings or even indiscipline.
e. The channel of communication should not be interrupted. The positions acting as
Communication centres should not fall vacant. If it falls vacant, the chain of communication
will break. There should be immediate replacement for these positions.
f. The communication should be authentic. The communication should be made within the
domain of the authority.
g. The communication centres should be competent. The functionaries should be skilled, able
and be equipped with tools, techniques and technologies of communication.
Barnards View on Responsibility
He discussed the moral aspect of the responsibility. While referring to the responsibility
within the organization, he says that the responsibility is carried out through multiple codes
such as legal code, cultural code, social code etc. Within the job situation, the individuals
responsibility might face conflict of codes. One code might go contrary to other code. When
there is a conflict between the internal codes and the external codes, most likely, the external
code surrenders to the internal code.
Based on the conflict of codes, the behaviour of individuals is identified.
1. It might result into paralysis of action or inaction.

2. Individual might choose one code as against other code or codes. In this case, individual goes
through a feeling of guilt.
3. Individual while following one code might find a way to satisfy the other codes. In this case,
the individual does not go through the feeling of guilt.
He recognizes that his study is inadequate in this regard and further studies are required on
these topics.
Classical theories say that individual does exactly what has been prescribed by the law. Thus,
classical theorists believe only in one code i.e. legal code.

1.

2.

1.
2.
a.
b.

Decision Making
Barnard is called the pioneer in Decision Making. Decision is an act of choice reached
through deliberation, calculation and thought. Choice becomes available only when there are
more than one alternative. Decisions are of two types.
Organizational Decisions- Barnard refers to the decisions undertaken to advance the
organizational goal or decisions made in organizational capacity. These decisions are to be
based on logical or non-logical analysis.
Personal Decisions- It refers to decisions made outside the organization. These might be
based on logical analysis, non-logical analysis or even illogical analysis. (Non- logical refers
to decisions based on inadequate or hybrid information)
Every decision carries two elements. He has used the Means- End Paradigm in this regard.
He says every decision contains the goal component and the means component. The goal
component is the moral component because the goal is a desirable one for the individual who
is making the decision. The means through which the goal is to be achieved has been referred
to as the opportunistic component.
Moral Element
Opportunistic Element
Complementary Factor- He refers to all the factors which help in achieving the goal.
Strategic Factor- He refers to all the factors which when absent helps to achieve the goal.

9
Hi everyone,
Due to some technical reasons, I am skipping Herbert Simon's theory for the time being. I shall
upload it sometime later. Now, let us come to the Participative Management Theories. The first
theorist in this regard is Rensis Likert.

He developed his theory on administration based on an empirical study which could be

equated only with Hawthrone Studies. The study employed 40 researchers, consumed number
of years and considered diverse category of organizations both from the public sector and the
private sector. Based on these studies, he contributed on Organizational Systems, Styles of
Leadership and Management of Conflicts etc.
While studying the organizations, he found out that there are certain organizations which are
efficient and there are other which as less efficient. On observation, it was found out that the

1.

2.
3.
4.

A.

B.

C.

efficient organizations were managed by Employee Centred Leaders i.e. leaders who focus
on human requirements or emotions and try to develop the individuals as efficient workers.
On the other hand, it was found that the less efficient organizations were managed by the job
centred leaders i.e. leaders who focus on the targets or who focus on fixing the targets,
laying down the procedure to achieve the target and imposing their views over the
subordinates. Thus, they came out with a conclusion that employee centred leaders are more
efficient than the job centred leaders.
The researchers wanted to corroborate this conclusion and for that they swapped the
employee centred with the job centred leaders to manage different organizations. Job centred
leaders handled the more efficient organizations and there was a small increase in their
productivity immediately and after that the productivity flattened for a period of time and
finally, it started decreasing gradually. On the other hand, when the employee centred leaders
managed the less efficient organizations, the productivity remained same for a period of time,
after that, it gradually started increasing and finally, the organizations became efficient.
Likert began with four types of organizational systems and later on, he added two more to the
list. He focused more on System 1 and System 4. System 2 and 3 were merely sketchy in
nature.
Exploitative Authoritarian System- It represents a mechanistic organization that has been
developed by the classical theories of the organization. It is characterized as hierarchic
Organization, rigid superior- subordinate relationship, top down communication, man to man
relation, working through the fear of punishment and allurement of reward i.e. Carrot and
Stick Policy.
Benevolent Authoritarian System- This system is closer to system 1.
Consultative System- This system is closer to system 4.
Democratic Participative System- It is characterized by overlapping structure, cross
functional linkages, flexible superior- subordinate relationship, working through emphasizing
on the trust and confidence of the subordinate, group to group relationship, all way
communication.
System 4 types of organizations were considered to be most efficient in nature. System 4 is
characterized with supportive relationship, interaction- influence system, linking pin model
Supportive Relationship- In a system 4 type of organization, leadership is considered to be
a relational process. He emphasized that in these organizations, the leader is expected to
adopt its style of functioning according to the nature of his subordinate. This type of
leadership style results into the individual feeling important or worthy or having a feeling of
being supported. Supportive Relationship is an environment within the organization which
emerges out of the leadership functions which when taken up while considering individuals
background, expectations and values. This gradually leads towards the individual being
integrated with the organization.
Interaction- Influence System- Within the organization, the organizational process gets
integrated with the managerial process. Here, organizational process means individuals skill,
resources and motivation and managerial process means commanding, co-ordinating,
correlating etc. It results into maximization of individuals resources and motivation.
Linking Pin Model- In a system 4 type of organization, an individual is a part of two
groups, a group in which the individual is a leader and a group in which the individual is a
member, thereby, the individual acts as a link between the superior group and a subordinate
group. This happens because of the participative approach which is emphasized in a system 4
type of organization. Because of this, there is a group to group relation and this leads to

communication travelling upwards, maximum utilization of an individuals potentiality and

complementarity of actions.
Besides this, he has also tried to elaborate the productivity of human resource within the
organization. This Human Resource Accounting been explained through the concept of
Science of Management. He has used three types of variables in this regard. This is with
reference with to productivity within system 1 and system 4.
i. Causal Variable- He refers to the organizational structures and leadership style.
ii. Intermediate Variable- He refers to the motivation and the control within the
organization.
iii. End Result Variable- He refers to the individuals productivity.
Variables
System 1
System 4
Hierarchic Structure, Rigid
Flexible Structure, Relaxed
Causal
Superordinate -subordinate
Supervision, having trust and
Variables
Relationship, Lack of trust and
confidence in the subordinate, group
confidence in the subordinate,
to group relation etc.
emphasis on Carrot and Stick Policy
etc.
More co-operation, Less Conflict,
Intervening Less co-operation, More conflict,
High unnecessary pressure of work,
Less pressure of work, Higher
Variables
Lower Performance Goal, Lower
Performance Goal, Higher loyalty
commitment towards managers and
towards the managers and peers.
peers.
Lower Productivity, High Cost of
Higher Productivity, Lower Cost of
End Result
Production and Loss or Inefficiency. Production and Higher Profit or
Variables
Efficiency.

1.
2.
3.
4.
A.
B.
C.
D.

The organization to be efficient should always move towards System 4. The movement in
this regard should not be abrupt rather it should be gradual. Abrupt grafting towards system 4
will result into failure as the individuals will not able to adapt to the new values or norms. For
this, he has developed a concept of Organization Improvement Cycle. His concept in this
regard is explained below.
Create an ideal model of the desired system.
On the basis of the comparison, identify the strengths and weaknesses of the current system.
Prepare a plan of action to retain the strength and eliminate the weaknesses.
Apply the plan into action.
His suggestions in this regard are as follows.
Changes should be on account of organizational structure and leadership style.
While bringing about changes, the workers should be involved, individuals within the
organization should be aware about the changes.
Changes should be brought about while involving the most influential personalities within
the organization.
The changes should be brought about through an impersonal approach. Changes should not
be planned with bias.
Contemporary organizations are now manned by persons who are skilled, aware and
ambitious. The system 4 is becoming more and more efficient.
Organizational Conflict
It is a viewpoint or a standpoint carried by one which will get displaced if the viewpoints of
others are accepted.

Substantive Conflict- It refers to the conflict which surrounds the job.

Affective Conflict- The conflict which involves emotions, prejudices, superstitions etc. is
referred to as Affective Conflict. The managers should always try to discourage affective
conflict.
The managers should try to devise a Win-Win Strategy rather than Win-Lose Strategy. This
is similar to the Follets idea of Integration.

10
He was a Humanistic Behavioural Organizational Psychiatrist and a Participative
Management Theorist. He talked about the relationship between exercise of control and
human behaviour. He was very much critical of the classical theories and their use of control
or authority in the theories. Subsequently, he developed a humanistic explanation to the
exercise of authority or control. This has been discussed through the Theory X and Theory
Y.
He said that as it is impossible to control the physical nature, it is also impossible to control
the human nature. Later on, he said that the prudence lies in adapting to the environment, in
the similar manner, the prudence lies in adapting to the human nature.
He firmly believed that the human behaviour within the organization can be predicted. He
said that this depends on the extent of control existing in the organization and understanding
the assumptions on which the human behaviour is based.
Theory X
It is a type of managerial Philosophy. It depicts a mechanistic or directive managerial
philosophy which has been developed by the classical theorists.
Assumptions under this theory
1. Man by Nature is lazy or indolent, thereby; he does not like to work. Man by nature avoids
work as the work appears to be painful.
2. Man by nature does not like to take responsibility and thereby; he would not like to
independent and would like somebody else to take decision and follow it. This naturally leads
to another assumption.
3. Manager is required to take the decision and through the use of Carrot and Stick Policy
impose it over his subordinates.
Theory Y
It depicts the humanistic managerial philosophy. Under this, it is believed that:
1. Man by nature loves work. Work is as pleasurable as play or rest.
2. Individual by nature would like to remain independent, thereby; the individual like to take
responsibility.
3. Managers should create conducive environment at the job place which should be consistent
with the human nature in order to induce the individual towards the work.

McGregor was a votary of the theory Y. The Coercive Control brings about a resistance in
the human beings and thereby; undermining of the productivity. But, when there is exercise
of self- control, the individual loves to work and integrates with the organizational goal,
thereby; maximizing the organizational productivity.
He also discussed the concept of Transactional Influence. This concept refers to a working
condition where each individual enjoys trust and confidence of the other. Coercive
Control leads to mutual suspicion and unhealthy competition.
Rational Emotive ManagerMcGregor has emphasized on the managers which are required to manipulate the job
environment as per the need or the requirement of the individuals or the workers in order to
bring about individual growth and organizational development. They are basically Theory Y
type Managers. Within the organization, there should be emotional rehabilitation of managers
into the organization. The managers should always resist being vulnerable to
the irrationalities. It creates Transactional Influence and promotes Theory Y type Managers.
He also discussed the concept of Conflict. He has been reminiscent of the Follets discussion
on conflict. Conflict refers to difference of opinion and conflict can be beneficial to the
organization. He discussed various strategies to manage conflict.
1. Suppression of Differences
2. Divide and Rule- The management deliberately creates or promotes an alternative view in
order to impose its own view. Both 1 and 2 have been rejected by McGregor.
3. Working through of Differences- It means considering and confronting conflict and coming
out with solutions. This is the preferred strategy for McGregor.
Managerial Cosmology
It holds the key to the organizational reality. He is referring to the Managerial world view and
belief system. He is explaining that managers beliefs explain his actions. A manager's
actions define the individual and organizational behaviour. While recruiting a manager, one
should try to understand the managers belief system. He has emphasized that more than the
hard skill, one should try to understand his soft skills. In the background of contemporary
changes in the nature of the organizational members, the theory Y is becoming increasingly
relevant because the contemporary organizations are more complex, operating in an
increasingly competitive environment and being manned by individuals who are skilled and
educated. He also believed that in certain cases, Theory X might be useful.
There is a concept called Scanlon Plan. It refers to an experiment conducted by Fredrick, a
close associate of McGregor. This theory discussed the influence of managerial control over
the human behaviour. The managerial control induces positive behaviour if it is not based on
coercive control.

11

He is a participative management theorist. According to him, most of the organizations

around us are under-performing He believes that in these organizations, there are certain
inconsistencies or incongruences. Thus, he identified three important areas of problem.
1. The problem of individuals growth towards personal or psychological maturity- He
categorized individuals into two types. This idea has been discussed through the idea
of Immaturity- Maturity Paradigm.
a. Immature Personalities- He is referring to individuals who carry the characters of an infant.
b. Mature Personalities- He is referring to individuals who carry the characters of an adult.
S. No.
Immature Personality
Mature Personality
Passive
Active
1.
Dependent
Independent
2.
Limited Behaviour
Multiple Behaviour
3.
Erratic and Shallow Interest
Stable and Deeper Interest
4.
Short Term Perspective
Long Term Perspective
5.
Feeling of Subordination
Feeling of Equality or Superiority
6.
Lack of Self-Awareness
Possess Self-Awareness
7.

A.
B.

2.

a.
b.
c.
d.

He emphasizes that most of the contemporary organizations today are conducive to the
immature personalities although most of members of these organizations are capable of being
turned into mature personalities. He has also dealt with the types of managerial philosophies.
Model I- Theory in use- Bureaucratic Pyramidal Value System- Similar to McGregors
Theory X.
Model II- Theory in use- Democratic Humanistic Value System- Similar to McGregors
Theory Y.
Most of the organizations today practice mechanistic managerial philosophy, thereby; they
are directive and authority or control oriented in nature. He further says that this type of
managerial philosophy lead to the fundamental inconsistencies between the organizational
culture and individual members within the organization resulting into a feeling of frustration,
loss of interest and lack of performance.
He is trying to emphasize that while the managerial philosophy is mechanistic, the individual
personalities are primarily mature resulting into contradictions and inconsistencies. This
inconsistency leads to a sense of frustration as explained earlier. The organizations today do
not provide the individual with conducive environment to grow psychologically and develop
their personality.
The problem of interpersonal competence- Interpersonal Competence refers to the
Individuals ability to successfully operate in a group situation or in a social relation. He
believes that since the contemporary organizations are manned with mechanistic
philosophies, there is low interpersonal competence. Such organizations are full of mutual
suspicion, unhealthy competition, jealousy and lack of co-operation. All these factors
undermine the performance of the individual. Individuals growth and personality depends
considerably on higher interpersonal competence. He has defined four types of individual
behaviour to establish interpersonal competence.
Being open to others ideas.
Accepting responsibility for ones own action or behaviour.
Being ready for experimentation with new ideas or strategies.
Helping others to be open, to accept responsibility and being ready for experimentation.

3. The problem of Appropriateness of the organizations or organizational structures- He

maintains that a single type of organizational structure is not suitable or appropriate to
address all types of jobs or activities. As the nature of job varies, the organizational structure
must also vary accordingly. He has discussed four different types of organizational structures.
a. Pyramidal Structure- It is a rigid and classical structure. It is suitable to deal with the
routine tasks or non- innovative activities.
b. Modified Formal Structure- It is a hierarchic structure but in terms of processes and
mechanics of its operations, it is democratic in character. It is similar to System 4 propounded
by Likert. This organization is comparatively more efficient than the pyramidal structure.
Apart from routine activities, it can efficiently deal with the group activities.
c. Participative Structure- This is comparatively a less hierarchic and flexible organization. It
is more organic in character. This is a structure which is more suitable to activities which
require creativity and imagination. It can efficiently deal with group activities or activities
that involve interdepartmental or interorganizational co-operation.
d. Matrix Organization- It is a superimposition of the project organization over the functional
organization. It is a non-hierarchic organization or a flatter organization. These organizations
carry the required authority and autonomy to deal with the concerned issues. These structures
are primary suitable to deal with issues of emergent nature or those require multiple skills or
specialization.
Apart from this, Argyris along with another theorist (E. Wright Bakke) developed a theory
called as Fusion Process explaining the organizational efficiency. These theorists believed
that within the organizations, there are two types of processes.
1. Personalizing Process- It refers to all those activities which when undertaken results into the
achievement of the individuals goal.
2. Socializing Process- It refers to all those activities which when undertaken results into the
achievement of the organizational goal.
Fusion Process- It refers to the simultaneous operation of the Personalizing Process and the
Socializing Process. The activities within the organization should be so arranged which when
performed should not only address the individual goal but also the organizational goal. The
individual potential is achieved when there is fusion process within the organization i.e. the
individuals are utilized maximally for the organizational goal.
Argyriss Criticism towards the Classical Theorists
1. While referring to the classical theories, he says that the philosophy promoted by them
creates in an individual the feeling of frustration, loss of interest and lack of performance.
2. Similar to Dwight Waldo, he criticized the classical theories to be unscientific for they have
ignored the informal aspect of the organization and the irrationalities within the organization.
3. He is also critical of some of the humanistic theorists. He says that these theorists
underemphasized on interpersonal relations especially in small groups. While referring to
Simon, he says that Simons concept of Satisficing Man and his concept of mechanism of
organizational influence are mutually contradictory.

12
Taylor
Taylor overlooked the fact that the principle of division and subdivision of work into the
tiniest part each is subjected to the law of diminishing returns.
Taylor confuses the principle of analysis with the principle of action. In Taylors theory, the
emphasis has been on the fact that the managers were to decide and the subordinates were to
follow. But, Planning cannot be done in isolation of the action and action cannot take place in
isolation of planning. The planning and execution cannot be divorced from each other but
Taylor said that the planning and execution are to be done separately. The workers will have
no say in such a planning process.
Fayol
The 14 principles of Fayol have a great deal of overlapping.
Application of the principle of unity of command would overwhelm the chief executive with
problems of co-ordination.
Elton Mayo
He has been criticized for being a Cow Sociologist because they emphasized that Mayo in
terms of his analysis of the social aspect of the organization has been amateurish. He has
explained individual behaviour only from one perspective whereas the individual behaviour
is influenced by a number of factors which are external in nature.
Carey says that the conclusions of Mayo are different from his findings in the Hawthrone
Experiment. Carey believes that the behaviour of an individual in an artificial condition
cannot be considered as a Standard Behaviour. Also, the samples which were considered
were too small to be considered as representatives of the workers. If we consider the
Hawthrone Experiment, the productivity decreased in the last experiment (Bank- Wiring
Experiment was conducted in natural condition and not in artificial condition). According to
Mayo, Social Strategies were the reason for the decline in productivity. But, Critics believe
that social strategy was not the only reason. The group maintained a lower target because
they believed that there economic interest (low payment) lies in maintaining the lower target.
Thus, Mayo ignored the economic factors in this regard.
Mary Parker Follett
Her main problem was her idealism which was clearly visible in her theories. Folletts
theories carried some oxymoronic values such as centralization as well as decentralization,
democracy as well as aristocracy, authoritarianism as well as participation, mechanistic
nature as well as humanistic nature. Had these oxymoronic values operated in separate
contexts, no problem would have existed in her theory. But, the fact that these values
operated simultaneously made her theory to be too ideal to be perfect.
Irrespective of this, her ideas were indicative of certain ideas and those same ideas proved to
be the basis for the theorization done by the future humanistic theorists. Her theory
emphasized more on the psychological aspect and gave little heed to the social aspect.
Herbert Simon

His theory and its emphasis on Value Free Approach are problematic. The positivist
underpinnings in his theory are tricky. It is impossible to understand the manner to achieve
the preference by divorcing it from preference. The preference here signifies goal. Simon
overemphasized on fact and undermined value.
His theory has limited application for the government and public administration.
Though outwardly Simon emphasizes on politics- administration fusion, yet his emphasis on
fact-value dichotomy has introduced politics- administration dichotomy through the
backdoor. Simon believes that the study of the administration should only be concentrated on
a part of the administration. Critics say that his study is intra- organizational and not interorganizational because of which he has insulated the administration from politics.

ADMINISTRATIVE BEHAVIOURE
13
Today, we will start with Administrative Behaviour. Under this topic,we will first discuss the
processes and techniques of decision-making. Hope you find it useful.
To start with, I will give a broad overview of the models prevalent in the decision making.

Models of Decision Making

These models are the models of public policy making as well.
1. Institutional- It is emphasized that decisions within the government are made by various
agencies and members of the government. The existence or non-existence of a decision
within the government is because of the existence or non-existence of certain agencies within
the government. Also, the nature of the decision is also defined by the nature of the agency.
This model provides a very simplistic idea about the decision making process within the
government. It is simply discounting the influence of any other agency or body other than the
agencies within the government. It has not been able to understand the complex
dynamism/mechanism of decision making within the government. Thus, this model has not
taken into account the role of non-state institutions in the process of decision making.
2. Group- This model emphasizes that there are number of groups within the society. Each of
these groups carries their respective interests. These groups, in order to protect and promote
their interest, put pressure on the government for favourable decisions. Also, these groups are
of varying strengths. The state makes the decision under the pressure exerted by these groups
and the final decision is basically the view of the strongest group.
This model is also too simplistic because it ignores the autonomous role of the state and at the
same time, it also ignores the influence by other multiple groups.
3. Pluralist- This model also emphasizes that in a society, there are a number of groups. These
groups carry their respective interests and in order to protect and promote their interests, they
try to put pressure on the government to get a favourable decision. Again, these groups are of
varying strengths.

This model says that the state plays the role of the umpire or an impartial referee. Thereby, it
provides a platform for negotiation/interaction to take place. Finally, the decision is the byproduct of the influences exerted by the groups but in order of their strength.
The Neo-Pluralist Theory has come with a different analysis and certain new dimensions
(Robert Dahl, Charles Lindbloom etc.). It says that the though the state acts as a referee yet
the state does not remain impartial or neutral rather the members of the state themselves
constitute few of the most powerful interest groups. These groups are actively involved in the
process of decision making. Of all these groups in the society, the Industrialists/Corporate
Group is the most powerful group because they are responsible for most of the employment.
This model is considered to be one of the most acceptable models to explain the process of
decision making within the government.
4. Elite- Elite refers to a minority in the society which is distinguished from the masses based
on its privileges, power, style and standard of living. Who all constitute the Elites is a highly
debatable question and at the same time, Elite in a particular society might not be Elite in
some other society.
C.Wright Mills has discussed about Elites in her work The Power Elite. This work holds
good mostly in the context of USA. He says that there are a number of institutions in a
society and of all these, three institutions can be considered to be the vital institutions of the
society (Business, Politics and Military). All those who occupy key positions in these three
institutions together constitute Elite. He believes that Elite might belong to a different
profession but irrespective of their profession, they are very homogenous in terms of their
nature and culture.
This theory is emphasizing that in the modern democracy, the decisions are actually made by
the Elite. Only those decisions escape the capture of the Elite which does not concern the
interest of the Elite.
5. Marxist- This model emphasizes that the decisions in the government are made by the state
as being the executive committee of the dominant class or thebourgeois. Thereby, the
dominant captures the state. The decisions taken in this regard are taken to protect and
perpetuate the interest of the dominant.
The Neo-Marxism differs from this fundamentalist Marxism or Vulgar Marxism. Subsequent
theorists who followed the conflict perspective are termed as Neo-Marxists (Althusser,
Paulantzas and Gramsci etc.). These theorists emphasized that in a society there are many
classes and not just two classes as was propounded by Marx such as Bourgeois, petty
Bourgeois, White Collar Jobs, Blue Collar Jobs, Skilled Workers, Semi-Skilled Workers
etc. Each of these classes has their respective interests. In order to protect and perpetuate their
interest, they pressurize the state. None of these groups is in a position to completely capture
the state. As a result of which, the state gains in autonomy or the state becomes relatively
autonomous. Being relatively autonomous, the state makes decisions and at times, it might
make decisions contrary to the Bourgeois. The state makes decisions while remaining within
the overall domain of Capitalism.
6. Rational- It is also known as the Root model of the decision making. It is an economic
model of decision making which is based on the premise that an issue should find closure
based on absolute rationality. All the data and information relating to the product should be
considered and with regard to the problem, subsequent to that all the strategies relating to it
should be evolved. The strategy designed based on the accurate power of prediction is to be
evaluated and on the criteria of relative effectiveness, a strategy should be chosen which
should be the best among the best. This model emphasizes on Cost-Benefit Analysis.

7.

a.
b.

c.

8.

9.

But, this idea has been contested by Simon. He says that this is not possible because it
presupposes the infinite capacity of the decision makers and the decision makers are bounded
by limitations. That is why, he emphasizes on bounded rationality as against the absolute
rationality.
Incremental- The philosophy of Incrementalism has been propounded by theorists like
Charles Lindbloom. He emphasizes that the decision making within the government is not
based on root model rather it is based on a branch model. The decision within the government
is not taken based on a detailed rational consideration and thereby, the decisions are not new
rather the existing decisions are continued with limited or little changes. The decisions are
only marginally incremental over the existing decisions. They are not radical shifts from the
existing decisions.
The incremental decision making in the government is because of the problem of
Sunk Cost- The cost which is incurred when an investment goes in vain because of a
subsequent investment taking place over the same subject-matter.
Problem of Consequences- Decision making in rational model is based on detailed analysis,
if the decision goes wrong, there will be a radical shift from the existing trend and the
negative impacts will be humongous. The fear of consequences inhibits the decision maker to
refrain from adopting the root model.
The problem of vested interest and adaptation- The individuals within the organization
need to reorient their value which requires adaptation by individuals towards the new set of
requirements. The adaptation will attract a different value system and a different working
environment which might lead to resistance within the members of the organization.
These marginal increments are based on Mutual Partisan Adjustment Approach. Whatever
limited change that is brought in is also not based on rational consideration. These marginal
changes are based on the adjustment which is reached by various interest groups which are
competing with each other or trying to influence the decision making.
That is why Lindblooms model is also referred to as Disjointed Incremental Model or a
Science of Muddling Through.
The model of Logical Incrementalism by Quinn tried to improve upon the Disjointed
Incremental Model. Quinn is emphasizing that the decision within the government should be
taken with limited improvement over the existing decision but while remaining within the
long term objective or the long term goal. Also, these marginal changes should also be
rational changes.
Mixed Scanning- This model is given by Amitai Etaioni. While trying to address the
limitations of both, this model has attempted to combine the advantages of the Rational
Model and the Incremental Model. Under this, the emphasis is on undertaking a broad study
or a generalized overview of the problem under consideration and based on this generalized
broad overview, the critical factors or the most important factors relevant to the problem are
to be identified. These critical factors have to be studied in detail to find out the solution for
the problem. The decision will be limited in nature because an absolute decision is possible
only when all the data is considered which is very unlikely.
Garbage Can- This model emphasizes that the decision making within the government are
not based on rational calculation rather is temporal or accidental in nature. Decision making
within the government is chaotic or a random exercise. The decisions within the government
are not based on systematized planning or deliberate planning. Within the government, there
are a number of decision makers, but neither the problem nor the solution nor the decision
makers are static. Government is a loosely organized organization because of which many

problems emerge. Many of these problems become important problems or many of them lose
their importance or many decision makers emerge or many decision makers leave the scene
or many solutions emerge or many of the solutions disappear. The decision making within the
government is a very complex process and not smoothly rational. Within the government,
sometimes the problems chase the solution and vice versa. The decision making takes place
when the problem is recognized by the decision makers and a possible solution is available
and is being supported by a conducive situation or environment. Most of the times, these
situations do not converge, that is why many obvious, expected or important decision within
the government are not taken and many remote and unexpected decisions are taken.
This model also says that within the government certain decisions might be planned or based
on rational calculation.
Kingdon suggested a new model in 2003 called as Revised Garbage Can Model. He hardly
modified the model rather his model is a systematization of the existing garbage can model.
He emphasized that decisions within the government take place when the three streams i.e.
the Problem Stream, the Political Stream and the Policy Stream converge. With the
convergence of these streams, the political window widens and the decisions are taken.
Problem stream refers to various problems those are seeking attention for the decision. The
political stream refers to the public opinion, political support, favourable election results or a
conducive environment etc. Policy stream refers to the political decision makers,
administrators, researchers etc.
10. Normative-Optimal- Refer to the models on Policy making.
11. Public Choice- Refer to the models on Policy making.
12. Game Theory- This theory is primarily used to explain decision making in a competitive
environment. In a competitive environment, a decision maker does not fully or partially
controls the consequences. The consequences are also dependant on the decisions made by
the others present within the decision making arena. The decision maker should try to analyse
all the possible consequences and the final decision should be made while avoiding the
extremes.
A new model has been propounded recently which is a mix of all the above mentioned
models. No single model can fully explain the entirety of the decision making within the government.

14
At the outset, I would like to state that this model has some serious limitations. One of the

major limitations is the problem of Group Think. It means getting overpowered by the
group mentality. The techniques basically focus on maximizing the advantages or diverse
expertise and minimizing the limitations of decision making. There are four techniques under
this topic.
1. Brainstorming- It is a conference style of decision making where the decision makers are
face to face with each other. The group leader clarifies the problem to the group members.
Once the problem is clarified, each group member is expected to come out with as many
ideas as one can share. During the generation of ideas, every form of value comments or
statements is restricted. Once the generation phase is over, each of these ideas is to be

discussed openly and everyone will take part in the debate. Based on this, a final conclusion
is to be reached on the idea on which a consensus arises. Though, it is one of the most
acceptable techniques of decision making. But, at the same time, it suffers from some
infirmities such as it is not completely devoid ofGroup Think. Also, when the ideas are
voiced, even though no value comment is made, but psychologically the value comment
process persists within the members.
2. Nominal Group Technique- This is also a conference style of decision making. In this
process, the members and the decision makers come face to face with each other. The group
leader clarifies the entire issue in front of all the members. Once, the issue has been clarified,
every member of the group is expected to ponder over the issue privately. The individuals are
not free to voice their issue. After this, they have to come to a single closure or view and not
multiple views. This closure or view is required to be maintained in writing on an already
designed paper. The size, colour and dimensions of the paper have to be same for everyone.
The views of everyone are to be dropped in a box or kept in a manner that the people are not
able to correlate between the idea and the individual. Once everybody has contributed their
ideas, one by one, each of these ideas will be taken out and discussed. After the discussion is
over, every individual is expected to assign a rank to all these ideas. Based on these rankings,
a final ranking is to be prepared. Based on the final rankings, the idea which occupies the first
rank becomes the idea or view of the whole group and that is what the final decision is. This
process is referred to as Nominal Group Technique.
The individual becomes anonymous and his identity is not disclosed. But, this might give rise
to a casual attitude in decision making because no one is going to get the credit for giving a
good or a bad idea.
3. Delphi Technique- Delphi is a Greek term referring to a shrine where people use to pray to
know about information relating to their future. It is a technique which is used to deal with
issues which are futuristic in nature and involves the requirement of diverse expertise. All
these expertise is not available within the organization. It is also not possible to bring the
concerned experts face to face with each other. Delphi technique is a technique whereby the
expert group of the organization prepares a questionnaire and selects the experts to be
consulted. To begin with, it sends the questionnaire to a select group of experts. When the
questionnaire reaches back to the expert group with the responses of the select group, then
based on the responses received, the questionnaire is to be revised. After this, the revised
questionnaire is being sent to another select group of experts. Similarly, based on the
responses, the questionnaire is to be revised again and sent to another set of experts. The
process is continued till the expert group of the organization reaches a level of satisfaction or
closure in this regard.
4. Consensus Mapping- It is a technique which is used to bring about an agreement amongst
the group on certain issues where group consists of a large number of individuals. It is a type
of strategy to establish consensus between a large numbers of people. A core group is
constituted to facilitate the decision making process and based on the identification of
clusters; various sub-groups are to be created. Each of the sub-groups is expected to take note
of the issue under consideration and submit their view to the core group. The core group will
act as a facilitator and create a conducive environment. There has to be homogeneity while
identifying a cluster. Based on the consideration of these, a Strawman Map is to be prepared.
It basically refers to a tentative conclusion that the core group will reach based on the
consideration of various sub-groups. It will act as a reference to various sub-groups for
revising or reconsidering their views. On the basis of the subsequent revised views by the

sub-groups, the Strawman group will be revised. This process will go on till a consensus is
achieved.

15
1. Operation Research- It is a quantitative technique that uses scientific, logical or
mathematical tools and techniques to understand the organizations in action so as to improve
its functions. It is the use of the quantitative techniques to the organizations in action to
improve its functions. Under this, the various variables of the problem are given an objective
value or given a mathematical value. Various variables and their inter-relationships are
quantified and systematically correlated. This model is the mathematical or quantitative
representation of the problem in reality. As against the goal that is expected, the various
alternatives or various strategies are quantified and are introduced into the model. The model,
while going through the complex calculations, will indicate the possible consequence which
helps in identifying the final decision. Since it involves sophisticated and large number of
calculations, it is generally taken up with the help of electronic mechanisms like computers,
virtual space etc.
2. Decision Tree- This is a technique which is used in the context of such issues which
involves a series of sub-decisions where every subsequent decision is dependent on the
outcome of the previous or preceding decision i.e. the second decision is dependent on the
outcome of the second decision, the third decision is dependent on the outcome of the second
decision, or the fourth decision is dependent on the outcome of the third decision and so on.
Thus, Decision Tree involves a series of decisions. Here each uncertainty is dependent on the
outcome of the previous uncertainty. Thus, in such type of decisions, Decision Tree is used to
minimize uncertainties and trace and establish the entire series of decisions right from the
beginning till the attainment of the goal. This chain is constructed by exploring various
alternatives and their consequences at each stage.
3. Linear Programming- It is a quantitative technique to optimally distribute the limited
resources of an organization for maximal achievement of the organizational goal. Within the
organizations, the material resources and technology are finite but these resources are to be
used optimally. Under this, the linear refers to establishing the relationship between the
various activities in a straight line. Programming refers to undertaking decisions
systematically. Thus, Linear Programming refers to undertaking a systematic decision in
an organization by putting similar activities in a straight line. Straight line means
identifying similar activities which are putting strain on the same resource. Linear
Programming is most appropriate in situations where the organization has scarce resources or
requires optimal utilization of resources.
4. Waiting Line Technique- This is a technique which helps to identify the area of activity
which requires decision and as well the nature of the decision which is to be taken. The
existence of the Waiting Line or the non-existence of the Waiting Line can indicate the area
of decision making and the nature of decisions.
The existence of the waiting line might indicate two things i.e. the demand for the product or
the service might be high or the facility providing those goods or services might be low.

Similarly, the absence of waiting might indicate two things i.e. the demand might be low or
the facility might be very large.

LEADERSHIP
16
Leadership is a phenomenon which successfully mobilizes a group towards the attainment of
the organizational goal. Thus, the leadership of the leader is critical to the organization. There
are a large number of theorists in this regard.
1. Trait Theory- This is the earliest theory on leadership. It remained influential till mid-1940s.
The proponents of this theory advocate that there are certain leadership qualities, individuals
possessing these qualities are leaders and those who do not are non-leaders. There is no
agreement between the proponents of this theory. Each of the proponents has come out with
their own list of qualities. Among these theorists, one group of theorists believes that leaders
are leaders by birth or leadership is an inborn quality. They emphasize that anybody who is a
leader is a leader by birth. Also, they believe that anybody who is a non-leader will remain
non-leader for life. Thus, nobody can be trained with these qualities or nobody can acquire
these qualities. They are being referred to asGreat Man Theorists.
There was one another category of theorists which has a similar line of thought but they did
not believe in the fact that these qualities cannot be acquired, in fact they believed that people
can be trained to become leaders. Thus, the Trait Theories of Leadership primarily emphasize
on what leaders are? This theory started getting setbacks from mid-1940s and became
irrelevant sometime after. A study was conducted and it was found out that various leadership
qualities which were given by these theorists had very little similarity (only 5%). Individuals
with a set of qualities are acting as leaders in a particular situation. But, individuals with same
set of qualities are acting as non-leaders in some other situation. Number of such
inconsistencies made this theory irrelevant.
2. Behavioural Theory- This theory gained prominence during mid-1940s. It emphasized
on what leaders do as against the trait theory which emphasized on what leaders are.
a. University of Michigan- This study has already been discussed under the theory of Likert.
b. Ohio State Studies- This study was undertaken by the Bureau of Business Research
Studies. This study was conducted by scholars like Fleisure and Others. In this study, they
discussed the types of leadership under two dimensions.
1. Initiating Structure- This refers to Job Orientation.
2. Consideration- Concern for the people i.e. Employee Orientation.
A study has been conducted across a similar line as Michigan studies but it has come up with
4 styles/types. It brought further sophistication.
Low IS and Low C- They are neither Employee Orientated nor Job Orientated. They merely
act as a link.
High IS and Low C- They are Task Oriented and Authoritarian in behaviour.

Low IS and High C- They try to keep everyone happy and in good humour.
High IS and High C- They are relationship oriented as well as Job Oriented. They are not
only concerned with the subordinate but at the same time they are concerned with the goal or
the job.
The study found out that that the High IS, High C leaders proved to be most efficient.
c. Managerial Grid Theoryi. Impoverished (1, 1) - Low on Consideration for task and people.
ii. Task Oriented (9, 9) - Low on Consideration for people and high on consideration for
task.
iii. Country Club (1, 9) - Low on consideration for task and high on consideration for
people.
iv. Team Oriented (9, 1) - High on consideration for people and high on consideration for
task.
v. Middle of the Road (5, 5) - Intermediate type.
The study found out that the team oriented leader has been the most efficient leader of all the
above mentioned types. All these theories emphasize that the leaders who have high
consideration for people as well as the task proves out to be the most efficient leader.
These theories also came under criticism during early-1970s. A number of studies invalidated
the above mentioned findings.
3. Situational or Contingent or Contemporary Theories of Leadership- They are called
as Contemporary because these theories in contemporary organization have proven to be
more relevant. These theorists emphasize that a single style of leadership will not remain
efficient under all the situations rather as the situation changes, the leadership must also
change accordingly. The leadership should be appropriate to the situation.
a. Fiedlers Contingency Theory- This theory has tried to bring about a correlation between
the leadership style and the job situation/environment. The theory finally concluded that in
every situation or job environment, same style of leadership is not successful, as the
leadership changes, the style must also change. This theory states that any job contains three
critical factors and scores on these factors define the job environment.
i. Leader Member Relation- It refers to the extent to which the members accept the leader
as their leader. The score is high when the members accept the leader as their leader and the
score is low if the leader is rejected by the members.
ii. Task Structure- It refers to the extent to which the job is clearly or well defined. It
means that the job under consideration is clearly defined or not. If job is well defined, the
score is high.
iii. Leaders Positional Power- It refers to the capability of the leader to award punishments
or rewards to his subordinates. If the leader can give punishments or rewards, the score is
high and if the leader cannot punish or reward, the score is low.
Based on these factors, he has discussed sixteen different types of situations. But
subsequently, he compressed it to eight situations. And finally, the current theory is based on
four general situations.
i. Highly Favourable Situation- When score relating to all the three factors (above
mentioned) with regard to the job is high; the situation is called as a Highly Favourable
Situation.
ii. Highly Unfavourable Situation- When the score relating to all the three factors is low,
the situation is referred to as Highly Unfavourable Situation.

iii. Moderately Favourable Situation- When any two scores are high and any one score is
low, the situation is referred to as Moderately Favourable Situation.
iv. Moderately Unfavourable Situation- When any two scores are low and any one score is
high, the situation is referred to as Moderately Unfavourable Situation.
Fiedlers Discussion on the type of Leadership
He developed his view through a concept called as LPC i.e. Least Preferred Co-worker. LPC
is the least preferred member in the group for the leader. With regard to this individual
(LPC), the leader is able to least identify with. The leader might have two types of
predispositions. With the use of concept, he came out with two types of leaders.
I.
The leader is high on LPC- The leader is favourable disposed towards the LPC. When
the job environment is moderately favourable or unfavourable, the leader who is high on LPC
has proven to be successful
II.
The leader is low on LPC- The leader is unfavourable disposed towards the LPC. When
the job environment is highly favourable or unfavourable, the leader who is low on LPC has
proven to be successful.
A. Highly Favourable Situation- The members completely accept the leader and are highly
committed to him. The leader has the power to punish and reward them.
In such a situation, directive behaviour of the leader appears to be a fatherly behaviour for the
members. It proves to be motivational for the members.
B. Highly Unfavourable Situation- In this situation, the leader is not accepted by the members
and the task is not clearly defined. Also, the leader does not possess the power to punish or
reward the members. In such a situation, directive behaviour of the leader wont work. At the
same time, a humanistic behaviour of the leader also wont work.
Under this situation, the leader who has displayed task orientationhas proven to be
successful and motivational. The leader must display his superior qualities while handling the
job.
C. Moderately Favourable Situation- A leadership which has been supportive or associative
has proven to be more motivational. In certain situations, the leader might have to be task
oriented.
D. Moderately Unfavourable Situation- The leader has to be favourably disposed towards the
LPC. He has to act in a supportive manner.
According to Fiedler, the leaders leadership style is constant. A leaders innate style remains
the same throughout his lifetime. It cannot be changed through training, education or even
through a deliberate effort.
b. Hersey and Blanchards Situational Theory or Lifecycle Theory- This theory is not the
only situation theory. Under this theory, the very effort has been to understand the leadership
style or the types of leaders and the types of workers. This theory has explained that for the
leaders to be effective, they should have the leadership style appropriate to the type of
workers. There are four types of workers who are at different levels of maturity. This has
been explained through two perspectives.
i. Job Maturity- It refers to the skill, expertise or ability of the worker. If the worker is job
wise mature, he is considered to be able.
ii. Psychological Maturity- This refers to the motivation or willingness of the worker
towards the job. If the worker is psychologically mature, he is considered to be willing
towards the job. And if he is psychologically immature, he is considered to be unwilling to
work.

A.

B.

C.

D.

Levels of Maturity- These levels reflect various levels of life, right from the infancy till the
adulthood.
M1- They are job wise immature as well as psychologically immature. They are unable and
are unwilling. Such workers are best handled by leaders who are telling or directive in style.
They are the type of leaders who are on high on Task but low on Relationship. The best type
of behaviour will not be humanistic.
M2- They are job wise immature but psychologically mature. They are unable but willing.
The workers are not skilled but very enthusiastic. The leader needs to infuse confidence in the
workers. Such workers are best handled by leaders who adopt a Coaching or Selling Style of
leadership. They are the types of leaders who are high on Task and High on Relationship.
M3- They are job wise mature but psychologically immature. They are able but unwilling.
These workers are skilled but are unwilling to work. Skilled workers carry a high self-ego
and have a more opportunities.
Such workers are best handled by leaders who areParticipative/Associative in style. They
are the types of leaders who are high on Relationship but low on Task.
M4- They are job wise mature as well as psychologically mature. They are able and willing.
They are unable but willing. Such workers are best handled by leaders who adopt
a Delegative/Non-interfering style of leadership. They are the types of leaders who are
on Task and low on Relationship.
This shows that a single style of leadership wont be appropriate in all kind of situations
because every worker does not respond in the same way for the same kind of leadership.
Here, the leaders leadership style is not constant. Unlike Fiedlers theory, the leadership
style can change through training, education or deliberate effort.

17
This theory was initially developed by Evans and further taken up by House. It was
influenced by Brooms Expectancy Theory of Motivation. The theory says that the individual
believes that his work will result into certain things which are highly valued. It emphasizes
that the leaders success lies in increasing goal attractiveness, clearly laying down the path
leading towards the achievement of the goal, increasing individuals pay off, reducing the
roadblocks or pitfalls or obstacles, thereby influencing the individual towards the goal or the
job. This theory aims at bringing about a correlation between the type of leadership and the
nature of the job. All types of job cannot be handled by a singly type of leader.
Types of Job under this theory- With regards to the different types of job, different styles of
leadership are needed.
1. The job is vaguely defined or is not clearly defined- In this type of job, a directive or a
task oriented leader has proven to be more successful.
2. The Job is clearly defined and repetitive in nature- In this type of job, a
supportive/associate leader has proven to be more successful.

3. The Job is clearly defined but non-repetitive in nature- In this type of job, an
achievement oriented leader has proven to be more successful. These leaders are able to
repose confidence in the subordinates and at the same time bring about a challenging
environment.
4. The job is clearly defined and non-repetitive in nature but not as clearly defined as the
previous one- In this type of job, a participative/associative leader has proven to be more
successful.
Peddins 3-D Theory
This theory has been developed while modifying Blake and Monton Managerial Grid Theory.
This theory has added a third dimension to the managerial grid theory. It added
theEffectiveness Dimension to it. Based on these three dimensions, this theory has been
developed from a situational perspective. This theory believes that the basic leadership style
remaining the same, within that there could be an ineffective behaviour i.e. ineffective
leadership style or effective behaviour i.e. effective leadership style.
Effective
Missionary

Compromiser

Deserter
Autocrat
Ineffective

Related
RO
Separated
TO

Integrated

Developer

Executive

Dedicated

Bureaucrat

Benevolent Autocrat

Deserter- He is the one who has surrendered all sense of responsibility. He is indifferent or
unconcerned with the job or the workers.
Bureaucrat- He is the one who is concerned with the rules and the regulations as well as the
requirements within the organization. He is neither goal-focused nor concerned about the
workers.
Related- This type of leader is high on relationship but low on
task. Missionary andDeveloper are similar to this form of leadership style.
Missionary- It basically refers to an individual who wants to enjoy a friendly relation or
cordial relation with everybody in the organization. He tries to keep everybody in a good
humour.
Developer- It basically refers to an individual who addresses the emotive requirements of the
individuals or the members primarily trying to develop them as better workers. Developer
will be more effective than Missionary because Missionary merely tries to keep the workers
happy.
Dedicated- This type of leader is high on task but low on relationship. Autocrat leadership
style is ineffective and Benevolent Autocrat
Autocrat- He is the one who defines the job and influences the individual towards the
performance of the job through punishment, fear or negative sanctions.
Benevolent Autocrat- He is the one who defines the job but while defining the job creates an
impression of impersonalization and wants others to follow it. It ensures compliance through
positive sanctions or orientations.
Integrated- This type of leader is high on relationship as well as high on task. Compromiser
is ineffective and Executive is the effective leadership style.
Compromiser- It refers to an individual who lacks the power of decision or suffers from
indecisiveness faced with situations to remain emotionally sensitive while being consistent

with the requirements of the goal or the task. He is the one who takes bad decisions or wrong
decisions.
Executive- He is the one who is able to bring about an optimal balance between task
orientation and relationship orientation and depending on the situation is able to take
appropriate decisions.
Relation between a Leader and a Manager
Most of the times, these terms are being used interchangeably. But, they carry different
meanings.
S. No.
Leader
Manager
A leader is strategic in nature. He is the He is tactical in nature. He carries
1.
one who carries long term orientation.
short term orientation.
They are concerned with the vision or A manager is concerned with
2.
mission of the organization.
structure, procedure and processes
of the organization.
The leaders are more concerned with The managers focus on control, co3.
values, principles and policies of the ordination,
communication,
organization.
supervision etc.
The leader largely focuses on policy The managers mostly focus on the
4.
making.
implementation.
A leader does right things but the manager does things rightly.

MOTIVATION
18

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Motivation refers to the individuals persistence and intensity at which the individual is
directed towards the work or the job. It basically refers to the willingness or commitment of

the individual towards the job. It is an individuals urge or drive towards the job. It is a
critical phenomenon explaining the organizational behaviour. It also explains organizational
success or failure. On this particular phenomenon, there have been a large number of
theories. The debate has been going on right from the classical era to the contemporary
period.
The classical theories have explained motivation from a mono-motivational perspective. For
them, an individuals motivation in an organization is based solely on monetary or economic
incentive.
This idea has been contested by the humanistic theories. They have emphasized that the
motivation is dependent not just on the monetary factors but also other factors.
Barnard has explained motivation in his theory. But, the first theorist who developed a
separate theory on motivation was Abraham Maslow.
Maslows Hierarchy of Needs
He has developed his theory on motivation with the help of a concept need. By need, he
refers to the individuals urge which arises out of individuals requirement to fill up some of
its deficiencies. An organizational condition which satisfies the individuals need makes the
individual motivated. On the contrary, if the needs are not satisfied, the individual becomes
demotivated.
He disagreed with the classical theorists and agreed with the humanistic theorists. He
emphasized that an individual has multiple needs, both economic and non-economic. He
categorized these needs under five heads. Later on, he discussed a sixth need which he did
not integrate with his theory.
Maslows Hierarchy of Need
Self-Actualization Need (Higher Order Need)
It refers to the need to undertake job for its innate values i.e. an urge to do a job for the sake of job itself or
the job itself is pleasing.

Esteem Need (Higher Order Need)

He refers to the need for achievement, recognition, authority, diversity of job etc.

Social Need (Middle Order Need)

This refers to the individuals urge to have a sociable atmosphere or environment i.e. to have a relaxed
supervision, co-operative colleagues, supportive subordinates, conducive interpersonal relation etc.

Safety/Security Need (Lower Order Need)

He refers to the need for the bodily security, the need for protection of life and property, the need for
security against uncertainties or unforeseen events.

Physiological Need (Lower Order Need)

He refers to the individuals urge to satisfy the basic existential needs i.e. the need for food, water, shelter,
clothes etc. It is economic/monetary in nature.

The Concept of Prepotency of Needs- At any given point of time, only one need out of the
above mentioned needs is most intense. They are not equally influential and thereby, the
individuals action is influenced by that need (i.e. most intense). At any given point of time,
the individual is seeking satisfaction from only one need i.e. the Prepotent Need. Only when
there is satisfaction of the prepotent need, the individual gets motivated i.e. the organizational
condition satisfies the prepotent need of the individual makes the individual motivated
otherwise the individual remains demotivated. A satisfied need is no more motivational or is

not motivational because extra amount of that need wont make any difference since it has
already been satisfied. The satisfied need will give rise to the Prepotency of another need.
For most of the individuals, the Prepotency of needs follows a sequence (not arbitrary). The
needs become prepotent in a sequential manner.
According to Maslow, when all the needs are unsatisfied, to begin with, the first need which
becomes prepotent or most intense is the Physiological Need i.e. the basic existential need.
Once, the physiological need is satisfied, the next need which becomes prepotent is the
Security/Safety Need. It is not necessary that complete satisfaction of one need needs to take
place in order to trigger the Prepotency of next need. The next need which becomes prepotent
is the Social Need. After this, the Esteem Need comes into play. The next need which
becomes prepotent is the Self-Actualization Need. Self-Actualization Need is a growth need
and it is an everlasting need. Whereas, the other needs are deficit needs and exhaustible
needs.
The behaviour of individuals, who are at the lower order need, can be easily manipulated. As
the individual moves towards the higher order need, it becomes difficult to manipulate or
predict his/her needs. As a person moves towards the higher needs, the subjectivity goes on
increasing and the objectivity goes on decreasing. Thus, it becomes strenuous to satisfy the
higher order need. When an individual is at the stage of self-actualization, it is very difficult
to discern whether that person is motivated to work or not. Most of the individuals remain
within the lower order needs. Very less numbers of people move towards the middle order
needs and very rarely, an individual moves towards the Self-Actualization Need.
Critics say that Maslows theory is very rigid because Maslow believes that only one need is
present at any particular point of time. Also, following of a particular sequence by the
Prepotency of needs does not make sense.
Need Mix- Maslow clarified the ideas under the Prepotency of Needs. Prepotency basically
means that any given point of time, only need is potent or strongest. There are multiple needs
present and out of those needs, only one need is prepotent. If that particular need is satisfied,
the person becomes motivated and if it is not satisfied, the person becomes demotivated.
Maslow accepted that there might be exceptions where an individual and his Prepotency of
Need may not strictly go through the hierarchy of needs. There might be deviations in some
cases.
Meta Motivational Need- The need to help others self-actualize. It has also been referred to as
the Transcendence Need.

19

Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory

Herzberg was a humanist as well as a Social psychologist. He was highly influenced by

Maslow and McGregor. According to him, the individual seeks satisfaction of two types of
goals.
1. To avoid discomfort or pain.
2. To grow psychologically.
These two goals are addressed through two different types of factors which are referred to as
Satisfiers and Dissatisfiers. The impact of these factors on an individual is completely
different from each other.
S. No.
Dissatisfiers
Satisfiers
1.
These are also referred to as Context
These are also referred to as Content
Factors, Extrinsic Factors, Hygiene
Factors, Intrinsic Factors, Motivators,
Factors, Maintenance Factors, Deficit
Growth Factors etc.
Factors etc.
2.
It refers to the Company Policy and
It refers to Social Recognition,
Administration, salary, interpersonal
authority, diversity of job and
relations, supervision and physical
responsibility.
condition of work.
3.
Providing for the satisfaction of the
On the other hand, providing for the
Dissatisfiers results into absence of
satisfaction of satisfiers results into
dissatisfaction.
satisfaction.
Satisfaction and dissatisfaction should be understood from a unipolar perspective rather than
a bi-polar perspective.
Dissatisfaction -------------- Dissatisfiers --------------------- Absence of Dissatisfaction
Absence of Satisfaction ------------- Satisfaction --------------- Satisfaction
Herzberg says that all the goals are not motivational rather only one type of goals are
motivational i.e. Satisfiers. Dissatisfiers are not motivational. Individuals remain motivated
towards their goals provided there is provision for satisfaction of the satisfiers. Individual
becomes fully motivated towards the job when his satisfier goals are satisfied. Herzberg is
not undermining the importance of the Dissatisfiers. An individual who is satisfied as well as
dissatisfied or individual who is experiencing absence of satisfaction and absence of
dissatisfaction might leave the organization. Thus, it is equally important to work towards
both the satisfiers and the Dissatisfiers. Dissatisfiers are maintenance factors which require
regular replenishment. Whereas providing for the satisfaction of the satisfiers brings about a
satisfaction for a longer period of time.
Types of Individuals in an Organization
1. Hygiene Seekers- These are primarily oriented towards the Dissatisfiers or the job context
factors. They are more sensitive towards the hygiene or extrinsic factors. If hygiene factors
are favourable, their behaviour will be favourable and vice versa. They are not tolerant
towards the hygiene factors. These individuals are generally not high performers or high
achievers. They are either ultra conservatives or ultra-liberals. They try to infuse their own
character into the subordinate. They believe in standardized behaviour.

2. Motivation Seekers- They are more attracted towards the job content or the intrinsic factors.
They are highly sensitive towards satisfiers. They are highly tolerant towards the hygiene
factors. The Motivation Seekers are generally high performers or high achievers.
There are certain types of job in every organization which are repetitive or regular in nature.
He has emphasized that in order to bring about motivation of an individual; one should go for
job enrichment as against job enlargement.
Chris Argyris says that Job Enlargement is adding of similar types of responsibilities to
individuals job. It is based on the principle of horizontal loading. Herzberg rejected the idea
because he thought that it will overburden the individual and replaced it with the concept of
Job Enrichment. It primarily refers to addition of different types of activities with related
nature to an individuals responsibility. This is based on the principle of Vertical Loading. It
leads to multi-scaling and gives rise to an associative/participative approach.
S. No.
1.
2.
3.

Maslow

Herzberg

Developed his theory from the perspective

of need.
All the needs are motivational.

Developed his theory from the perspective of

goal.
Only one category of need is motivational i.e.
satisfiers.
No such concept of Prepotency of Needs.

At any given point of time, only one need is

motivating.

Maslow v. Herzberg
Self-Actualization
Self-Esteem Need
Motivators (A small portion of Self- Esteem Need i.e. the Need for Social Status comes
within the Hygiene Factors)
Social Need
Safety Need
Physiological Need
Hygiene Factors

20

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

These are referred to as contemporary theories because these theories are able to more
appropriately explain the phenomenon of the motivation in the contemporary organizations.
There are eight theories in this regard. I will deal with the ERG Theory, Cognitive Evaluation
Theory and Job Design Theory in this article.
ERG Theory
Cognitive Evaluation Theory
Job Design Theory
The Equity Theory
Goal Setting Theory
The Achievement Motivation Theory
Expectancy Theory of Motivation
Porter and Lawlers Theory

1.
2.
3.

1.

2.
3.

1.

2.
3.

4.

ERG Theory
It has been developed by Clayton Alderfer. He has developed his theory while modifying
Maslows theory. Thus, he has used the concept of Need in his theory. The studies
conducted which became the basis for his theory found out that as far as the individuals are
concerned; they are primarily motivated by an urge to satisfy three types of Needs.
Existence Needs- These refer to Physiological and Safety/Security Need by Maslow.
Relatedness Needs- These refer to Social Need and the extrinsic part of the Self-Esteem
Need (Social Status).
Growth Needs- These refer to the intrinsic part of the Esteem Need and Self-Actualization.
These needs are overlapping with the five needs of Maslow. The study found that the concept
of Prepotency of need and the concept of Need hierarchy given by Maslow is questionable.
CRG theory says that as far as an individuals motivation is concerned, it might not
necessarily arise out of satisfaction of one need rather the individual might seek satisfaction
of more than one need at a given point of time. The Prepotency of need not necessarily
follows the sequence as established by Maslow. Alderfer believes that the emergence of these
needs is random. There cannot be a fixed sequence to it. Thus, this theory is highlighting two
things.
The Prepotency of the need may not follow the Maslows need hierarchy. The very
emergence of the need may be at any level. Any need may become prepotent at any given
point of time.
This theory has emphasized that these characters of the individuals need vary from each
other because every individual has his/her own experiences and background.
It has also discussed a phenomenon called as Frustration-Regression Dimension. An
individual being frustrated with a higher order need develops an urge to satisfy or attain more
and more of the lower order need.
Cognitive Evaluation Theory
This theory has established the relationship between the extrinsic and intrinsic factors while
influencing the behaviour of the individual. The introduction of the extrinsic factors
influences the effect of intrinsic factors and weakens the intrinsic factors influence over the
individual. This explains the lack of motivation among the individuals in various
organizations.
While this theory explains administrative behaviour in a pleasing manner but still it suffers
from some infirmities.
Though it explains the extrinsic factor influencing the intrinsic factors, but it fails to explain
how the strength of the intrinsic factor can be maintained in the background of the
introduction of the extrinsic factors.
This theory has been developed while conducting the studies with groups of students rather
than groups of employees. Thus, its findings are questionable.
Some subsequent studies were undertaken and those studies revealed that this theory is not
applicable to explain the jobs which carry high intrinsic factors or certain type of jobs which
are higher in terms of job Content. A job where intrinsic factors are high, in such a scenario,
the extrinsic factors are not influence the intrinsic factors. This is particularly in the higher
levels of an organization.
At the same time, the studies also found that job which in terms of content is low, for them
the extrinsic factors are motivational or extrinsic factors act as motivators. The cognitive

evaluation theory is more relevant to explain the jobs where the job in terms of job content is
more intermediate. Thus, his theory is more relevant at the intermediate levels of an
organization.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Job Design Theory

It says that an individuals motivation to work largely arises out of certain psychological
antecedents of the individual which in fact define individuals motivation or lack of
motivation. This theory maintains that every job carries certain characteristics and these
characteristics are responsible for development of psychological feelings. These
psychological feelings form the cognitive antecedents defining the individuals motivation or
lack of motivation.
Skill Variety- It refers to the extent to which the job requires multiple skills or a single skill.
If the job requires multiple skills, it is high on skill variety and if the job requires single skill,
it is low on skill variety.
Task Identity- It refers to the extent to which the job is related to the completion of the
whole of the work or the job is related to complete work or the extent to which the job is
related to an identifiable piece of work or a part of the larger identity. If it is related to whole
of the work, it is high on task identity and if it is related to a part of the work, it is low on task
identity.
Task Significance- It refers to the extent to which the job influences/impacts the
performance of other jobs or the extent to which the other jobs are dependent on this job. If
other jobs are dependent on this job, the job is high on task significance and if other jobs are
not dependent on this job, the job is low on task significance.
Autonomy- It refers to the extent to which the job allows freedom in defining the job. If the
job allows freedom, it is high on autonomy and if the job does not allow freedom, it is low on
autonomy.
Feedback- It refers to the extent to which the information is available about the performance
of the job. If the information is available, the job is high on feedback and if the information is
not available, the job is low on feedback.
This theory says that these characteristics in a job are responsible for the feeling of
meaningfulness in an individual.
If on account of any of the first three factors (Skill variety, task identity and task significance)
the job is rated high, the individual gets a feeling of meaningfulness or worthiness.
If autonomy is high, the individual derives a feeling of responsibility from the job.
If feedback is high, the individual derives a feeling of knowledge or being knowledgeable or
being informed.
Job Design Theory
Skill Variety
Task Identity
Feeling of Meaningfulness
Task Significance
Autonomy
Feeling of responsibility
Feedback
Feeling of being informed or knowledge
The individuals motivation depends on the individuals psychological feeling of
meaningfulness, responsibility and knowledge.
This theory implicates that a manager should focus on these characteristics in order to keep
the individuals motivated.

This theory was subsequently modified through the Social Information Processing Model by
introducing additional cognitive factors. This model argued that the characteristics of the job
are more perceptual in nature rather than being in reality. These characteristics differ from
individual to individual. A particular job high on task significance might appear low on task
significance to other individual. The manager while organizing the job should try to
understand the subjective perception of the individuals towards the job. It is one of the most
acceptable theories in the contemporary period.

21
These are referred to as contemporary theories because these theories are able to more
appropriately explain the phenomenon of the motivation in the contemporary organizations.
There are eight theories in this regard. I will deal with the following theories in this article.
1. The Equity Theory
2. Goal Setting Theory
3. The Achievement Motivation Theory

1.
2.

1.
2.

3.

The Equity Theory

It emphasizes that an individual within the organization undergoes through multiple
psychological processes of comparison. This psychological process of comparison is
undertaken across the individuals feeling of satisfaction which is based on the analysis and
comparison of individuals input as against the individuals output (Net Satisfaction). This
comparison gives rise to an experience or feeling of equity or a feeling on inequity within an
individual. Equity refers to a psychological feeling of fairness or justice. Inequity refers to a
feeling of unfairness or injustice. Further, the inequity could be classified as
Over inequity i.e. over rewarded inequity.
Under inequity i.e. under rewarded inequity.
This equity is experienced when the psychological process of comparison establishes that the
individuals current net satisfaction is equal to the referent net satisfaction. Individual
experiences inequity when the current satisfaction is either less or more than the referent net
satisfaction. Inequity is a state of imbalance and thereby, every individual has a spontaneous
tendency to move towards equity. Over rewarded inequity gives rise to the feeling of guilt
and under rewarded inequity gives rise to the feeling of frustration. This tendency gives rise
to certain kinds of behavioural initiatives because individual always tend to move away from
inequity and attain equity. The individual goes through a multiple processes of comparison.
This theory emphasizes that the individual within the organization undergoes psychological
comparison across four dimensions.
Self-Inside- It refers to the individual comparing with oneself by being in multiple other
positions within the organization. This might result into a feeling of equity or inequity.
Self-Outside- It refers to the individual comparing with oneself by placing himself in
multiple other positions outside the organization. Simon discussed this concept in his theory
of Zero Point.
Others Inside- It refers to the individual comparing with others occupying other positions
within the organization. It might result into a feeling of equity or inequity.

4. Others Outside- It refers to the individual comparing with others occupying positions
outside the organization.
Behavioural Initiatives under this theory
1. Changing the input- The individual tends to increase or decrease his input to attain equity.
2. Changing the output- The individual tends to increase or decrease his output to attain
equity.
3. Changing the perception of the self- In order to attain equity, one might go for change in
perception in oneself.
4. Changing the perception about others- In order to attain equity, one might go for change
in perception about others.
5. Changing the Referent or Reference Point- In order to attain equity, one might go for
change in the Referent Point.
6. Leaving the Field- In order to attain equity, one might just leave the organization.
This theory was based on the principle of Distributive Justice. But, later on, it was
reorganized or redefined through the principle of distributive justice along with the principle
of procedural justice i.e. the feeling of equity or inequity is not only a bi-product of
comparison of distribution of benefits but also the analysis of the manner of distribution of
these benefits.
Goal Setting Theory
This theory emphasizes that the individuals effort increases when the goal is specific rather
than being vague. Individuals Motivation increases when the goal is specific, there is
feedback and the job provides personal responsibility. Feedback is useful provided there is
personal participation or the individuals participation.
This theory has also identified certain situational factors.
1. Goal Commitment- If a job is assigned with the knowledge of others, the
motivations/commitment towards the job increases.
2. Self-Efficacy- It is the individuals perception about ones own ability. Individuals who are
high on efficacy, being faced with negative feedback or failure, increase their efforts and
individuals who are low on self-efficacy, being faced with negative feedback or failure,
decrease their efforts.
3. Task Structure- If the task is new or provides autonomy or task is being well laid out, it will
bring out motivation. If the task is old or complex, it will retard motivation.
4. National Culture- The explanations under this theory are culture specific or culturally
bound. In certain cultures, these explanations might not be as effective as they are in some
other culture.
The Achievement Motivation Theory
This theory has also been development on the basis of need. In this theory, three needs have
been identified.
1. Need for Achievement- It refers to individuals urge to succeed or individuals need for
accomplishment.
2. Need for Affiliation- It refers to individuals urge to work in a socially likeable
environment.
3. Need for Power- It refers to individuals urge to control others behaviour as per ones own
liking.
In this theory, only the need for achievement has been considered. The other two needs have
been underemphasized. As per this theory, the individuals who are high on need for
achievement are not simply the individuals desirous to succeed. Only a particular category of

individuals are categorized under this theory. Individuals who are high on need for
achievement do not like jobs which have no inherent risk or very high inherent risk involved.
They like to take up jobs which involve an intermediate amount of difficulty. These people
get motivated when they are given a job which carries intermediate amount of difficulty,
personal responsibility and feedback. This theory has not adequately dealt with the other two
needs. As per this theory, a successful leader is one who is high on need for power and low
on need for affiliation. Though, these findings have been subsequently contested by other
theorists.
This theory has also found out that the individuals who are high on need for achievement
have been very successful functionaries when they were given independent responsibilities
such head of an organization or head of a project or undertaking entrepreneurial activities.
But, when they were part of a group, they were not successful.

22
These are referred to as contemporary theories because these theories are able to more
appropriately explain the phenomenon of the motivation in the contemporary organizations.
There are eight theories in this regard. I will deal with the following theories in this article.
1. Expectancy Theory of Motivation
2. Porter and Lawlers Theory

1.
2.
3.

1.

2.

Expectancy Theory of Motivation

This theory emphasizes that the strength of an individuals tendency to act depends on
strength of an individuals expectation that the individuals effort will lead towards the
attainment of outcome and the outcome is attractive to the individual. Thus, the individuals
effort is dependent on individuals positive expectation that it will result into the desired
outcome. This theory is based on three kinds of relationships that operate at the psychological
level. It is trying to emphasize that individuals effort is dependent on a preceding
psychological state.
Effort-Performance- It refers to the effort of an individual is dependent on the individuals
positive expectation about the effort culminating into performance or activities.
Performance-Reward- It refers to the fact that the resultant performance will be positively
valued and will attract reward.
Reward-Satisfaction- The reward is valued only when it is desirous resulting into
satisfaction.
It is also being referred to as VIE (Valence, Instrumentality, Expectancy) Theory. Valence
refers to the strength of an individuals desire towards the goal. Thereby, valence could be
positive as well as negative.
Valence being positive means that the individual is desirous of the goal. Valence being
negative means that the individual is not desirous of the goal. It explains the readiness of an
individual to take effort.
Expectancy means that the individual has a positive expectation that the individuals effort
will result into the first level outcome. It explains the actual effort undertaken by the
individual.

Porter and Lawlers Theory

The primary contribution of this theory is the redefinition of the relationship between
performance and satisfaction. The basic analysis of this theory about the individuals
motivation is a repetition of the Expectancy Theory of Motivation. It has used the same
concepts and same arguments to explain individuals motivation as were used by the
Expectancy Theory. But, while explaining with similar types of correlations and
explanations, the theory has brought in final points or additional points into it. It has also
been developed through concepts like effort, performance, reward and satisfaction.
Effort-Performance Relationship- This theory says that the performance is dependent not
only on the amount of effort but also on the ability and role perception. The performance will
be more if it is taken along with skill and ability. Role Perception means the clarity about the
goal. If the effort is taken with a clear perception about the goal, the effort remains focused
and the performance is high.
On the other hand, if the effort is taken up without clarity about the goal, the effort will lack
focus and the performance will be low. The performance when results into the reward and the
reward being considered as satisfaction depends on whether the reward is desirable or not.
According to this theory, when the performance being related to satisfaction is direct, it
enjoys a stronger link than the satisfaction being linked to performance which is indirect
enjoying a weaker link. When the satisfaction is contingent to performance, it is strong but
the performance derived out of an expectation of satisfaction is indirect and weak.
These theories can be divided into two parts.
1. Content Theories of Motivation- It refers to all those theories of motivation which explains
the individuals motivation with the help of certain variables or things which are the basis for
motivation. These are based on an idea i.e. what is it that brings about motivation? E.g. ERG,
Maslow, Alderfer, Herzberg.
2. Process Theories of Motivation- It refers to all those theories which try to explain the
motivation of an individual by elaborating the psychological process or the cognitive
conditions as the basis for motivation. E.g. Job Design, Equity Theory, Porter-Lawler etc.
(What influences the individual towards taking an effort?)

MEANING SCOPE AND NATURE OF PUB AD

23
Public Administration is the study of government in action. Public administration as a phrase
leads or lends itself to two types of interpretations.
1. An area of Practice or an Area of activity- It is concerned with the activity of the
government or the state.
2. An area of Study or Discipline- It primarily refers to the study of government in action. As
a discipline, it is not easy to define because till now there have been a large number of efforts
to define public administration by a great number of scholars and thereby, there have also
been a large number of definitions trying to explain the meaning of public administration.

There is no single definition which carries unanimity among the scholars or there is no single
definition which captures the meaning of public administration in totality.

Dwight Waldo says that

Public administration is a study of government in action. The government in action is never
static, is ever changing and that is why it becomes difficult to capture fully. A single sentence
definition or a single para definition is a mental paralysis rather than enlightenment which
restricts the view rather than broadening it.
Irrespective of the fact that a unanimous definition of Public administration is not possible
because of its fluidic nature, still we can go for an acceptable view of public administration
by looking into various definitions. Let us start this process with the Semantics of Public
Administration.
Semantics of Public Administration
It comprises of two terms- public and administration. If we take into account, administration,
it is an English term having a Latin origin. It has developed out of two Latin
terms, Ad and Ministrare. It means to serve or to look after. Thus, administration means to
look after the people. A theorist called as E.N. Gladden says that Administration is a long and
pompous term but carries a humble meaning. The term Public has been discussed and
debated differently by a number of theorists. Few have referred to it as people, few have
referred to it as citizen, and few have even identified it with public opinion. The public in
Public Administration has been given an identity by Dwight Waldo which carries a large
amount of acceptance. Waldo refers to it as the state or the government. Thus, Public
Administration is nothing but government administration. The public administration would
mean the activities of the government which are primarily directed towards the welfare or
well-being of the people or looking after the people. In terms of semantics, it would mean a
service oriented responsibility or activity by the government.
But, the meaning of public administration is not as simple as has been given under the
semantics point of view.
Narrow View Theorists- Simon, Thompson, Nigro etc. have emphasized that public
administration as a discipline means study of the executive branch of the government. This
view has been contested by the Broad View Theorists- Broad View theorists refer to the
theorists like Willoughby, Gladden, Dimock etc. According to them, public administration as
a discipline is the study of all the three organs of the state i.e. legislature, executive and
judiciary.
Some theorists believe that public administration as a discipline means the study of
authoritative allocation of values by the state. They emphasize that the study cannot be
taken up in isolation only by restricting it to the state as there has to be the study of the whole
of the political system. It is the study of state in action in the background of the whole of the
political system. It includes study of public media, legislature, political parties and other such
institutions which are part of the state and the political system. It is one of the most
acceptable definitions of public administration.

There is another group of theorists comprising of L.D. Whyte, Woodrow Wilson, Dimock
etc. who say that Public administration as a discipline means the study of implementation or
the enforcement of public law. Whyte says that it consists of all those activities having for
their purpose of fulfilment of public law.
Wilson says that public administration means the detailed and systematic application of
public law. This definition suffers from a limitation. The limitation being that the definition
makes public administration too legalistic or too formalistic. This definition tries to say that
public administration refers to only those activities that are taken up to fulfil the public law. It
does not take into account all those activities where the action of the state is not consistent
with the policies of the state.
There is a group of theorists who emphasize that public administration refers to all those
activities of the state those are undertaken in order to attain public Weal. This definition
suffers from some very serious limitations. This is because not necessarily every action of the
government is directed towards welfare of the people. This is especially true in case of
authoritarian regimes.
POSDCORB view emphasizes that public administration as a discipline means the study of
tools and techniques of the administration.
This view has been contested by the subject matter view or content view or substantive
view. This view believes that public administration as a discipline is a study of public policy
or the programmatic concerns of the state. Public policy is the study of government and the
government is concerned with a number of functional activities. Thereby, to understand the
government, it is very important to understand these functional activities. Under this view, it
has been emphasized that the study of the tools and techniques of administration is not and
cannot be the most important areas of study rather for appropriateness of the tools and
techniques; it is to be understood in the background of the programmatic concerns of the state
or the public policy. Public policy is the expression of the mind or will of the state. It explains
what the state intends to do and what the state does not intend to do.
There is also a contemporary view which came up in the light of Neo-liberalism. This
definition says that public administration means the study of all those activities which are
funded out of the tax-payers money. This definition is not restricting its ambit only to the
government institutions but also the institutions which are either fully funded or partially
funded by the government. It is also a widely accepted definition of public administration.
Another group of theorists say that Public administration as a discipline means the study of

1. Executive, Legislature and Judiciary

2. Political System i.e. the study of political parties, public media, civil society, naxalism,
terrorism etc.
3. The study of tools and techniques of administration.
4. The study of public policy.
5. The study of all those activities funded out of tax-payers money.

Finally, Frederick C. Mosher says that it is best that it (Public Administration) not be
defined.

24
Since in public administration, there is no unanimous definition, so there is no agreement on
what public administration is and thus, its scope is also unsettled and undefined. Waldo says
the since public administration deals with the government in action and as that remains everchanging, the scope also remains ever-changing.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
1.
2.
3.
1.
2.

1.
2.

Willoughbys View
Willoughby in his book Principles of Administration has discussed at great length the scope
of public administration. According to him, the study of public administration includes the
study of five areas.
General or Overhead Administration- It primarily refers to managerial activities such as
planning, co-ordinating, commanding etc.
Organizational Structure- It refers to the study of the design of the organization such as
hierarchy, scalar chain etc.
Personnel Administration- Training, promotion, grievance Redressal, recruitment etc.
Financial Administration- It refers to the study of the economical use of financial sources.
Material and Supply- It refer to the management of material resources.
Macqueen says that the scope of public administration extends to three Ms
Man
Method- The study of structures and processes.
Material
Pfiffner says that scope of public administration includes the study of two areas.
The principles of administration- It refers to the study of the various concepts, theories,
law, methods, methodologies, tools, techniques etc.
The sphere of administration- It refers to the study of various levels of administration such
as local administration, regional administration, internal administration, national
administration, international administration etc.
In a similar way, Walker has come out with two major areas of study in this regard.
Administrative Theory- It refers to the study of concepts, theories, tools, techniques,
methods and methodologies of administration.
Applied Administration- It refers to the study of various functional areas of administration
such as school administration, health administration, law and order administration etc.
This definition also brings about a scope of public administration from a similar perspective
as was the case with Macqueen. But, if we look at these definitions individually, the scope
seems to be simple. This cannot be the case.
Various Schools of Thought
Narrow View v. Broad View
Narrow View
Broad View
The study of the executive branch of The scope of Public Administration

the government.

includes the study of all the three

organs of the state i.e. the legislature,
the executive and the judiciary.

Managerial View v. Integral View

There are certain theorists like Fayol, Gulick, Urwick etc. who fall under the managerial
school of thought. These theorists emphasized that public administration includes within its
domain only the managerial activities because according to these theorists, it is the
managerial activity that enables an organization to appear one and directs the entire
organization towards a single goal. They also believe that the tone and tenor of the
administration is defined through the managerial activities only.
This view has been contested by the Integral View Theorists like Whyte, Dimock, Peter Self,
Gladden, Wilson etc. These theorists believe that public administration as a discipline
includes within its ambit the study of all the activities of the organization such as manual
activities, clerical activities and technical activities besides the managerial activities. All
these activities are critically linked to the success or failure of the organization.
Similarly, if we take into account the POSDCORB view, it emphasizes that public
administration as a discipline means the study of tools and techniques of the administration.
But, this has been contested by the Subject Matter View. The subject matter view says that
public administration as a discipline includes within its ambit the study of public policies.
But, it has some serious implications. It expanded the scope of public administration to such
an extent that everything came under the umbrella of public administration and at the same
time, it made public administration inter-disciplinary and multi-disciplinary in nature, as a
result of which, the various contents of other disciplines came under the domain of public
administration (Political Science, Sociology, Psychology etc.). This resulted into a loss of
boundary leading towards a crisis of identity because today the government or public policy
extends to almost every area of human activity.
Waldo has appropriately responded to this concern. He says that public administration has
a stable core though a vacillating periphery. The study of the stable core imparts it, its
identity and the study of the vacillating periphery further enriches it. No discipline today is
uni-disciplinary, every discipline is multi-disciplinary. As of today, being uni-disciplinary is
death and being multi-disciplinary is growth and prosperity. The study of tools and
techniques is the stable core or the staple area of public administration. The vacillating
periphery is studying various things in light of various tools and techniques of administration.

1.
2.
3.
4.

Stephen K. Bailey
The study of public administration includes four major areas.
Descriptive Theory- It to refers to the study of what is i.e. the study of organizational
structures and organizational processes.
Normative Theory- It refers to the study of what ought to be or what should be i.e. the
study of the normative concerns and objectives of the government.
Instrumentalist Theory- It refers to the study of tools and techniques of administration.
Assumptive Theory- It refers to the objective study of administrative behaviour. It refers to
the behaviour of the individual within organization without assuming their angelic or
villainous behaviour.
Public administration carries a wider scope and it is the study of government in action.
Government in action is a dependant variable and being a dependant variable, it is linked to a

number of ecological concerns. The government in action is never static and thus, its
boundary can never be established or delineated.
The scope of public administration is linked to the concept of public administration. This is
because the definition of public administration is not yet settled and it is not yet fully
conceptualized. Thus, it is difficult to demarcate its outline.

25
Nature primarily refers to some of the defining characteristics which impart an identity to a
discipline. There are various views in this regard.
Narrow View v. Broad View- Already Discussed.
Managerial View v. Integral View- Already Discussed.
POSDCORB View v. Subject-Matter View- Already Discussed.
Instrumentalist View v. Discretionist View- The Instrumentalist View believes that public
administration is an instrument in the hands of the political class or political community to
implement efficiently that which is expressed politically. Under this view, Public
Administration lacks autonomy. This view has been challenged by the Discretionist view.
Discretionist view is more contemporary and relatively more acceptable.
Discretionist view believes that Public administration is an autonomous system and it is as
autonomous as that of the political system. It is not an instrument in the hands of the political
community rather it is an instrument of the state. It is as much as an instrument of the state as
the political system is an instrument of the state. Thereby, it is responsible for protecting and
promoting the public interest or the national interest or constitutional philosophy or social
ethos.
Public administration as an Art or a Science- Art basically refers to skill or expertise using
which problems are addressed and solved. Thereby, it is something which one can learn and
be trained with and using that, one can solve problems. Public administration is the study of
government in action. Thus, public administration deals with a large number of problems and
issues by using expertise, skill, tools, techniques and sophisticated knowledge such as
planning, supervising, commanding, co-ordinating, accounting etc. Hence, there is near
unanimity that public administration is an art.
Science is a systematized and objective study of a part of the reality so as to develop
understanding and explanations carrying universality and predictability. Thereby, science
carries three major characteristics (Value Neutrality, Universality and Predictability). While,
this definition is hardly disputable but the nature of its ingredients have been subjected to
debate. For e.g. Positivists believe that any study to claim the status of science, it should be
able to display the standards and vigour of the physical science. Thereby, they are primarily
referring to studies which are absolutely universal and absolutely predictable. But, this is a
less acceptable and a minority view.
A number of different theorists such as Karl Popper, Charles Beard and Weber have taken a
different view. Popper said that every knowledge is provisional and permanently provisional.
This has also been voiced by Royal Society of Science. It says that nothing is final. Popper is
trying to emphasize that the principles derived cannot be hundred Percent absolute. Every
knowledge is temporarily sustainable and no knowledge is final. No knowledge can be
permanently true. No principle can stand the test of time and no principle can be considered
to be the final principle for all times to come because every principle is subjected to change.
An individual is able to investigate only that much of data which his/her tools and techniques

a.
b.

c.

d.

e.

allow him/her to access. Many data and information which are not accessible today might be
discovered tomorrow. Thereby, the science refers to a systematized and objective study of a
part of the reality to develop principles which are universal and predictable but they are not
necessarily absolute i.e. they carry a higher probability of being true and rather than absolute
truths. In physical science, the principles carry higher universalism and predictability as
compared to the principles in social sciences. This is because the tools and techniques of
investigation in physical science are more advanced or more evolved as compared to social
sciences where the tools and techniques of investigation are less evolved. As there will be
advancement in the tools and techniques of investigation in social sciences, there will be an
increase in its predictability and universalism.
A similar type of view has been advanced by Weber. He says that physical science is an
objective study of only the objective things. While, on the other hand, social science is an
objective study of both, the objective and the subjective things. Thus, if we take this outline,
we can say that public administration is a science. Hence, it is both, an art as well as a
science.
Public administration as a discipline or a profession- Public administration is a discipline
but yet to become a full-fledged profession. It is a profession in making. Discipline refers to
an area of study being supported by a repository body of knowledge or a corpus of
knowledge and being imparted through various institutions of learning. Public administration
has already developed a corpus of knowledge and a vocabulary of its own which consists of a
number of concepts, theories, principles, methods methodologies etc. But, there are certain
critics to this view. They believe that this corpus of knowledge does not belong to public
administration rather it is a bag of borrowings from various other disciplines. But, the
scholars of Public administration defend this criticism by saying that public administration
being multi-disciplinary uses a number of developments which originally emerged in other
disciplines. But, having said so, they have also emphasized that the manner of usage of these
concepts, theories, techniques etc. is unique to public administration. Also, specialized
courses in public administration are being imparted in various national and international
universities. Thus, public administration is a discipline.
A profession carries five basic characters. It is an area of activity which is supported through
A body of knowledge- This criterion is satisfied.
Prolonged education and training- This refers to the formal education and training relating
to public administration before anybody becomes a public administrator. It is a very young
discipline but the maturity in the vocabulary of public administration has increased by leaps
and bounds during the past few years. This shows the potential of public administration to be
able to be sustained in practice.
Social responsibility- Public administration is Discretionist by nature. This means that
public administration as an activity is involved in protecting and promoting the national
interest.
Code of Conduct- The code of Conduct is given by the professional body of the respective
profession. Since there is no professional body or association relating to public
administration, there is no Code of Conduct as well.
A Professional Body of Association- There is no such association or professional body in
case of Public Administration.
Thus, public administration though is a discipline but is not a profession even though it has
the potential to become a profession in the future.

Public administration as Political Science- Political Science is the study of state. In fact,
Political science is the study of the whole of the state. It has a number of specialized areas of
study. One of the areas of study in political science is the study of government in action.
Public administration which is the study of government in action is merely a specialized area
in the study of political science. Thereby, some scholars argue that public administration
cannot be considered as a full or independent discipline. It is at best a half-discipline. But, the
proponents of public administration emphasize that Political Science is a very old discipline.
It is more than 2200 years old. During this period, it has developed a huge vocabulary. The
study of this vocabulary will explain the area of focus of political science. It has been found
that this vocabulary is adequate to study the philosophical part of the state but it is not
equipped to study the government in action. Thus, public administration with its newly
acquired tools and techniques is equipped to deal with the actional part of the state. Thereby,
political science deals with technical/philosophical part of the state and the knowledge part of
the state is being dealt by public administration.
Public administration as Management Science- The management science studies the
various tools and techniques of organizational management. Thereby, in terms of content, it
overlaps with the areas of study of public administration. Being an older science,
management science has a superior claim over these contents and that puts public
administration and its identity at stray. The proponents of Public Administration respond by
saying that public administration studies various tools and techniques of management of the
organization but studies them in the background of the philosophical concerns of the state.
Thus, the study of management science is technical in nature and the study of public
administration is philosophical in nature. Thus, public administration more philosophical than
management science and technical than political science.
Public administration as Social Science- Social science is the study of society and its
various dimensions or aspects. Thereby, it carries some characters.
a. It is a systematized study based on observation rather than laboratory experimentation.
b. Its principles as of now are less universal and less predictable.
c. It deals with not only what is but also what ought to be.
d. It is a progressive science.
Public administration deals with a part of the society and human interaction i.e. the
administrative part or the human interaction within the government. The studies in public
administration are not based on laboratory experimentation rather it is carried on in natural
condition and by way of observation. Public administration has already developed a large
number of principles. These principles are universal and predictable though as compared to
the principles of physical science, they are less universal and less predictable. The study of
public administration is not only descriptive but also prescriptive or normative. Thus, it deals
not only with what is but also what ought to be. Moreover, it is a progressive science
because the knowledge and the ideas keep on changing based on new facts and information.
Thus, public administration is a social science.
Philosophy of Public administration- Philosophy refers to objective, goal or the end
purpose. Philosophy of public administration refers to the objective of public administration.
It is a very less researched area. This area has been understood and explored very little.
Graham Wallas says that in the age of great society, the role or the job of public
administration is to bring about a good society and avoid the coming up of an evil society.
The great society refers to the contemporary society which is numerous, grand and complex.
Good society refers to a society which has justice, equality, liberty, peace etc. Evil society

refers to a society where there is disintegration, violence, exploitation, illiteracy, malnutrition

etc. Thus, public administration is Discretionist by nature.

26
This is one of the long standing debates in the study of public administration. In this debate,
there are equal numbers of proponents on both sides of the argument. There are proponents
who argue that there is nothing public about public administration and at the same, a group of
theorists argue that there is publicness in public administration.
S. No.

1.

2.

3.

A.

B.

Public Administration v. Private Administration

Similarities- Fayol, Gulick, Urwick, Boseman, March, Thompson etc.
Conventional Arguments
It is argued that organization across the sectors employ same tools and techniques
to manage the affairs within the organization. Thereby, whether it is public
administration or private administration, it employs techniques such as planning,
co-ordinating, commanding etc.
Unlike the popular belief, the tools and techniques in public sector are employed
to advance social concerns and in private sector, it is believed that tools and
techniques are advanced to generate profit. But, there are many private
organizations as well which are directed towards social responsibility and social
causes. At the same, there are many government organizations whose activities
are directed towards earning profit. Thus, this argument is unsustainable.
Today, the government as well as the private sector, both are involved in
providing similar type of activities. For e.g. health services, infrastructure etc. are
being provided by both the government and the private sector.
Non-Conventional Arguments
It is argued by few that the process of nationalization and privatization justifies
the similarity between the public administration and the private administration.
Had the public administration and the private administration been different from
each other, it would not have been possible to nationalize and privatize the sector.
If we consider some of the contingency or situational studies, we will find that the
difference between the two sectors is very less as compared to their resemblance
with each other.
Hash & Hall and Pugh, Hickson and Hinning have conducted studies in this
regard. There studies had similar findings. Hash and Hall considered a large
number of organizations from the public sector as well as the private sector. They
considered the organizations operating in different functional areas. They found
out that the organizations within a particular sector are not necessarily similar on
account of their structure, processes or function rather organizations across the
sector operating in the same functional area resemble each other. They concluded
that public administration and private administration are more similar in nature
rather than being different from each other.

Contemporary Theorists- Cooper, Kettle, Walmsley, Zald

They have emphasized on the emergence of the contemporary organizations such
as mixed or hybrid organization to highlight the similarities between the public
administration and private administration.
Paradigm developed by Walmsley & Zald
It is two-dimensional in character involving ownership and funding. Based on
these two dimensions, they have developed four types of organizations.
Funding refers to
Public Ownership- Stake
Private Ownershipthe source of
of government more than Stake of private entity is
revenue.
50%
more than 50%
Ownership refers
to the stake.
I
II - They carry both
Public Fundingprivate as well as public
Source of revenue
character. Hence, they are
is public budget
being referred to as hybrid
of mixed organizations.
(Privately Owned but
publically funded)
III - They carry both
IV
Private Fundingprivate as well as public
Source of revenue
character. Hence, they are
is sales and
being referred to as hybrid
donations
of mixed organizations.
(PSUs)

1.
2.
3.

4.

5.

Differences
Conventional Arguments
Public administration is generally Private administration is considered to be
considered to be welfare oriented.
profit oriented.
Public administration is referred to as Private administration is being referred to
Common Weal Organization.
as Business organization.
Public administration operates under Private administration does not operate
the political direction.
under the same type of political
consideration.
Consistency of the treatment- Public Private administration can go for a
administration is non-discriminatory discriminatory based on its commercial or
while dealing with the citizens. business requirements.
Thereby, it is consistent in its
treatment.
Monopoly- It is a type of formal The private sector cannot be allowed to
arrangement whereby a particular is have monopoly.
allowed to operate while the other
sector is restricted. The public sector
can enjoy monopoly in a particular
sector and private sector wont be

6.

7.

8.

A.

B.

permitted in those sectors.

Public Scrutiny will be higher in case The same type of scrutiny is not
of the Public sector. It is subject to applicable to the private sector.
multiple institutional mechanisms of
scrutiny.
Diversity of activity- Public sector is Private sector is not as diverse as the
more diverse in terms of presence Public Sector.
and operation in functional areas.
Legal Constraints- Public sector is Private Sector is not subject to as many
considered to be more rigid in its legal constraints as there are in the public
operations because it is subject to sector. Private sector enjoys an amount of
multiple legal constraints. Public flexibility which is not present in the
sector has to abide by a number of public sector.
rules, laws, organizational manuals
etc.
Non-Conventional Arguments
Dahl & Lindbloom- political economies operate through market economy and
political polyarchy. Management of a market economy is based on the principle of
demand and supply which primarily promotes individuals choice and volition.
This mechanism operates through volunteerism. It is a very appropriate
mechanism since it does not use coercion or force.
Though this is a very appropriate mechanism in managing political economies but
everything in the political economies cannot be managed through these
mechanisms. There are three important areas of limitation.
a. Public good and the problem of free riders- The market operated through the
imposition of user fee. In market, the various goods and services that are provided
are charged. In the context of certain goods and services which are classified as
public goods (goods which are consumed by the public at large). The traditional
imposition of user fee is not possible in the case of public good. In this type of
situation, the sense of personal benefit goes down and the tendency to escape the
responsibility goes up. This gives rise to the problem of free riders. Free riders are
those who are ready to consume the goods but try to escape the responsibility of
paying for it. This problem can be solved by persuasion and use of coercion. Only
the public sector has the legitimacy to use coercion.
b. Individual Incompetence- It is believed that an individual in a marketplace is a
rational man. Thereby, the man always strives to attain the best and does not get
satisfied with the second best. Being a rational man, the individual tries to
maximize his own utility. The individual in the market is considered to be fully
informed. This presumption is challengeable. In a marketplace, the individuals
suffer from a number of incompetencies. The market increases these
incompetencies and maximizes upon these incompetencies.
c. Externalities and Spill over- Spill over refers to an impact outside of a core
activity which is not intended. This problem will not be handled by the private
sector because it will involve financial investments. It is the public sector which
will take note of the spill over.
Moore- He has discussed the difference between the public administration and

C.

private administration based on the concept of Public Value. Public Value refers
to various public goods and services. Public Value is being provided by both the
public sector and the private sector. Moore says that public sector provides the
Public Value at a cost which is equal to or even less than the cost of production.
On the other hand, the private sector provides the goods and services at a cost
which is more than the cost of production. Thereby, for public sector, Public
Value is an end in itself and for the private sector; Public Value is merely a means
to achieve an end.
Benn & Gaus- They have tried to bring about the difference between public
administration and private administration based on the publicness of public
administration and privateness of private administration. There are three criterions
in this regard.
a. Interest- It refers to whose interest is at stake i.e. if the profit or the loss of an
organization affects the interest of a single individual or a group of individuals, it
explains the privateness of an organization. On the other hand, if it affects the
people at large, it explains the publicness of an organization.
b. Access- It refers to whom the access or facilities of an organization is open. If
the access is open to an individual or a group of individuals, it explains the
privateness of the organization. On the other hand, if the access to the facilities is
open to people or public at large, it explains the publicness of the organization.
c. Agency- It refers to who owns the organization. If the organization is owned by
an individual or a group of individual, it explains the privateness of the
organization. On the other hand, if it is owned by the public at large, it explains
the publicness of the organization.
This publicness or privateness explains the character of private sector as
distinguished from the public sector.
Overall Debate- One has to concede that there a number of areas of similarity
between the public administration and the private administration and at the same
time, there are differences as well. The difference between public administration
and private administration is not of kind but of degree.

27
Woodrow Wilson is considered to be the father of Public Administration. His article The
study of Administration is considered to be the beginning of the public administration as a
discipline. But, there have been many who have questioned Wilsons paternity on Public
Administration. Some believe that Wilsons article is not the first literature on public
administration. There have been a number of contributions before his work. In terms of
content, Wilsons article is not considered to be very rich. His article did not carry a fullfledged theory and did not carry an elaborate explanation relating to government in action. It
is also said that his work is not a classic. Thus, many believe that Wilson has been wrongly
addressed as the father of Public Administration. Irrespective of these criticisms, Wilson
could be rightfully considered as the father of public administration. As it is argued that it is
not the content of the Wilsons article rather it is the impact of his article which makes him

the father of the Public Administration. The previous works were not able to generate the
kind of interest in the subject which was generated by Wilsons article.
His article was essentially reformist in nature. He contributed his article while referring to the
malfunctioning in American Administration under the Spoils system. This system was
resulting into an inefficient and corrupt administration. It reduced the control of the President
over the administration. His article came up in the background of this system and it said that
efficiency in public administration requires a systematized study of government in action.
Hence, it has been called reformist in nature. In this article, Wilson has tried to explain the
late emergence of Public Administration as a discipline and has also explained that even
though political science, an older discipline has ignored the most visible and obvious part of
the state i.e. the government in action.
Political History of the State by Wilson
1. The stage of Absolute Rule- This stage refers to the Monarchic system. In such a system,
the government dealt with a very limited number of activities and the activities were very
simple in nature. As a result of which, it was considered that anybody who was able bodied
and sane can handle these activities and thereby, these activities do not require extra skill,
expertise and knowledge. Thus, the political science kept its focus on the philosophical part
of the state and ignored the practical part of the state i.e. the government in action.
2. The struggle for constitutionalism and Popular Control- Constitutionalism refers to a
political arrangement which is based on the idea of limited government and rule of law.
During 1500s-1800s, there was a struggle to snatch the power away from the Monarchy and
give it to the people. The focus was not on government in action but on why and how of
popular control. Thus, the focus rested on the concepts like equality, liberty etc. Hence, again
the political science restricted itself the study of the philosophical part of the state and not the
government in action.
3. The stage of Constitutionalism and Popular Control- When popular control was
established, democracy became a reality. States became responsible states and people became
citizens. Thereby, the role of the state expanded drastically. The state started undertaking
large number of function and became very complex. Thus, the government in action became
very wide and complex. This resulted into the need to focus on the government in action.
Wilson says that it is only in the third phase that the need to study the government in action
arose and since the third phase came up very late, it explains the late emergence of public
administration as a discipline.
He also said that European administration has been very advanced in comparison to the
American Administration. Europe was under the Monarchic system; thereby the governance
systems were authoritarian in nature. These systems also faced struggle from the people who
demanded popular control. These wanted to exercise effective control over the territory and
population of their states in the least irritating manner possible. Thus, for this they focused on
administration and the administration became more institutionalized and systematized.
He also said that America being a democracy, for everything there used to be elaborate
debate and long discussions. Also, in USA, the responsibility for any kind of wrong doing or
failure was attributed to the US constitution and its loopholes. Thus, Europe emphasized on
administration and US emphasized on constitution. Wilson says that it is easy to frame a
constitution than to run a constitution. The constitution becomes effective only when the
values and ethos permeates into the administration. For the constitution to be effective, the
administrators should be appropriately trained and adequately indoctrinated with the ideals of
the constitution. Thus, a good constitution is merely a necessary condition and not a sufficient

condition for a good society. Niebuhr says that liberty of an individual is incomparably
protected by the administration.
Politics-Administration Dichotomy
Wilson says that Politics is separate from administration. While, politics is abstract, general
and philosophical, administration is concrete, specific and technical. Administration is away
from the hurry and strife of the politics, it is more business-like or it is less unbusiness-like.
Bureaucracy to exist requires that the whole of the bureaucracy its Chief, rank and file should
be removed from the common political line as its procedures, its functions and its standards
are bureaucratic. He is highlighting for a separate and independent study of administration.
The latter views of Wilson indicated a Politics-Administration fusion. He said that
Administration cannot exist and operate in the absence of politics. This difference in opinion
might be because of his experiences during the latter days of his life. Many critics said that
Wilson does not know his own mind.
While emphasizing on the American reform on administration, Wilson emphasized the
importance of comparison with European administration because of which Wilson has been
labelled as the First Comparativist. He said that European administration being advanced
can serve as a reference point to improve and strengthen the American administration. This
view of Wilson resulted into a fear among scholars because they believed that this initiative
might result into imitation of European administration and this will rub the American
administration of its unique values. Wilson responded by saying that comparison does not
mean imitation, comparison helps in identifying similarities and dissimilarities, identify
strengths and weaknesses. He subsequently said that this process of comparison helps in
identification of useful elements resulting into improved operations. In the context of
America, there have been a number of cases where the America borrowed from various
cultures and countries without comprising its own values and ethos. For e.g. most of the
political vocabulary of USA is primarily of European origin. But, terms like lord, king and
queen have been left out because they did not match with the American culture and values.
Metaphorically, one could learn the art of sharpening the knife though comparison without
borrowing the intention of killing anybody. Anything that has to be adopted has to go through
the democratic processes and constitutional values of USA such as dialogue, debate, public
scrutiny, criticisms, legislative discourses etc. It is to be filtered through the constitution and
put under the slow pyre of criticism only to distil away the foreign gases. This argument of
Wilson has credited him with the title of First Comparativist. Yet, Wilson cannot be called
as the initiator of the comparative approach in public administration. His article did not give
any theory and did not elaborate on the concepts relating to public administration and
government in action. He highlighted the importance of administration and need for
introduction of public administration as a discipline

NEW PUB AD
28

1.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

2.

a.
b.

c.
d.
3.

NPA as a concept got popularized during the late 1960s and early 1970s following the
Minnowbrook Conference-I. NPA emphasized on a new view of the theory and practice of
public administration while breaking away with the core area of public administration. It
emphasized on the Discretionist character of public administration as against the
instrumentalist character. NPA was the by-product of revolutionary spirits of the young
scholars in public administration to make public administration relevant and value laden. It
took shape in the background of crisis ridden America in 1960s. It witnessed crisis likes
Vietnam War, urban chaos, student unrest, racial conflicts, political assassinations etc. This
turbulence in the American society was visible in the sensitivities of various seats of learning.
Every discipline was trying to address this problem and provide solution from its own
standpoint. But, there was a sense of calmness in the house of public administration because
the old established school of public administration emphasized on the instrumentalist
character of public administration. Thereby, they were of the opinion that the problems of the
society or the goals of the state are not the concern of public administration. It was only
concerned with the tools and technique of administration required for efficient
implementation and it was concerned only with the how of the government and not what
of the government. This view got busted by some young scholars in public administration.
They came together and radicalized public administration with its Discretionist character. It
resulted into a movement in both the theory and the practice of public administration. This
came to be called as NPA.
The NPA acquired its name and content from five major events of this period.
Honey Report on Education, 1967- it highlighted the limitations of public administration as
a discipline. The report outlined suggestions to enrich public administration. It highlighted
Resource Constraints- Public administration as a discipline was suffering because of less
number of researchers, teachers, students, finances etc.
Institutional Constraints- It means inadequacy in the number of schools, colleges and
universities imparting the formal courses in public administration.
It also highlighted the gap between the theory and the practice.
Uncertainty about the status of public administration as a discipline.
It asked for bridging the gap between the theory and the practice and to make public
administration more relevant. It also asked to clearly define the nature and scope of public
administration.
The Philadelphia Conference, 1967- This conference was conducted under the
chairmanship of James C. Charlesworth. This conference was a get-together of young
scholars and professionals. The view in this conference was to emphasize the Discretionist
view of public administration and oppose the instrumentalist character of public
administration. The emphasis was on
The nature of the state is changing so is the role of the state. Public administration as a
discipline should also remain flexible towards these changes.
Public administration should not emphasize only on the study of tools and techniques of
administration rather it should also take into account the programmatic concerns of the state
such as public policies etc.
Public administration should take into account various issues and problems of the society.
There should be emphasis on the education and training in order to bring in ethics, honesty or
enrich the world standards in administration.
The Minnowbrook Conference, 1968- This conference took place in September, 1968
under the leadership of Dwight Waldo. This conference emphasized on the Discretionist view

a.
b.

c.

d.

e.
f.
g.
4.
5.

of the Public Administration. It negated the instrumentalist view of public administration.

The major points in this regard are
It emphasized on the study of public policy as against the various tools and techniques of the
administration.
It emphasized on equity apart from efficiency and economy in administration. The
government in action should not only be economical but should also be equitus (a type of
approach whereby everybody should have equal opportunity).
It emphasized on honesty, integrity, responsibility, discipline etc. It also emphasized on
public administration to focus on various social problems, issues concerning the citizens and
the society.
Public administration should emphasize on managing the changes rather than growth. It
meant that whenever there is a need, the administration must grow and whenever the issue
loses relevance, the administration must decline.
It emphasized that while pluralism will continue to remain significant to explain politics, it
will be not be same for administration.
While the administration has to remain alive and sensitive towards public opinion, it has to
conduct operations based on rationalism and scientism.
This resulted into new public administration.
Towards a NPA: The Minnowbrook Perspective, edited by Frank Martini
Public Administration in an era of Turbulence, edited by Dwight Waldo

29
1. Relevance- It refers to the fact that new public administration emphasizes that the study of
public administration should be consistent with the government in action. It should deal with
the issues and problems that the government in confronting and thereby help the government
in action to address and solve those problems.
2. Value- It means that public administration should be purposive in nature i.e. the public
administration should strive to achieve the constitutional values and the ethos of the society.
It promoted a value laden public administration and rejected fact administration/ value free
administration.
3. Equity- NPA intended to bring about an egalitarian society or an equalitarian society. The
public administration should strive to disproportionately share its resources with poor,
neglected, marginalizes or disempowered class of persons. It emphasized that public
administration should focus on positive discrimination.
4. Change- Public administration is being emphasized to become an instrument to move away
from the undesirable state of affairs to the desirable state of affairs. Thus, it has to be change
oriented. As a discipline, public administration should not develop theory for the sake of
developing theories. It should study the areas which the government is facing and only those
tools and techniques should be developed which will be useful for the government.
Government in action or the bureaucracy should always be purposive and should be focused
on its goal.
George Frederickson
He identified five major characteristics of NPA.

1. Change and Administrative Response- This aspect has already been discussed earlier.
NPA emphasized that change is an inevitable reality and the administration should always try
to address these changes.
2. Rationality- NPA emphasized that the administration should always be rational. Its decisions
and various premises should be based on rationality. NPA has also emphasized on
participation, what to achieve and how to achieve should be decided with the help of peoples
participation.
3. Workers participation in management- This means that there should be democratization
within the administration. A democratic humanistic approach while managing the
organization should be adopted.
4. Structure- NPA rejected a hierarchic, top down and a rigid structure while advocating the
flexible, flatter and organic structure.
5. Education and training in administration-Frederickson has emphasized that under NPA,
administration was considered as a specialized activity in itself. Thus, it was believed that it
should be handled with expertise, knowledge and skill. Thus, thereby the need for the
education and training in administration. NPA emphasized on professionalizing the public
administration.
Golembiewskis views relating to NPA
He developed the concept of anti-goals (What all NPA rejected) and goals (What all NPA
accepted). There are three anti-goals and five goals.
Anti-Goals
1. NPA is anti-positivistic and anti-behavioural because it adopts a value-laden approach
whereas behavioural theories are value-free or value-neutral in nature.
2. NPA is anti-technical. NPA rejected the traditional view that man surrenders to the logic of
the machine i.e. NPA rejected the mechanistic approach or man being merely a cog in the
wheel. NPA is humanistic in its approach.
3. NPA is anti-bureaucratic or anti-hierarchic. NPA rejected the rigid top down administration
and replaced it with more flatter and more decentralized approach.
Goals
1. Nothing is perfect. Everything has a scope of improvement.
2. It emphasized on social equity.
3. It emphasized on administrative responsibility, ethics and honesty.
4. It emphasized on rationality.
5. It emphasized on innovation and change.
Miscellaneous Quotations on NPA
1. NPA has brought public administration closer to politics.
2. NPA has brought public administration close to political science and sociology while driving
it away from the management science.
3. NPA is both, deductively nomological and inductively probabilistic- NPA being value laden
in approach emphasizes concepts like democracy, secularism etc. Every position has to
operate on the basis of rationalism, scientism.

30

Minnowbrook conference has become institutionalized now. It is conducted every 20 years.

The first effort in this regard took place during September, 1988 through the Minnowbrook
Conference- II. This conference following the part-I has become an academic get-together in
every 20 years to identify and address the changes in both, the theory and the practice of
Public Administration and thereby, to redefine the public administration.
This conference took place under the leadership of Dwight Waldo. It was also conducted in
background of a crisis related to the identity of the discipline. During the 1970s, because of
the new-liberalism, there was an emphasis on the minimalization or rolling back of the state
or shrinking of the state. The emphasis was not only to reduce the size of the state and
increase in the size and operations of the market but also developing a state based on the
market. It resulted into a reengineering of the state beginning with the developed countries.
For the state to become efficient, it needed to reduce its area and size of operation.
Dwight Waldo said that public administration is going to be there for a long time to come, so
be with cheers and go on with it. He also said that in the era of rolling back of the state, role
of the state will be redefined but the importance of the state will not be undermined. He tried
to emphasize that in the background of new-liberalism, the government in action will undergo
some changes. While these changes are going to there, the government will still remain the
most important institution of the state.
Critics say that there is nothing new in NPA.
Newness does not lie in the threads of the fabric rather in the manner the fabric is woven.
The newness does not lay in the content of the package rather lies in the packaging.
Thus, NPA provided a coherent, organized and systematic view to PA.
Minnowbrook-II Conference was attended by a large number of scholars. This significantly
showed that the discipline has grown and gained vibrancy. The average age of the scholars in
this conference was considerably higher than the previous Minnowbrook conference. In terms
of gender equity, the Minnowbrook Conference-II was more gender wise equal than the
Minnowbrook Conference-I. The participation of minorities was higher in Part-I than Part-II.
In terms of the academic background, the scholars of Minnowbrook-II were more diverse
than Part-I.
It was acknowledged that the state is undergoing a change and these changes are marketrelated stages. Thereby, it emphasized on study of certain concepts like LPG, M&A,
contracting out, outsourcing, imposition of user-fee etc. The committee also reemphasized on
the Discretionist character of Public administration as was the case in Minnowbrook
Conference-I. It was said that these concepts, market-related practices are adopted by the
state in order to become efficient and the efficiency of the state should be primarily directed
towards attaining equity, constitutional goals and ethos of the society. Thus, the philosophy
of the state i.e. well-being of the citizens, remained unaltered. The conference reemphasized
the importance of concepts like justice, democracy, honesty, integrity etc. This conference
also appreciated a new public service approach (the market principles will be used to
enhance the purposes of the state and society).
S. No. Minnowbrook Conference-I
Minnowbrook Conference-II
This conference was revolutionary and This conference was more sober in
1.
radical.
character.
This conference was strictly anti- This conference though emphasized on a
2.
behavioural.
value-laden approach, still recognized
the importance of behavioural approach.
This conference was optimistic in The mood in this conference was that of
3.

character.

constrained optimism or hopefulness.

They emphasized on the centrality of the
state but also provided a note of caution.

31

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

1.

2.

3.

This conference took place during September, 2008. It was chaired by Rosemary OLeary.
It was conducted in two phases. The first phase was a pre-conference phase. In this
conference, the young and emerging scholars of public administration were asked to
contribute a five page critique of public administration. Almost 56 proposals were accepted
and considered. In this conference, a single formal critique of public administration was not
being able to be developed rather a dozen of areas of concern in public administration were
identified such as
The Academic-Practitioner Relationship
Democratic Performance Management
Performance measurement
Globalization and International Perspective
Administrative ethics and values
Information technology and management
Methodology and inter-disciplinary perspective
The second phase was conducted in a round table format. It was a get-together of senior
scholars. The scholars were divided into various groups based on their areas of concern.
Simultaneously, a number of issues relating to public administration were discussed. Finally,
three major areas of emphasis were identified. They are
It emphasized on Comparative Studies. In this conference, it was acknowledged that because
of impact of LPG and IT, no system could be meaningfully studied in isolation. The systems
across the world are interconnected.
It emphasized on Action Research and Methodological Pluralism. In this conference, there
was an agreement that for the study of Public Administration to be meaningful, it is required
that the teachings in Public Administration should include the teachings on methodologies
and tools and techniques to undertake research. It was realized that a discipline will become
more and more enriched when there will be more R&D. If the students are more equipped
with the tools and techniques, they can independently carry out their own research. This will
provide a robust foundation for the study of the discipline. It also emphasized that the
findings of the research should be subjected to Peer Review. It also recognized the
importance of Multiple Approach or Multiple viewpoints towards the study of public
administration.
It came out with a redefinition of public administration. According to this conference, public
administration is considered as a socially embedded process of relationship, dialogue and
action to promote human flourishing for all (Refer to the discussion on good governance).

32

This conference will discuss the future of Public Administration, public management and
public services around the world in 2028. We see that Minnowbrook Conference-III had nonAmerican members as well. The part-IV will be a global conference and the American
isolationism is expected to break. Till 1980s, public administration as a discipline did not
have any identity outside USA. The publication of literature on public administration was
dominated by USA. The theories, concepts and the methodological developments were also
American. Also, almost all of the institutions imparting education in public administration
were American.

But, after 1980s public administration gained an identity globally and moved beyond
America. A number of important concepts and theories started to develop outside USA. Now,
a large number of publications and literature relating to public administration is being
published outside USA. Across the world, universities and colleges are imparting education
in public administration. No more the academic get-together is restricted to the Minnowbrook
conference. Now, a number of academic get-together on public administration are taking place
outside USA. Thus, public administration is gaining an international character. If the
Minnowbrook conference has to retain its relevance, it ought to go global. If it remains
American in character, it will lose its relevance.

PUBLIC CHOICE APPROACH

33
This approach is a standing critique of the Welfare state. It is an economic theory of politics.
Being a political-economic approach, it tends to explain the non-economic variables through
the use of economic methods, methodologies or criterions. Non-economic variables involve
political or administrative issues. Also, this approach is a school of thought under the New
Right philosophy.
The New Right has been highly critical of the welfare state and Welfarism. New Right has
criticized it as a Nanny state by saying that welfare state is an over-indulging state and it
demeans the potentiality of the individual and makes it invalid. It says that the welfare state is
not based on a sound foundation and is not viable or sustainable. This became particularly
true during 1970s. There was a crisis among the governments all over the world. Habermas
said that State is facing a dual crisis i.e. the fiscal crisis and the crisis of legitimacy. This
resulted into alienation of people from the state resulting into the crisis of legitimacy. Thus,
the concerns of the New Right philosophy became evident. There was a widespread concern
about what is ailing the state and as well a concern regarding making the state viable. A
group of arguments emerged and answers were provided in a logical manner. This group of
arguments is being referred to as the New Right philosophy. The new right philosophy
combined within it two mutually opposing ideologies. They are as follows:
1. Neo-liberalism- Liberalism primarily emphasizes on individuals liberty. This is possible
only in a small state.

2. Neo-conservatism- Conservatism primarily emphasizes on traditions, customs, authority etc.

This is possible only in a strong state.
Hence, New Right advocates for a small but a strong state. Public Choice Approach is also a
New Right philosophy. Public Choice Approach has also been a strong critic of the welfare
state.

34
Gordon Tullock- He published a book in 1965 called as Politics of Bureaucracy. This was
the first book on Public Choice explaining the failure of welfare state and public bureaucracy.
It also provided an explanation regarding the viability of the state. His arguments are based
on three major assumptions.
a. Individual by nature is rational and thereby, is self-seeking- The individual remains
rational everywhere, both in the public as well as the private sector. The individuals action is
directed towards maximizing his/her self-interest.
This view is contrary to the traditional theory of politics explaining the man within the state
or the administration. The traditional theory takes a universal or idealistic view of the man.
The essential character of man is considered from political or administrative idealism.
Individual is considered to be benevolent and oriented towards public interest.
Tullock rejected this view and said that individuals within the organization are individualistic
and self-oriented. Thus, Tullock while rejecting political idealism has accepted political
egoism.
Virginian School of Public Choice emphasizes that individual is rational and thereby, remains
rational not only in the market place but also in the arena of politics and administration.
b. The public sector is not constrained by the disciplining power of competition- This has
been explained through a concept called as Catallactics. It is also known as Politics as
exchange. Tullock says that individuals within the bureaucracy are utility-maximizers. Their
primary interest is to rise in the organizational hierarchy by getting promotions because it
results into power, prestige and comfort. Tullock also says that Public sector under Welfarism
operates in an environment of monopoly unlike the private sector which operates in an
environment of competition and each of these private sector organizations have to compete
with each other in order to secure and promote their revenue. Thereby, these organizations
are under a constant pressure to perform. If they do not perform, they will become
uncompetitive and lose revenue. Any decrease in performance or mal-performance will make
these organizations invalid. Thus, in the private sector, the overall emphasis is on
performance.
On the other hand, the public bureaucracy under Welfarism operates in an environment of
monopoly. The public sector organizations are not under the pressure to earn revenue through
their performance as they are being supported by the public budget. Thereby, these
organizations can remain non-performers and still continue for long because the disciplining
power of competition does not apply to these public sector organizations. Thus, performance
is not a valued criterion in these organizations.
c. There is no objective performance measurement system in the public sector- Tullock
says that in private profit organizations, the individuals self-interest is linked to the

organizational goal. Whereas in the public sector, such linkage is not established. On the
other hand, in the public organization, there is no linkage between the individuals goal and
the organizational goal. This is because in the private profit organization, the individuals
benefits are contingent upon the fulfilment of the organizational goal. The individuals
benefit is dependent on the individuals performance. This linkage is established through the
objective performance measurement system. In private sector, the targets as well the
performance measurement system, both are objective. This helps in objectively
differentiating between the performers and the non-performers. Thus, not only the
organization is under a pressure to perform but also the individual are under a pressure to
perform. Thus, economic methods are being used to study the variables of politics and
administration.
Anthony Downs- He published a book in 1967 called as Inside Bureaucracy. While trying
to provide an argument on the failure of public bureaucracy under the welfare state, he also
included the arguments which were provided by Tullock. In addition to that, he came out
with certain other arguments explaining the failure of bureaucracy. He said that the private
organizations operate on the basis of market for output i.e. the market organizations
expenditure and expansion depends on the financial viability of their activities. Market for
output becomes a natural check against the organization become over-sized. On the contrary,
the public organizations under Welfarism are not based on market for output since they are
provided with the necessary budgetary support. Thus, public sector organizations go on to
become over-sized organizations. These organizations, in terms of size become very large.
Being over-sized, they suffer from the law of diminishing control and the law of diminishing
co-ordination.
William Niskanen- He published a book in 1971 called as Bureaucracy and Representative
Government. He also provided a Public Choice Approach in explaining the failure of
bureaucracy. He has also put some points similar to that of Tullock. But, he also came out
with some original arguments in this regard. In public bureaucracy, the individual lacks in
motivation to perform as the output of lack of performance is not shared with the individual
and as well the output of performance is also not shared with the individual. In the public
sector, there is no fear of loss of performance as well as there is no incentive for higher
performance. In public bureaucracy, the efficiency savings does not accrue to the individual.

35
Public choice approach is based on three major characteristics.
1. Methodologya. Methodological Individualism- It emphasizes that group should not be the unit of the
analysis rather the individual should be the unit of analysis i.e. as Olson says that the
individual should be the one for whom the decision is made and it should be the individual by
whom the decision is made instead of the group for whom the decision is being made or the
group by which the decision is made.
b. Individual is a rational man- Already discussed.

2. Individuals within the politics and administration maximize their private interest in the name
of public interest. Thereby, the politicians are the vote-maximizers and the bureaucrats are
the budget-maximizers.
3. Public Choice emphasizes on democratization and decentralization of organization and
organizational activities. Here, the public choice approach is referring to institutional
pluralism with overlapping jurisdiction or multiple institutions providing same goods and
services or competition. This gives rise to people choice to choose or peoples choice to exit.
This truly enhances the public choice and makes the system more democratic. That is why;
Public choice is referred to as the economic theory of politics. It appears that the public
choice approach is vilifying the state and glorifying the private organizations. But, this is not
the actual view of the public choice approach. It is not trying to glorify the market and not
trying to vilify the state and the public bureaucracy. This is because the public choice
approach is only trying to explain the premises which make an organization, a success or a
failure. It is trying to explain the premises which have made the private organizations
successful and the premises which have made bureaucracy, a failure. If the premises which
are appropriate are placed before the bureaucracy, the bureaucracy will become successful
and vice-versa.

NEW PUBLIC MANAGEMENT

36
There are three major areas of emphasis in this regard.
1. Result Orientation- The reform initiatives that are taken up are trying to make the
government goal-oriented and their very focus is to make the government, a productive
government. E.g. UK- Prior Option Review- The redundant functions of the government
were eliminated. Non-core activities were given to the non-state institutions. The state took
up certain responsibilities through the use of certain market initiatives like contracting-out,
outsourcing. This resulted into 20% savings in the context of UK. It enabled the UK
government to become more efficient and goal-oriented. Subsequent to this, the UK
government took a Next Step initiative. This initiative was directed towards introducing
autonomy into various agencies of the government.
2. Market Orientation- Outsourcing, Contracting-out, PPP, privatization, strengthening of the
performance measurement system etc.
3. Customer or Service Orientation- UK introduced Citizen Charter Initiative in 1991.
Citizen Charter is a statement by the agency detailing the services to be provided, the
standard at which the service is to be provided, the grievances, if there are any and how the
grievances are to be addressed. It bridges the gap between the citizens and the administration
and makes the administration citizen-friendly. There are a number of transparency laws as
well such as RTI.

37
1. Debureaucratization- It primarily emphasizes on weeding out rule orientation, status
orientation, status quo orientation, rigidity, indifference towards citizens etc. from the
administration. Some positive characters like flexibility, goal-orientation, citizen-friendliness,
decentralization, participation, honesty etc. needs to be infused into the administration. But,
this is a big challenge because every system has developed its own administrative culture. So,
for change in this administrative culture, a change in mind frame is required, that involves
problems like resistance, vested interests, training, introducing new technologies etc.
2. Downsizing- NPM intends to make public bureaucracy efficient. This requires that the public
bureaucracy should be right-sized. But, since the governments across the world are oversized, NPM emphasizes on down-sizing. But, while down-sizing is critical to NPM, it is also
a challenge since it involves unemployment.
3. Privatization- NPM requires the shift out the non-core activities to the non-state agencies.
But, privatization is not an easy task since it involves tasks like remuneration, corruption,
employment etc.
4. Performance Evaluation- NPM requires that the individuals pay must be made contingent
upon the individuals performance. For this, a scientific and an objective performance
evaluation system is required. In the public sector, the goods and services are more
qualitative and less quantitative in nature. This makes the performance evaluation, a difficult
process.
5. New Managerialism- NPM is also referred to as New Managerialism in the pejorative sense.

38
This emerged towards the late 20th century and the early 21st century in the developed countries.
Soon after, it also spread to the developing countries while rejecting the NPM. NPM is based on
certain characteristics like disaggregation, customer orientation, marketization etc. The overall
emphasis has been to surrender more and more activities to the non-state agencies. It also
emphasizes on customer orientation and the agencies to be responsible towards the individuals who
pay for the goods and services and thereby, enter into a contractual obligation. It also emphasizes
on the use of more and more market style function in the public sector. NPM faced some very
serious limitations during the early 21stCentury especially in the areas of security, R&D, impact of
globalization, IT etc. The responsibilities of the state increased. This notion of the state which has
emerged while rejecting the NPM has come to be known as Digital Era Governance and is based on
integration, need-based holism, digitalization etc.

39
1. Shrinking of Public Sphere- The role of Public administration is to expand the Public
Sphere. It has to bring about institutional arrangements so that citizens can have meaningful
dialogues.

2. The civil character of the state is being increasingly compromised in favour of non-civil
character of the state. Moreover, the coercive bureaucracy is increasing. Because of the
globalization, the traditional routine relating to economic, cultural and social practices is
breaking down. A large section of people have a sense of anxiety which has resulted into
many protests, mobilizations, disorderly behaviour or chaos. The state has also responded this
with increased violence and coercion. This has led to loss of legitimacy of the state. Thus, the
role of the public administration is to restore the faith of the people in the state. Public
administration must devise strategies where the development should be with people or
development with a human face.
<!--[if !supportLists]-->3. <!--[endif]-->In the era of globalization, there is an emphasis on doing
more with less. There is a need to streamline the public budget because during the era of
failure of state, there was an emphasis to shrink or minimalize the role of the state. In this
background, the role of public administration is to document the successes of the state as well
as the failures of the market. There are areas where market can operate with efficiency and
there are areas where the state can operate with better efficiency.
<!--[if !supportLists]-->4. In the era of globalization, there is a need to move towards
digitalization and information age competitiveness. The role of public administration is to
make the state a Cybernetic state (Such a state is based on the principle of thermodynamics;
it refers to the process of manipulating bigger outputs with smaller inputs). This is possible
only with the introduction of IT. With the help of IT, the state can convert small inputs into
bigger outputs.
<!--[if !supportLists]-->5. There is an increasing concentration of power into the global,
political and economic elites. A monocratic power structure is being put in place. An
oligarchic exercise of power is present. It is a type of scenario which is not only threatening
the democracy but also the citizens. In this background, it is required that the public
administration should try to build up a platform for widespread citizen participation. This is
possible only by creating an informed citizenry.
<!--[if !supportLists]-->6. This era of globalization has made the systems across the world
come closer to each other, making them increasingly interdependent and being
influenced by each other. Thus, understanding of each of the systems cannot be taken in
isolation now. It has to be studied on a broader canvass which requires international and
comparative studies.

POST WEBERIAN THOUGHTS

40
Post-Weberian Development
This topic includes the views which are in negation to the Weberian views and at the same
time, those views have come up with certain alternative ideas. Post-Weberian Development is
not necessarily a single set of view or a single theory or a single theoretical development. It
includes a group of developments which not only has negated the Weberian view but also
came up with the alternative ideas.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.
9.

Weberian Development refers to certain characters relating to the traditional overview of

administration.
Politics-Administration Dichotomy
Rigid Hierarchic Structure
Top Down Communication
Authority by Position
Mono-motivational Analysis
Mechanistic Orientation
Post-Weberian Views
Humanistic View- Humanistic theorists rejected the mechanistic and rigid view of the
administration or management. They argued in favour of a more social-psychological view of
the organization.
Public Choice Perspective- They rejected the bureaucracy and said that Weberian view is
monocratic, monopolistic and mono-centric. They emphasized on methodological
individualism and institutional pluralism with overlapping jurisdiction.
Critical Theory- This theory is developed by the German School of Thought. It is otherwise
also known as the Frankfurt School of Thought. The principle proponents of this school of
thought are Jurgen Habermas, Clauss Offe etc. This particular theory has been highly critical
of the Webers bureaucracy. It rejected webers bureaucracy as being rigid, top-down, means
oriented and thereby, based on organizational rationality. For administration to be efficient, it
is required that it should be based on democratization, humanization, free flow of
information, systemic rationality, Thematization etc.
The paradigm of Governance-Weberian approach emphasizes on a single actor paradigm
and the importance of government officials, but the paradigm of governance emphasizes on a
multiple-actor approach.
Normative Concerns or Discretionist View- This is also referred to as a value-laden
approach. The Weberian developments are primarily instrumental in nature because it
emphasizes on the use of tools and techniques with an emphasis on efficiency and economy.
But, if we take into account developments like NPA or New Public Service Approach or
digital era governance, all these concepts emphasize on a value-laden or welfare oriented
approach. New Public Service approach has been developed by theorists like Dehadt and
Denhart. The publicness of the public administration must remain intact. It must not give up
its welfare orientation.
Marxist Interpretation of Bureaucracy- It rejected the Webers positivist and
universalistic view on Bureaucracy. It emphasized that the bureaucracy is an instrument in
the hands of the haves to protect and promote their interests.
Phenomenological Analysis- This can be considered as a part of the humanistic approach.
As an approach, it rejects the Weberian view or administration considering that under the
Weberian administration, every act is considered as a part of the completed act while every
act within the organization is an act in progress. Every act is constructed or reconstructed
through the perception of the individual or individual undertaking the action.
Situational or Contingency Theory- Discussed earlier.
Post-Modern Administration- Discussed earlier.

41
1.

2.

3.
4.

5.

Weberian structure refers to an organization which is rigid, hierarchic, top-down or

authoritarian. Post-Weberian structures include
Theory Z- This has been developed by an American theorist with Japanese origin called as
William Ouchi. Post-world American organizations were very competitive and successful
organizations. But towards the late 1950s, Japanese organizations came up and were able to
successfully compete with the American organizations. This resulted into a concern and
anxiety to understand the nature of these organizations. A number of studies took place. One
of the successful studies was undertaken by Ouchi. Ouchi found out that the American
organizations recruit individuals to the managerial positions at the middle level of the
organization. In these organizations, not only the recruitment is based on merit but also the
pay, privileges, promotions etc. are also based on performance. Because of this, most of the
performing functionaries reach to the top during their middle age. After that, the promotional
aspects become bleak for such functionaries. In these organizations, the employment was
based on the Hire and Fire Policy. This resulted into a lack of psychological sense of
attachment or ownership with the organization.
When he studied the Japanese organizations, he found out that the recruitment to the
managerial positions was for the lower levels of the organization. Also, the pay, privileges,
promotions etc. were based on performance. But, Japanese organizations followed the
concept of Prolonged Evaluation and Slow Promotion. This gave opportunity to every
performing functionary to grow throughout his career in the organization. Also, Japanese
organizations believed in permanency in employment. The informal aspects were considered
to promote the formal goals of the organization. Also, extra organizational activities were
used to reinforce the organizational activities. Ringi System or Phillip 66 means the
Participative Approach.
Task Organization or Task Structure- Autonomous Non-hierarchic multi-specialization
temporary organization. This organization is meant to deal with a particular issue and once
the issue is resolved, the organization is dismantled. The members of this organization are at
the same level i.e. the organization is non-hierarchic. All the power of decision-making to
deal with a particular issue rests with this organization. All the functional areas of
specialization that are required for a particular issue are being possessed by the organization.
Team StructureMatrix structure- Matrix refers to the superimposition of the project or task organization
over the functional organization. Thereby, it carries all the characters of the task organization.
The members of this organization carry dual responsibilities.
Boundary less organization- This is also referred to as Virtual Organization. It is a
centralized organization which mostly works through the principle of contracting out or
outsourcing. This organization is mostly used by enterprises or entrepreneurs who possess a
good idea but may not be having adequate resources or have a good idea but may not be
having productive abilities or productive facilities. This is an organization where various
responsibilities under a particular project are being contracted out or outsourced to a number
of other individuals or organizations. The details of the activities are defined by the core
organization while the actual production is being done by the contracted out organization or
individuals using their own resources whether technological, human or otherwise.

6. Synthetic Organization- It is a less hierarchic organization which is set up to address an

emergent crisis. It is also an autonomous multi-specialization organization. It could even be a
temporary organization or a regular structure.
7. Feminine organization etc.

42
Bureaucracy is not the only form of legal authority- Weber has used the term bureaucracy
and legal, both strictly as well as loosely. According to Weber, the legal rational
administrative system is the bureaucracy. But, in his writings, Weber has also used the term
bureaucracy loosely by referring to patrimonial administrative system as patrimonial
bureaucracy or feudal administrative system as feudal bureaucracy. The term legal has been
used to denote the rational authority. But, while referring to the types of legitimacy, the term
legal was used in a loose sense.
R.K. Merton- He is a social anthropologist. In his study on deviance, he considered a
number of social phenomenon and organizations. He also considered bureaucracy as a social
organization and conducted an empirical study and based on that empirical study, he
emphasized that bureaucracy has rule or means orientation, thereby, for bureaucrats, the rules
and regulations are the goal in itself. In actual practice, the organizational goal is surrendered
or sacrificed. For the individuals within the bureaucracy, there is a case of goal displacement
resulting into dysfunctionality. He calls bureaucracy as ritualistic because the means is
adhered to and the goal is lost.
Alvin Gouldner- He also did an empirical study of bureaucracy. Based on this study, he
referred to bureaucracy as a punishment centred bureaucracy because for the bureaucracy to
be effective, the individual functionaries are required to perform and within bureaucracy, in
order to ensure the performance of the individuals, rules and regulations are put in place. The
goal is to routinize the work and enhance the performance. In actual practice, the
functionaries bring in the counter-measures or the counter-control mechanisms. He also
found that the natural tendency of the individuals is to escape the responsibilities by bringing
counter-measures and only attain a minimum acceptable level of performance. This leads to
an organization where there is a jungle or rules and regulations. In such an organization, the
individuals prefer inaction to action. He says that the Weberian Model of Bureaucracy is
dysfunctional.
Phillip Shelznick- He also did an empirical study. He found out that bureaucrats are
naturally aberrant towards decentralization. But, when the organization grows in size and
operation, decentralization becomes a reality out of compulsion. In actual functioning, the
various units and sub-units develop their own sub-goals and in many of the cases, the subgoals are not consistent with the organizational goal. The individual functionaries develop
their loyalty towards the sub-goal rather than the organizational goal rendering the
bureaucracy ineffective.
Raymond Hall and J.J. Peters- They are known for a law which is known as Peter
Principle. According to this, within the bureaucracy, individuals rise to their level of
incompetence. It is emphasized that within bureaucracy, the promotion is based on
performance in the existing position. So, the individual keeps on rising in the organizational

hierarchy so long as the individual keeps on performing. Finally, the individuals cease
themselves in a position where they are not performing because had they been performing,
they would have been promoted to the next higher level. These theorists are trying to
highlight that the individuals who are performing in a current position might not necessarily
be a performing functionary in a future position. Thus, the promotion to a particular should
not only be based on the current performance of the individual but also on the expected
performance in the future position of that particular individual.
C. Northcote Parkinson- He came out with the Parkinsons Law. This principle is also
known as law of Rising Pyramid. He undertook an empirical study of the British office
responsible for the Colonial Administration during 1936-1950. The importance of this
particular office was decreasing during this period as it was the phase of decolonization. But,
the size and activities of this office was increasing. While taking this into consideration,
Parkinson finally concluded that in bureaucracy, the work expands depending upon the time
available for the completion of the job. He found out that bureaucracy carries an inherent
tendency towards empire building. Thereby, it exaggerates its significance and complexity of
work while pretending to operate in an environment of secrecy. Because of this tendency, the
bureaucracy tends to adds personnel and add hierarchy, thereby, increasing the size of the
organization irrespective of the size of the job. This can help in explaining the problem of
down-sizing.
Riggs, Crozier, Braibanti etc. - They conducted empirical studies in non-western systems
and have criticized Weberian bureaucracy as being non-ecological and non-universalistic.
They found out that the administration might be Weberian by structure but have been nonWeberian in function and behaviour.

EVOLUTION OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRAATION

43
Wilsons Article published in 1887 is considered to be an important landmark for the
beginning of public administration as a discipline. Wilsons vision on administration about
the need for a separate discipline to study government in action gave an impetus to public
administration. But, it is not the Wilsons article content rather it is the impact of his article
because of which the Wilson is considered to be the father of public administration. But,
Wilsons article cannot be considered as the first serious and systematic study of government
in action. Prior to Wilson, there were a number of events and structures which undertook a
serious study on government in action. The literature relating to the state and the statecraft
existed prior to Wilson. Some of the examples are Ramayana, Mahabharata, Austrian and
German Scholars (Cameralists), Confucius etc. Also, there were some French scholars
(Bonin, Viven etc.) as well in this regard.
Factors responsible for the emergence of Public Administration in the Context of
America

1. Industrialization- Industrialization was responsible for increasing the size and complexity
of the organizations and activities. The organizations grew in size, thereby; no more they
could be dealt with an ad hoc amateurish approach.
2. Rise of the Welfare State- Because of the rise of the Welfare State, the state grow very big.
Thus, a systematic approach was required to study the government.
3. Scientific Management Thought- This provided a background for the emergence of public
administration. Science of Management was emphasized which made a point towards
managing the government in action in a systematic manner.
4. A consequence of SPOILS System- SPOILS System was a corrupt and an inefficient
system. This also gave rise to the study of government in action.