11-Aug-14

EE2001
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
(2014/2015 Session)
Lecture 1 to 6
Dr Er Meng Joo
Professor
School of EEE
Office : S1-B1c-90
Tel : 67904529
E-mail : emjer@ntu.edu.sg
https://ntulearn.ntu.edu.sg
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CONSULTATION HOURS
Academic Year 2014/2015 (Semester 1)
S/No

Day of Week

Time

1.

Monday

3.30 pm 4.30 pm

2.

Thursday

3.30 pm 4.30 pm

3.

Friday

3.30 pm 4.30 pm

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Content
Part I (by Prof Er Meng Joo, Co-ordinator)
Circuit

Theorems (6 hours)
Energy Storage Elements and Transient Response
(6 hours)
Laplace Transforms in Circuit Analysis (6 hours)
Part II (by Assoc Prof Soh Cheong Boon)
Network

Functions and Two-port Networks (6

hours)
Alternating Current Circuits (9 hours)
Three-phase Circuits (6 hours)
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Learning Objective
This courses focuses on the fundamental principles

of circuit theorems and circuit elements, DC/AC and

three-phase circuits, transient and steady-state
responses, circuit analysis using Laplace Transforms

In this course, we will learn various techniques

(tools) to analyze the operation of real circuits.

Our major concern is the analysis of circuits, i.e. the

study of the behavior of the circuit, not the creation

of circuits, i.e., the engineering design of the circuit.

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Learning Outcome
This course equips students with the knowledge for

the analysis of DC and AC linear circuits.

Students would be able to set up independent

equations of linear circuits and solve them using the

techniques and skills acquired in this course.

A sound knowledge of the analytical techniques

learnt in this course can serve as good foundation

of the study of linear control systems, power
networks, electronics and communication systems
in later years.

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New CA Weightage System

1. CA weightage is 40 % and final-examination
weightage is 60 %.
2. Two laboratory modules (L2001A and L2001B)
are integrated in EE2001.
3. Summary:
Quiz

20 %
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Two takePractical works

home
(L2001A and
assignments (5 L2001B-5 %
% each)
each)
10 %

10 %

Final
examination

60 %
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Quiz

The Quiz mark contributes to 20 % of the final mark

One quiz will be conducted after the recess week during
the tutorial class i.e. Week 8 (6 to 10 Oct., 2014).
Topics to be tested: Tutorials 1 to 6.
Students can only take Quiz in their respective tutorial
groups.
Students must present their ID with photo for taking
attendance.
Zero marks will be given for absentees without valid
reasons or MCs.
Absentees must inform the tutor through email within
the same day or earlier of the Quiz to request for a
make-up quiz.
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Assignments
Two take-home assignments.
Assignment questions will be distributed by tutors during

the tutorial class.

One from Part 1 (5%) and another from Part II (5%).
Assignment 1 will be given out in Week 6 while
Assignment 2 will be given out in Week 9.
Students will be given two weeks to complete each
assignment
Students have to submit solutions to their respective
tutors on or before the end of two weeks i.e. Week 8 and
11 for Assignments 1 and 2 respectively.
Late submissions will not be entertained.
Marked assignments will be returned to students.

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Laboratory Modules
Two laboratory modules are integrated in this

course.

L2001A: Circuit Theorems and Time Responses of

Passive Networks (5%).

L2001B:

Two-port Network Parameters and

Transient Response of a General Second-order
Circuit (5%).

Each laboratory module contributes to 5 % of the

final mark.

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Text Book:
Charles K. Alexander and Matthew N.
O. Sadiku, Fundamentals of Electric
Circuits, McGraw Hill, 5th Edition.
TK454.A375 2013 x5, Lee Wee Nam
Library, Reserves.

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References:
1. James W. Nilsson and Susan A. Riedel, Electric
Circuits, 9th Edition, Pearson/Prentice- Hall,
2011.
TK454.N712 2011 x7, LWNL, Reserves.
2. William H. Hart, Jr., Jack E. Kemmerly and
Steven
M.
Durbin,
Engineering
Circuit
Analysis, 8th Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2012.
TK454.H426 2012 x2, LWNL, Reserves.
3. M. Nahvi and J.A. Edminister, Schaums Outlines
Electric Circuits, 5th Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2011 .
TK454.E24 2011 x1, LWNL, Reserves.
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Outline
1. Introduction
2. Basic Concepts
3. Basic Laws
4. Methods of Analysis
5. Circuit Theorems
6. Operational Amplifiers
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Introduction
Electric circuit theory is one of the fundamental

theories upon which all branches of electrical

engineering are built.

Many branches of electrical engineering, such as

power, electric machines, control, electronics,

communications and instrumentation are based
on electric circuit theory.

In electrical engineering, we are often interested

in transferring energy from one point to another.

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Introduction
An

interconnection of electrical
required for transfer of energy.

devices

is

Such interconnection is referred to as an electric

circuit and each component of the circuit is

known as an element.

An electric circuit is an interconnection of

electric elements.

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A Simple Electric Circuit

It consists of three basic elements: a
battery, a lamp and some connecting
wires.

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A Notch Filter with Op-amps

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An Amplifier Circuit for a Microphone

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Outline
1. Introduction
2. Basic Concepts
3. Basic Laws
4. Methods of Analysis
5. Circuit Theorems
6. Operational Amplifiers
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Units
When

taking
any
measurements,
we
must use units to
quantify values.
We
use
the
International Systems of
Units (SI for short)
Prefixes on SI units
allow
for
easy
relationships
between
large and small values.
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Basic Concepts
In carrying out circuit analysis, we often

deal with currents, voltages or power.

We start with a brief description of
these quantities.

Electric Charge and Current

Electric charge and its movement are

the most basic items of interest in

electrical engineering.

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Concept of Charge and Current

Charge : An electric property of matter,

measured in coulombs. Like charges repel

and unlike charges attract each other.
The magnitude of the electrons charge is
1.602 x 10-19 coulomb (unit is C).

Current

: Measures movement of
charges. Current is measured in amperes
(designated as A). One ampere is the
movement of charges through a surface
at the rate of 1 C/sec.
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Relationship Between Charge and Current

between current i,
charge q and time t is

The relationship

The direction of current flow is taken by

convention as opposite to the direction

of electron flow.

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Two Methods of Representing a Current

Conventional current
flow:
(a) + ve current flow
(b) ve current flow

(a)

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(b)

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Type of Current
A Direct Current (dc) is a

current that remains constant

with time and is denoted by
I.
A common source of DC is a
battery.
An Alternating Current (AC) is
a
current
that
varies
sinusoidally with time and is
denoted by i.
Mains power is an example of
AC
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Concept of Voltage
We are interested in the potential difference (voltage)

between two points, not the absolute potential of a

point.

between two points a and b in a

circuit is the energy (or work) needed to move a unit
charge from a to b.

The voltage

The relationship between the energy w (in joules, J)

and the charge (in C) is

Thus, voltage (measured in volts, V) is the energy

required to move a unit charge through an element

and one V = one J/C.

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Concept of Voltage

The + and signs are used to designate which point is at

the assumed higher potential (the + point).

The

can be interpreted as follows: The potential at

.
point a with respect to point b is

An arrow is used to point to the terminal of assumed

higher potential (the + point).

Suppose

9 . We may say that there is a 9-V

voltage rise from b to a or equivalently a 9-V voltage
drop from a to b.

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Type of Voltage
A constant voltage is called a dc voltage and is

represented by V whereas a sinusoidally timevarying voltage is called an ac voltage and is

represented by v.

A dc voltage is commonly produced by a battery.

An AC voltage is produced by an electric generator.
Note: Electric voltage is always across the

element or between two points.

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Concept of Power and Energy

Although current and voltage are the two basic

variables in an electric circuit, they are not

sufficient for circuit analysis. Power and energy
calculations are also needed.

Power: Power is the rate of absorbing or

supplying energy (measured in Watts (W)), i.e.

where p is the power, w is the energy
(in Joules) and t is time (in sec).

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Relationship Between Power,

Voltage and Current
The relationship between power p and

voltage v and current i is given by

The power absorbed or supplied by

an element is the product of voltage

across the element and the current
passing through it.

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Passive Sign Convention

By convention, we say that an

element being supplied power has

positive power.

A power source such as a battery

has negative power.

Passive

sign
convention
is
satisfied if the direction of current
is selected such that current
enters through the terminal that is
more positively biased.
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Passive Sign Convention

Consider the element (represented by a block)

as shown:

It has two terminals (also called nodes).

It conducts current from one node to the other

and in the process voltage drop occurs across

the element in the direction of current flow
(shown by arrow).

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Passive Sign Convention

The terminal at which the current enters acquires

+ve polarity with respect to the terminal at

which the current exits.

We assume that the current enters the terminal

of higher potential.

We use the passive sign convention. The

word passive means that the element is

assumed to absorb power. The power assumes a
+ve sign when the current enters the +ve
polarity of the voltage across an element.

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Element Absorbing Power

The (actual) current flows into the +ve

terminal of the element:

4 2

The element is absorbing 8 W of power.

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Element Delivering Power

The (actual) current flows out from the

+ve terminal of the element:

4

The element is delivering 8 W of power.

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Basic Circuit Elements

An element is the basic building block of a circuit.
An electric circuit is simply an inter-connection of

the elements.

Circuit analysis is the process of determining

voltages across (or the current through) the

elements of the circuit.

There are two types of elements found in electric

circuits: passive and active elements.

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Passive and Active Elements

An active element is capable of generating energy

while a passive element is not.

Passive elements: resistors, capacitors and inductors.

Active

elements:
generators,
operational amplifiers.

batteries

and

Most important active elements: voltage or current

sources that deliver power to the circuit.

Two

of sources:
dependent sources.

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kinds

independent

and
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Independent Source
An ideal independent source is an

active element that provides a

specified voltage or current that is
completely independent of other
circuit elements.

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Independent Voltage Source

An ideal independent voltage source delivers

to the circuit whatever current is necessary to

maintain its terminal voltage.

Practical

sources such as batteries and

generators are regarded as approximations to
ideal voltage sources.

A voltage function and a polarity must be

specified to describe a voltage source.

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Symbols for Independent Voltage Source

(a) Used for constant or
time-varying voltage
(b) Used for constant
voltage (dc).

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Independent Current Source

An ideal independent current source is

an active element that provides a

specified
current
completely
independent of the voltage across the
source.

The current source delivers to the

circuit whatever voltage is necessary to

maintain the designated current.

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Symbols for Independent Current Source

Note

that the arrow

indicates the direction
of current flow (a
current source requires
that a direction be
specified).

The terminal voltage is

determined
by
the
condition of the circuit
to which it is connected.

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Dependent Source
An ideal dependent (or controlled)

source is an active element in which

the source quantity is controlled by
another voltage or current elsewhere in
the circuit.

Dependent sources are used a great

deal in electronics to model both dc and

ac behavior of transistors, especially in
amplifier circuits.

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Type of Dependent Source

A dependent source has its output

controlled by an input value.

Symbolically represented as
diamond
Four types:
A voltage-controlled voltage
source (VCVS).
A current-controlled voltage
source (CCVS).
A voltage-controlled current
source (VCCS).
A current-controlled current
source (CCCS).

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Example 1

The source on the right-hand side is a

current-controlled voltage source.

The value of the voltage supplied is 10i V
(not 10i A) as it depends on the current i
through element C.
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Example 2

The source on the right-hand side is a current-

controlled current source.

The value of the current supplied is 0.2I A as it
depends on the current I = 5 A through the
element connected to the +ve terminal of the
20-V source.
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Power Absorbed or Delivered in a Circuit

The algebraic sum of power in a circuit is zero i.e.
Total power supplied + Total power absorbed = 0
Example 3
Calculate the power supplied or absorbed by each
element in the following circuit.

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20 5
12 5
8 6

100 W, power supplied.

60 W, power absorbed
48 W, power absorbed

For , note that the voltage is 8 V (+ve at the top), the

same as the voltage for
since both the passive
element and the dependent source are connected to the
same terminals. Since the current flows out of the +ve
terminal,
8 0.2
8 0.2 5
8 W
Note : Power supplied + Power absorbed
= -100-8+60+48 = 0.
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Outline
1. Introduction
2. Basic Concepts
3. Basic Laws
4. Methods of Analysis
5. Circuit Theorems
6. Operational Amplifiers
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Basic Laws
Ohms Law
Kirchoffs Current Law
Kirchoffs Voltage Law
Some commonly used techniques
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Ohms Law
A resistor is a device that resists the

flow of current flow. It is the simplest

passive element.

Resistors can be used to control current

flow in a circuit.

The physical property or ability to resist

electric current is known as resistance

(represented by the symbol R) and is
measured in ohms (designated as ).

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Circuit Symbol of Resistor

Resistor and its circuit symbol

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Resistivity
Materials tend to resist the flow of

electricity through them.

This property is called resistance.
The resistance of an object is a function
of its length, l, cross sectional area, A
and the materials resistivity, :

l
A

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Resistivity of Common Materials

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Ohms Law
Ohms law states that the voltage v across a

resistor is directly proportional to the current i

flowing through the resistor i.e. .

Ohm defines the constant of proportionality for

a resistor to be the resistance, R.

The mathematical form of Ohms law is

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Application of Ohms law

To apply Ohms law, we must pay careful

attention to the current direction and voltage

polarity.

The direction of current i and the polarity of

voltage must conform with the passive sign

convention i.e. the current flows from a higher
.
potential to a lower potential so that

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Short Circuit and Open Circuit

Since the value of R can range from zero to

infinity, it is important that we consider the

two extreme possible values of R.

A short circuit is a circuit element with

resistance approaching zero, R = 0.
An open-circuit is a circuit element with
resistance approaching infinity, R = .

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Short Circuit and Open Circuit

For a short circuit,

0 , i.e. the
voltage is zero but
the current could be
anything.
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For an open circuit,

0 , i.e. the

current is zero though

the voltage could be
anything.
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Conductance
A useful quantity in circuit analysis is

the reciprocal of resistance R, known as

conductance,
.

Conductance is the ability of an element

to conduct electric current and is

measured in Siemens (S).

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Power Dissipated by a Resistor

The power dissipated by a resistor can

be expressed as

The power dissipated in a resistor is

always +ve i.e. a resistor

absorbs power from the circuit.

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always

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Example 1
In the following circuit, calculate the current
i, the conductance G and the power p.

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Solution:

6 10
1

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1
5 10

0.2 10

6
0.2

180

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Branches, Nodes and Loops

Branch

A branch represents a single two-terminal element

like a voltage source or a resistor.
Node

A node is the point of connection between two or more

branches. A node is indicated by a dot in a circuit.
Loop

A loop is a closed path formed by starting at a node,

passing through a set of nodes and returning to the
starting node without passing through any node more
than once.
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Example 2
Consider the following circuit:

We can redraw the circuit as shown:

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The circuit has 5 branches: the 10-V voltage

source, the 2-A current source and the 3

resistors.
The circuit has 3 nodes: a, b and c.
A node is indicated by a dot in a circuit.
Note that the 3 points that form node b are
connected by wires and therefore constitute a
single point. The same is true for the 4 points
that form node c.
abca with the 2 resistor is a loop.
bcb with the 2 and 3 resistors is a loop.
bcb with the 3 resistor and the 2-A current
source is a loop.

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Mesh
A mesh is a loop which does not contain any

other loops within it (it is an independent loop).

For the above example: abca with the 2 resistor
is a mesh; bcb with the 2 and 3 resistors is a
mesh; bcb with the 3 resistor and the 2-A
current source is a mesh.

In a circuit with b

branches and n nodes, the

number of meshes is
1.

For the above example,

3.

Independent loops result in independent sets of

equations (to be used later).

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Series and Parallel Connection

Two or more elements are in series if

they exclusively share a single node and

consequently carry the same current.

Two or more elements are in parallel if

they are connected to the same two

nodes and consequently have the same
voltage across them.

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Series and Parallel Connection

The 10-V source and the 5 resistor are in series as

the same current flows through them.

The 2 and 3 resistors and the 2-A current source

are in parallel because they are connected to the same

two nodes b and c and consequently have the same
voltage across them.

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Example 3
How many branches and nodes does the
the following circuit have ? Identify the
elements that are in series and parallel.

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Solution:
There are 5 branches and 3 nodes in the

circuit.

The 1 and 2 resistors are in parallel.

The 4 resistor and the 10-V source are

also in parallel.

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Kirchoffs Current Law

Kirchoffs Current Law (KCL) states that

the algebraic sum of the

entering any node is zero.

currents

Consider the node in the figure. Applying KCL

yields

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An alternative form of KCL: The sum of

the currents entering a node is equal to

the sum of the currents leaving the
node.

KCL is based on conservation of

charge.

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Example 4
Consider the current sources as shown.

Applying KCL to node a:

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A circuit cannot contain two different

current sources in series unless each

has the same current, including sign.
Otherwise, KCL would be violated.

Valid

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Invalid

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Kirchoffs Voltage Law

Kirchoffs Voltage Law (KVL) states that the

algebraic sum of all voltages around a loop

in a specified direction is zero.

Express the loop current in the clockwise (CW)

direction (preferred direction).

We take voltage rise as ve and voltage drop as

+ve.
KVL is based on conservation of energy.
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Kirchoffs Voltage Law

Begin at the

-source and go CW
around the loop applying KVL:

An alternative form of KVL: Around a

loop in a clockwise direction, the sum of

voltage rises equals to the sum of
voltage drops.

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Example 5
Consider the voltage sources as shown.

Applying KVL (in the CW direction)

0

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To avoid violating KVL, a circuit cannot

contain two different voltages sources

in parallel unless their terminal voltages
are the same.

Valid

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Invalid

Invalid

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Example 6
Determine
circuit.

and

in the following

Express the current in the CW direction.

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Applying KVL and using Ohms law,

12

4
6

(1)
(2)

Using (2) in (1) gives

12

Hence,
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4
12
4 6

16 2
8

and

0
0
48 .
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Series Resistor and Voltage Divider

For 2 resistors connected in series, the

equivalent resistance of these two

resistors is the sum of the individual
resistances, i.e.,
.

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Equivalent Resistance
The above two circuits are equivalent as

they have the same v-i relationship at the

terminals a-b i.e.
because
.

An equivalent circuit is useful in simplifying

the analysis of a circuit.

For N

have
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resistors connected in series, we

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Voltage Divider

For the above circuit with 2 resistors connected

in series, we have

The method is known as the voltage divider.

Voltages across the two resistors can be easily

deduced by this method.

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Example 7
Using the voltage divider as shown
above, calculate
so that
0.75
when
100 .
0.75 .

We have
So,

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0.75

300 .

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Parallel Resistor and Current Divider

For 2 resistors connected in parallel, the

equivalent resistance of these two

resistors is the product of their
resistances divided by their sum, i.e.
.

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Parallel Resistor
For N resistors connected in parallel, we

have

If

/ .

The symbol || is used to indicate a

parallel combination of resistors. For the

above circuit, we have
|| .

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Current Divider

For the circuit with 2 resistors connected in parallel, we

have

The circuit is known as the current divider.

Note that when

0 (a short circuit has occurred),

0 and
i.e. the input current will bypass
and flow through the short-circuited path.

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Example 8
Calculate the equivalent resistance Rab in the
following circuit:

The 3 and 6 resistors are in parallel as

they are connected to the same two nodes c

and b. Their combined resistance is
3 ||6

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2
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Also, the 12

and 4 resistors are in

parallel as they are connected to the same
two nodes d and b. Hence,
3
12 ||4

The 1

and 5 resistors are in series;

hence, their equivalent resistance is 1 + 5 =
6 . With these combinations, we have the
following circuit.

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The 3 and 6 resistors in parallel gives 2 .

This 2 equivalent resistance is now in series

with the 1 resistance to give a combined
resistance of 1 + 2 = 3 . With these, we
have the following circuit.

The 2 and 3 resistors in parallel gives

1.2 . This 1.2 resistor is in series with the

10 1.2 11.2 .
10 resistor so that

11-Aug-14

89

89

11-Aug-14

Example 9
Find
and
in the following circuit.
Calculate the power dissipated in the 3
resistor.

11-Aug-14

90

90

11-Aug-14

First, we need to find the total current i. The

6 and 3 resistors in parallel gives 2 . The

circuit can be simplified to

Using Ohms law,

2 A and

4 V . Also,

. The
dissipated by the 3 resistor is
4
5.33 W.
11-Aug-14

2
power

91

91

11-Aug-14

Y- (Wye-Delta) Transformation
There are cases in circuit analysis where the

resistors are neither in parallel nor in series

(see the following bridge circuit).

Many circuits of the type shown can be

simplified to a three-terminal
circuit shown next.

11-Aug-14

equivalent

92

92

11-Aug-14

Y- (Wye-Delta) Transformation
These are the Y or Tee (T) network and or

pi () network as shown below.

Y or T network

or network
11-Aug-14

93

93

11-Aug-14

to Y conversion ( known)
If it is more convenient to work with a Y network

in a place where the circuit contains a

configuration, then we superimpose a Y network
on the existing network and find the equivalent
resistances in the Y network.

To obtain the equivalent resistances in the Y

network, we compare the two networks and make

sure that the resistance between each pair of
nodes in the network is the same as the
resistance between the same pair of nodes in the
Y network. For example, for terminals 1 and 2,
Y
and

||
.
Then, we set
Y
.

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94

94

11-Aug-14

to Y conversion ( known)
The conversion formula for a delta to wye

transformation is:
R1

Rb Rc
Ra Rb Rc

R2

Rc Ra
Ra Rb Rc

R3

Ra Rb
Ra Rb Rc

95

95

11-Aug-14

Y to Conversion (Y known)
The conversion formula for a wye to

delta transformation is:

R1R2 R2 R3 R3R1
Ra
R1
Rb

R1R2 R2 R3 R3 R1
R2

Rc

R1R2 R2 R3 R3 R1
R3
96

96

11-Aug-14

Example 10
Obtain the equivalent resistance
for
the circuit shown and use it to find
current i.

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97

97

11-Aug-14

Note that there are 2 Y networks (one at n and

one at c) and 3 delta networks (can, abn, cnb).
We only need to transform one Y network
comprising the 5, 10 and 20 resistors to a
10 ,
20 ,
network. We let
5 and we obtain the following using the
conversion formulae:
35
17.5
70
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98

98

11-Aug-14

With the Y converted to , the equivalent

circuit (with the voltages source removed
for now) is shown as follows:

11-Aug-14

99

99

11-Aug-14

Combining the 3 pairs of resistors in parallel, we

obtain
70||30 = 21 , 12.5||17.5 = 7.292 ,
15||35 = 10.5
so that the equivalent circuit is as shown.

Hence,
Then,
11-Aug-14

7.292
.

10.5 ||21

9.632 .

12.458 A.
100

100

11-Aug-14

Outline
1. Introduction
2. Basic Concepts
3. Basic Laws
4. Methods of Analysis
5. Circuit Theorems
6. Operational Amplifiers
11-Aug-14

101

101

11-Aug-14

Methods of Analysis
Nodal Analysis
Mesh Analysis

11-Aug-14

102

102

11-Aug-14

Overview
With Ohms and Kirchoffs law established, they

may now be applied to circuit analysis.

Two techniques will be presented in this chapter:
Nodal analysis, which is based on Kirchoff
Current Law (KCL)
Mesh analysis, which is based on Kirchoff
Voltage Law (KVL)
Any linear circuit can be analyzed using these two
techniques.
The analysis will result in a set of simultaneous
equations which may be solved by Cramers rule or
commercial software such as MATLAB.
103

103

11-Aug-14

Nodal Analysis
It is based on the application of KCL.
It uses node voltages as the circuit

variables.
In nodal analysis, we are interested in
finding the node voltages.

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104

11-Aug-14

Nodal Analysis Without Voltage Sources

To simplify matters, we begin with a circuit with n

nodes without voltage sources. The nodal analysis

of the circuit is as follows:
Select a node as the reference node. Assign
voltages
, ,,
to the remaining n-1
nodes. The voltages are referenced with
respect to the reference node.
Apply KCL to each of the (n1) non-reference
nodes. Use Ohms law to express the branch
currents in terms of the node voltages.
Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to
obtain the unknown node voltages.

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105

105

11-Aug-14

Points to Note:
The reference node is commonly called the

ground since it is assumed to have zero

potential.
If there is a ground node, it is usually most
convenient to select it as the reference node.
Often, the bottom node of a circuit is selected
as the reference node, especially if no explicit
ground is noted.
The symbol of the reference node used is as
follows:

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106

106

11-Aug-14

Recall

that by the passive sign

convention, current must always flow

from a higher potential to a lower

potential in a resistor, i.e.
.

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107

107

11-Aug-14

Example 1
Calculate the node voltages in the circuit as
shown. Node 0 is the reference node (
0),
while node 1 and 2 are assigned voltages
and
respectively. These node voltages are
defined with respect to the reference node.

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108

108

11-Aug-14

Redraw the circuit by adding , and as the currents

through resistors ,
and
respectively.
Applying the KCL to each non-reference node:
Node 1:
0
(1)
Node 2:
0
(2)

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109

109

11-Aug-14

Now apply Ohms law to express the unknown currents

, and in terms of the node voltages:

Using these in (1) and (2) gives

Rearranging these yields

11-Aug-14

110

110

11-Aug-14

We can now solve for the node voltages

using the elimination method or Cramers rule.

and

The equations can be rewritten into the matrix form:

Here,
is a 2x2 matrix and
and
are 2x1 column
vectors. We can then use the Cramers rule to solve for
and .
the node voltages
11-Aug-14

111

111

11-Aug-14

Example 2
Calculate the node
following circuit:

11-Aug-14

voltages

of

the

112

112

11-Aug-14

Redraw the circuit as shown. Note that the labeling of

currents is arbitrary.
Applying the KCL and Ohms law:
Node 1:
Node 2:

11-Aug-14

5
0

0
10

113

113

11-Aug-14

The two equations can be written as follows:

(1)

(2)

11-Aug-14

5
5

5
5

= = =13.33 ;

5
5

5 =

= =20
114

114

11-Aug-14

Example 3
Determine the nodal voltages of the
following circuit.

11-Aug-14

115

115

11-Aug-14

Redraw the circuit as follows:

Node 1:
3

03

Node 2:

0,

Node 3:

(2)

11-Aug-14

0 (1)

0,
0

(3)
116

116

11-Aug-14

Equations (1) (3) can be written as follows:

3
0
0
In matrix form, we have
3
0
0
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117

117

11-Aug-14

Here,
is a 3x3 matrix,
column vectors.
Using Cramers rule, we have

11-Aug-14

and

are 3x1

5
128

0
0
118

118

11-Aug-14

3
2

0
0

11-Aug-14

3
32

3
32

4.8 ,
2.4
2.4 .

119

119

11-Aug-14

Nodal Analysis Without Voltage Sources

We now consider how voltage sources

affect nodal analysis.
Consider the following circuit.

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120

120

11-Aug-14

If a voltage source is connected between the

reference node and a non-reference node,

the voltage at the non-reference node is
equal to that of the voltage source, i.e.,
10 V.

If

the voltage source (dependent or

independent) is connected between 2 nonreference nodes, the 2 non-reference nodes
form a supernode.

We apply both KCL and KVL to determine the

node voltages.

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121

121

11-Aug-14

In the circuit shown above, nodes 2 and 3

form a supernode (indicated by the region

enclosed by the broken line).
We analyze the circuit with a supernode using
the same 3 steps mentioned before except
that the supernode is treated differently in
that we apply KCL to both the nodes by
noting that all currents flowing into the region
sum to zero.
At the supernode of the circuit shown,

0

11-Aug-14

(1)
122

122

11-Aug-14

The voltage source inside the supernode

provides a constraint equation, i.e. it

constrains the difference between the node
voltages at these two nodes to be equal to
the voltage of the source i.e.
5
(2)

The constraint equation is needed to solve for

the unknown node voltages.

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123

123

11-Aug-14

Equation (1) gives

(3)
10 V gives

Using (2) and

11-Aug-14

9.2 V and

4.2 V.

124

124

11-Aug-14

Example 4
Consider the following circuit, find the
node voltages.

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125

125

11-Aug-14

The supernode contains the 2-V source,

nodes 1 and 2 and the 10 resistor as

shown in the following circuit.
supernode

11-Aug-14

126

126

11-Aug-14

Applying KCL to the supernode gives

7 0
2
and
in terms of the node
Expressing
voltages gives
2

or
20 2
(1)
The constraint equation provided by the voltage
source in the supernode is
2
(2)
Using (2) in (1) gives
3
22
7.33
2
5.33 . 127
and

127

11-Aug-14

Note that the 10 resistor does not make any

difference because it is connected across the

supernode.

Note: Nodal analysis is a straightforward

analysis technique when only current sources
are present and voltage sources are easily
accommodated with the supernode concept.
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128

128

11-Aug-14

Mesh Analysis
Recall that a mesh is a loop that does not

contain any other loops within it.

The current through the mesh is known

as the mesh current.

Mesh analysis provides another general
procedure for analyzing circuits using
mesh currents as the circuit variables.
Mesh analysis applies KVL to find
unknown currents and is only applicable
to planar circuits.
11-Aug-14

129

129

11-Aug-14

A planar circuit is one that can be

drawn in a plane with no branches

crossing one another; otherwise, it is
nonplanar.

A nonplanar circuit
11-Aug-14

130

130

11-Aug-14

A circuit that is drawn with crossing

branches still is considered planar if it

can be redrawn with no crossover
branches.

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131

131

11-Aug-14

Mesh Analysis Without Current Sources

In the mesh analysis with

meshes,

we take the following steps:

1. Assign mesh currents , , ,
to the
m meshes.
2. Apply KVL to each of the m meshes. Use
Ohms law to express the voltages in
terms of the mesh currents.
3. Solve
the
resulting
simultaneous
equations to get the mesh currents.
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132

132

11-Aug-14

Comments
The direction of the mesh currents is

arbitrary; it can be Clockwise (CW) or

Counter Clockwise (CCW) and the
choice will not affect the validity of the
solution.

We assume the mesh current flows CW.

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133

133

11-Aug-14

Example 5
Consider the following circuit:

11-Aug-14

134

134

11-Aug-14

Assign mesh currents

and

to meshes 1

and 2.
Note that no branches can appear in more
than two meshes. For example,
appears
in both meshes and the current flowing
downward through it is
.
The
resistor appears only in mesh 1 and
the current flowing to the right in that branch
( is equal to the mesh current .
Also, the
resistor appears only in mesh 2,
and the current flowing to the right in that
branch ( is equal to the mesh current .
11-Aug-14

135

135

11-Aug-14

Applying KVL to each mesh:

Mesh 1:
Mesh 2:

0
0

(1)
(2)

The branch currents can be calculated as

follows:
,
,

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136

136

11-Aug-14

Example 6
Use mesh analysis to find the current
in the following circuit:

11-Aug-14

137

137

11-Aug-14

Need to find ,
Applying KVL to
Mesh 1:
24

Mesh 2: 24

Mesh 3: 4

first.
each mesh:
10
12
5
6
12
11
4
10
19
2
0
5
12
4
2
0

Solving for the mesh currents gives

0.75 and
1.5 . Then,
2.25 0.75 1.5 .
11-Aug-14

0
0
0

2.25 ,

138

138

11-Aug-14

Mesh Analysis With Current Sources

Case 1: When a current source exists

only in one mesh.

Consider the following circuit:

11-Aug-14

139

139

11-Aug-14

It is clear that

5 A (thus we eliminate
mesh 2 from consideration).

The mesh equation for mesh 1 is

10

2 .

Note: We could have calculated the current

i using nodal analysis, but we have to find the
node voltage v first (using
5
0) and then find the current using i
10
v /4 . In this case, mesh analysis is simpler.
11-Aug-14

140

140

11-Aug-14

Case 2: When a current source exists

between two meshes.

Consider the following circuit:

11-Aug-14

141

141

11-Aug-14

We create a supermesh by excluding the

current source and any elements connected

in series with it as shown. A supermesh
results when two meshes have a (dependent
or independent) current source in common.

The current source and the element

connected in series with it is in the interior of
the supermesh.

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142

142

11-Aug-14

Applying KVL to the supermesh gives

20 6
10
4
0
14
20
6

(1)

Note: The voltages around the supermesh

are in terms of the original mesh currents.
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143

143

11-Aug-14

Applying KCL to a node in the branch where the

two meshes intersect. At node 0 (or at the top
node),
6
(2)
The current source in the supermesh provides
the constraint equation (2). Using (2) in (1)
3.2 ,
2.8 .
gives
Note: Again, we could have used nodal analysis
to find the currents i and i .
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144

144

11-Aug-14

Selecting an Appropriate Approach

In principle, both the nodal analysis and

mesh analysis are useful for any given

circuit.
What is the more efficient method for
solving a circuit problem?
There are two factors that dictate the best
choice:
The nature of the particular network is the
first factor
The second factor is the information
required
145

145

11-Aug-14

When to Use Mesh Analysis ?

If the network contains:
Many

series connected elements

Voltage sources
Supermeshes
A circuit with fewer meshes than nodes
If branch or mesh currents are what are being
solved for.
Mesh analysis is the only suitable analysis for
transistor circuits.
It is not appropriate for operational amplifiers
because there is no direct way to obtain the
voltage across an op-amp.
146

146

11-Aug-14

When to Use Nodal Analysis ?

If the network contains:
Many

parallel connected elements

Current sources
Supernodes
Circuits with fewer nodes than meshes
If node voltages are what are being solved for.
Non-planar circuits can only be solved using
nodal analysis.
This format is easier to solve by a computer.

147

147

11-Aug-14

Outline
1. Introduction
2. Basic Concepts
3. Basic Laws
4. Methods of Analysis
5. Circuit Theorems
6. Operational Amplifiers
11-Aug-14

148

148

11-Aug-14

Circuit Theorems
Linearity Property
Superposition
Source Transformation
Thevenins Theorem
Nortons Theorem
Maximum Power Transfer
11-Aug-14

149

149

11-Aug-14

Linearity Property
Consider a resistor

.
The v-i relationship is
.
If is increased by a constant , then
the voltage increases correspondingly
by , i.e.,
(it has the scaling
property).
If
,
, then applying
gives

(it has the additivity
property).
11-Aug-14

150

150

11-Aug-14

Linearity Property
The resistor is a linear element because

it satisfies both the scaling and the

additivity properties.

For

, if
is plotted as a function
of , the result is a straight line i.e. the
v-i relationship is linear.

11-Aug-14

151

151

11-Aug-14

Linearity Property
In general, a circuit is linear if it has both the

additivity and scaling properties.

A linear circuit is one whose output is directly
proportional to its input.
A linear circuit consists of linear
elements, linear dependent sources and
independent sources.
A linear dependent source is a source
whose output current or voltage is
proportional only to the first power of a
specified current or voltage variable in the
circuit (i.e. or .
11-Aug-14

152

152

11-Aug-14

Example 1
For the circuit shown, find
15 and
30 A.

11-Aug-14

when

153

153

11-Aug-14

By current division,

8
When

15 A,

15

20 .

When

30 A,

30

40 .

This shows that when the input source value

is doubled, the output
will be doubled.
11-Aug-14

154

154

11-Aug-14

Superposition
The superposition principle states that the

voltage across (or current through) an

element in a linear circuit is the algebraic sum
of the voltages across (or currents through)
that element due to each independent source
acting alone.

The

superposition principle helps us to

analyze a linear circuit with more than one
independent source by calculating the
contribution of each independent source
separately.

11-Aug-14

155

155

11-Aug-14

Steps to Apply Superposition Principle

1. Turn off all independent sources except one

source. Find the output (voltage or current)

due to that active source using the
techniques learned previously.

2. Repeat

step 1 for each of the other

independent sources.

3. Find

the total contribution by adding

algebraically all the contributions due to the
independent sources.

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156

156

11-Aug-14

Points to Note:
We consider one independent source at a
time while all other independent sources are
turned off. This implies that we replace every
voltage source by 0 V (or a short circuit), and
every current source by 0 A (or an open
circuit) i.e.

voltage source short circuit

current source open circuit
One

major
disadvantage
of
using
superposition is that it involves more works
although it helps to reduce a complex circuit
to simpler circuits.

11-Aug-14

157

157

11-Aug-14

Example 2
Use the superposition to find
following circuit.

11-Aug-14

in the

158

158

11-Aug-14

Since there are two independent sources, let

where
and
are the
contributions due to the 6-V voltage source and
the 3-A current source, respectively.
To obtain
as shown.

11-Aug-14

, we set the current source to zero

159

159

11-Aug-14

Using voltage division,

6
To obtain
as shown.

11-Aug-14

, we set the voltage source to zero

160

160

11-Aug-14

Using current division

3

Hence,
4

and we find
2

11-Aug-14

10

161

161

11-Aug-14

Source Transformation
A source transformation is the process

of replacing a voltage source

in
series with a resistor
by a current
source in parallel with a resistor , or
vice-versa.

Transformation of independent sources

11-Aug-14

162

162

11-Aug-14

The two circuits are equivalent since

they have the same v-i relationship at

terminals a-b.
If the sources are turned off, the
equivalent resistance at terminals a-b in
both circuits is R.
Also, when terminals a-b are shortcircuited, the short-circuit current
flowing from a-b is
/ in the
first circuit and
for the second
circuit.
11-Aug-14

163

163

11-Aug-14

Thus,

in order for the two

circuits to be equivalent.

Source

transformation

requires

that

.
Note: The arrow of the current source

is directed toward the positive terminal

of the voltage source.

11-Aug-14

164

164

11-Aug-14

Source transformation also applies to

dependent sources, provided we

carefully handle the dependent variable,
i.e.
.

Transformation of dependent sources

11-Aug-14

165

165

11-Aug-14

Example 3
Use source transformation to find
the following circuit.

in

11-Aug-14

166

166

11-Aug-14

First

transform the current and voltage

sources to obtain the following circuit.

Combining the 4 and 2 resistors in series

and transforming the 12-V voltage source

gives

11-Aug-14

167

167

11-Aug-14

Combine the 2-A and 4-A current sources to get

a 2-A source.

Using current division,

2

0.4

and
8
11-Aug-14

8 0.4

3.2
168

168

11-Aug-14

Example 4
Find
in the circuit shown using source
transformation.

11-Aug-14

169

169

11-Aug-14

Transform the dependent current source and

the 6-V independent source as shown. Note
that the 18-V voltage source is not transformed
because it is not connected in series with any
resistors.

11-Aug-14

170

170

11-Aug-14

The two 2 resistors in parallel are combined to

give a 1 resistor, which is in parallel with the
3-A current source. The current source is
transformed to a voltage source as shown.

11-Aug-14

171

171

11-Aug-14

Applying KVL around the loop gives

3
1 4
18 0

(1)

Applying KVL to the loop containing only the 3yields

V voltage source, the 1 resistor, and
0

3
(2)
3 1
Using (2) and (1) gives
15 5
3
0

11-Aug-14

4.5

172

172

11-Aug-14

Thevenins Theorem
Thevenins Theorem states that a linear

two-terminal circuit can be replaced by

an equivalent circuit consisting of a
voltage source
in series with a
resistor
where
is the opencircuit voltage at the terminals and
is the input or equivalent resistance at
the terminals when the independent
sources are turned off.

11-Aug-14

173

173

11-Aug-14

Thevenins Theorem

11-Aug-14

174

174

11-Aug-14

How to Find V

and R

Suppose Figs. 1(a) and 1(b) are equivalent

i.e. they have the same v-i relationship at

their terminals.

When the terminals a-b are made open-

circuited (by removing the load), no current

flows so that the open-circuit voltage across
the terminals a-b in Fig. 1(a) must be equal
to the voltage source in Fig. 1(b) since the
is the
two circuits are equivalent. Thus,
open-circuit voltage across the terminals as
shown i.e.
.

11-Aug-14

175

175

11-Aug-14

How to Find V

and R

Again, with the load removed and terminals

a-b

open-circuited, we turn off all

independent sources. The input resistance (or
equivalent resistance) of the dead circuit at
the terminals a-b of Fig. 1(a) must be equal
to
in Fig. 1(b) because the circuits are
is the input resistance
equivalent. Thus,
at the terminals when the independent
sources are turned off as shown i.e.
.

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176

176

11-Aug-14

Thevenin Equivalent Circuit

11-Aug-14

177

177

11-Aug-14

How to Find R

To find the Thevenin resistance

, we

need to consider two cases.

Case 1: If the circuit has no dependent

sources, we turn off all independent

sources.
is the input resistance of
the circuit seen between terminals a-b
as shown in Fig. 2(b).

11-Aug-14

178

178

11-Aug-14

How to Find R

Case 2: If the circuit has dependent sources,

we turn off all independent sources.

Dependent sources are not turned off
because they are controlled by circuit
variables. We apply a known voltage source
(say, 1 V) at terminals a-b and determine
/ as
the resulting current . Then
shown.

Alternatively, we may insert a known current

source
(say, 1 A) at terminals a-b as
and
shown and find the terminal voltage
/ .

11-Aug-14

179

179

11-Aug-14

How to

11-Aug-14

180

180

11-Aug-14

Use of Thevenin Equivalent Circuit

Consider a linear circuit terminated by a load

as shown.

The current

through the load and the

across the load are easily
voltage
determined once the Thevenin equivalent
circuit at the loads terminals is obtained as
follows:

,
11-Aug-14

181

181

11-Aug-14

Example 5
Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the
i.e. to
following circuit seem by the load
the left of the terminals a-b. Find
for
6 and 26 .

11-Aug-14

182

182

11-Aug-14

To find
, remove the load. Turn off the 32-V
voltage source (replacing it with a short circuit)
and the 2-A current source (replacing it with an
open circuit). The circuit becomes

Thus,
4||12

11-Aug-14

1-183

183

11-Aug-14

To find
, consider the circuit as shown.
Note that no current flows through the 1
resistor (since the load is removed).

We can use mesh analysis to find

Mesh 1: 32 4
12
0
2 A
0.5 A
Mesh 2:
12
12 0.5
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30 V
184

184

11-Aug-14

The Thevenin equivalent circuit is as shown.

The current through

is

For

6,

3 .

For

26,

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1 .
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185

11-Aug-14

Example 6
Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit as
shown in the terminals a-b.

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186

186

11-Aug-14

The circuit contains a dependent voltage

source. To find
, set the independent
current source equal to zero but leave the
dependent voltage source alone. Furthermore,
we excite the circuit with a voltage source
1 V across the terminals a-b as shown.

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187

11-Aug-14

The aim is to find the current

terminals a-b and then obtain

through the
/ .

Applying mesh analysis to the circuit:

2
0 or
Mesh 1: 2
But
4

Mesh 2: 4
Mesh 3: 6
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6
2

3
0

0
188

188

11-Aug-14

These equations can be written as follows:

3
0
12
6
0
2
8
1
6
But, we only need to solve for
solving it gives

Hence,
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and

6.
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189

11-Aug-14

To get

, we find

in the circuit as shown.

Note that no current flows through the 2

resistor on the right (with load removed).
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190

190

11-Aug-14

Applying mesh analysis:

5 A
Mesh 1:
2
Mesh 2: 4
Mesh 3:
But

2
4

From (1) (3), we get

2
12
3
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(1)
0 (2)

0 ,
.

(3)

20
20
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191

11-Aug-14

Solving for
from the equations gives
A. Note that we only need
as
6 .
Hence,
6
20 V.
The Thevenin equivalent circuit is as shown.

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192

192

11-Aug-14

Nortons Theorem
Nortons theorem states that a linear

two-terminal circuit can be replaced by

an equivalent circuit consisting of a
current source
in parallel with a
resistor , where
is the short-circuit
current through the terminals and
is
the input or equivalent resistance at the
terminals when the independent
sources are turned off

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193

11-Aug-14

Nortons Theorem

2(a) Original circuit

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2(b) Norton equivalent

circuit

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194

11-Aug-14

How to Find

and R ?

We find

in the same way as we find

.
Note that by using source transformation, the
Thevenin and Norton resistances are equal
i.e.
.
To find the Norton current
, we determine
the short-circuit current flowing from terminal
a to b in Figs. 2(a) and 2(b).
From Fig. 2(b), the short-circuit current is ,
which is equal to the short-circuit current
from terminal a to b in Fig. 2(a).

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195

11-Aug-14

How to Find
Thus,

and R ?

as shown.

Dependent and independent sources

are treated the same way as in

Thevenins Theorem.

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196

11-Aug-14

Thevenin vs Norton Equivalent

The Thevenin and Norton equivalent

circuits are related

transformation.

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by

source

,
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197

11-Aug-14

Example 7
Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the
circuit as shown at the terminals a-b.

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198

11-Aug-14

We may find
the same way as we find
in the Thevenin equivalent circuit. Setting the
independent sources to zero leads to the
following circuit:

5
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5 20

4
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199

11-Aug-14

To find
shown.

, we short circuit terminals a and b as

The 5 resistor can be ignored because it has

been short-circuited. Applying mesh analysis:
2 A
Mesh 1:
8 8
0,
Mesh 2:
12 4
1
1

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200

200

11-Aug-14

The Nortons equivalent circuit is as shown.

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201

11-Aug-14

Open-circuit and Short-circuit Tests

The open-circuit and short-circuit tests

are sufficient to find any Thevenin or

Norton equivalent circuit of a given
circuit which contains at least one
independent source.

We have

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202

11-Aug-14

Example 8
Use the open-circuit and short-circuit
tests to find the Thevenin equivalent
circuit of the following circuit across
terminals a-b.

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203

11-Aug-14

Open-circuit Test
Find
as the open-circuit voltage
terminals a and b as shown.

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across

204

204

11-Aug-14

Applying mesh analysis:

5 A
Mesh 1:
2
Mesh 2: 4
2
Mesh 3: 2
But
4
From (1) (3), we obtain
12
2
3
Solving for gives
6 . Hence,
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6
0

(1)
(2)
(3)

20
20
A . We only need
6
20 V.

as

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11-Aug-14

Short-circuit Test
To find
shown.

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, we short circuit terminals a and b as

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11-Aug-14

The supernode contains the top two nodes, the

dependent source and the 2 resistor as shown.
At the supernode, applying KCL gives
(1)

The constraint equation is

2
Solving for

from (1) and (2) gives

V and

Thus,
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(2)
A.

6 .
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207

11-Aug-14

The Thevenin equivalent circuit is as shown:

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208

208

11-Aug-14

Maximum Power Transfer

Often we deal with small amount of

power in electronics and we want to

make full use of the power available.
Obtaining the maximum power out of a
circuit is very important.
The Thevenin equivalent circuit is useful
in finding the maximum power a linear
circuit can deliver to a load.
We assume that we can adjust the load
resistance .
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209

11-Aug-14

Condition for Maximum Power Transfer

Suppose

that the entire circuit is

replaced by its Thevenin equivalent
circuit except for the load as shown.

The power delivered to the load is

(1)
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210

210

11-Aug-14

Condition for Maximum Power Transfer

For a given circuit,

and
are
fixed. By varying the load resistance ,
the power delivered to the load varies
as shown.

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211

211

11-Aug-14

Condition for Maximum Power Transfer

Differentiate
in (1) w.r.t.
differentiation result to zero gives

and set the

This yields
(2)
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212

11-Aug-14

Maximum Power Transfer

The maximum power delivered by a source to

the load
occurs when
is equal to
i.e.
the Thevenin resistance at the terminals of the
load.
Using (2) in (1) yields the maximum power
transferred (for
:

When

, the power delivered to the load

is given by (1). i.e.,

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213

213

11-Aug-14

Example 9
Find the value of
for maximum power
transfer and the maximum power in the
following circuit.

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214

11-Aug-14

Using the techniques of finding the Thevenin

resistance and the Thevenin voltage, we find
9 and
22 V (exercise).
that
For maximum power transfer,
and the maximum power is

13.44 W

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215

11-Aug-14

Outline
1. Introduction
2. Basic Concepts
3. Basic Laws
4. Methods of Analysis
5. Circuit Theorems
6. Operational Amplifiers
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216

11-Aug-14

Operational Amplifiers (Op-amps)

Operational amplifiers are commonly used in

a large variety of electronic applications (ac

and dc signal amplification, active filters,
oscillators, comparators and regulators).
An op-amp is an active element of an electric
circuit.
It acts like a voltage controlled voltage
source.
Our focus is on the terminal behavior of the
op-amp i.e. we are not interested in the
internal structure of the op-amp nor the
currents and voltages that exist in this
structure.
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217

11-Aug-14

Operational Amplifiers (Op-amps)

Op-amps are commercially available in

IC packages in several forms. The

following figure shows a typical op-amp
package which is an eight-pin dual inline package (DIP) as shown.

Op-amp package
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Pin configuration
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218

11-Aug-14

Pin Configuration of an Op-amp

Pin or terminal 8 is unused and terminals

1 and 5 are of little concern to us.

The 5 important terminals are:

The inverting input, pin 2.
The non-inverting input, pin 3.
The output, pin 6.
The positive power supply V+, pin 7.
The negative power supply V, pin 4.
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219

11-Aug-14

Circuit Symbol of an Op-amp

The circuit symbol commonly used for

an op-amp is as shown.

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220

220

11-Aug-14

Circuit Symbol of an Op-amp

The op-amp has two inputs and one

output.
The inputs are marked with minus ()
and plus (+) to specify inverting and
non-inverting inputs respectively.
An input applied to the non-inverting
terminal will appear with the same
polarity at the output while an input
applied to the inverting terminal will
appear inverted at the output.
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221

221

11-Aug-14

Operation of an Op-amp
The op-amp is typically powered by a

voltage supply as shown.

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222

222

11-Aug-14

Operation of an Op-amp
The power supplies are often ignored in

an op-amp circuit diagram for the sake

of simplicity. However, note that
.

The output voltage is limited by the

values of the voltage sources i.e.

.

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223

11-Aug-14

Ideal Op-amps
To

facilitate the understanding and

analysis of op-amp circuits, we consider
only ideal op amps.

An ideal op-amp is an amplifier with

infinite open-loop gain, infinite input

resistance and zero output resistance,
i.e., it has the following characteristics:
Infinite

open-loop gain,
Infinite input resistance,
Zero output resistance,
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.
.
0.
224

224

11-Aug-14

Ideal Op-amps
Because an op-amp has a very high open-

loop voltage gain, , negative feedback is

usually considered to control the output
voltage and to limit the voltage gain.
A negative feedback is achieved when the
output is fed back to the inverting terminal
of the op-amp as shown.
The voltage gain of the op-amp with
negative feedback is called closed-loop
gain.
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225

225

11-Aug-14

Analysis of the Ideal Op-amp

For circuit analysis, the ideal op-amp is as
shown.

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226

11-Aug-14

Characteristics of the Ideal Op-amp

Two important characteristics of the ideal op-amp:
The currents into both the input terminals are zero, i.e.
0,
0. This is due to the infinite input resistance.
This implies that there is an open circuit between the
input terminals and current cannot enter the op amp.
But, the output current is not necessarily zero, according
to
.
The voltage across the input terminals is equal to zero,
0
.
i.e.

0 &
0 and (2)
are extremely important and should be
regarded as the key information to analyzing opamp circuits.

These two equations: (1)

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227

227

11-Aug-14

Example 1
For the following circuit, find the voltage
gain / .

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228

228

11-Aug-14

The non-inverting input is grounded,

is connected to the inverting input

through
and the feedback resistor
is connected between the inverting
input and output.
Applying KCL to node 1:

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229

229

11-Aug-14

But,
0 for an ideal op-amp since
the non-inverting terminal is grounded.
Hence,

The circuit is an inverting amplifier which

reverses the polarity of the input signal
while amplifying it.
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230

230

11-Aug-14

Example 2
For the following circuit, find the voltage
gain / .

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231

11-Aug-14

The input voltage

is applied directly at
the non-inverting input terminal and
is connected between the
resistor
ground and the inverting terminal.
Applying KCL to the inverting terminal
gives
0 0

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0
232

232

11-Aug-14

But,

Thus, the equation becomes

0,

The circuit is known as a non-inverting

amplifier. It is designed to provide a
positive voltage gain.

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233

233

11-Aug-14

Example 3
For the ideal op-amp circuit as shown,
calculate the closed-loop gain / . Find
when
1 V.

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234

234

11-Aug-14

The figure is redrawn as shown.

.
Note that
0, the 40 k and 5 k resistors are in
Since
series, the same current flows through them.
is the voltage across the 5 k resistor,
Since
using the voltage division principle,
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235

235

11-Aug-14

But,
Since

for an ideal op-amp.

, we have

At node 0 at the output,

Substituting for
gives

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mA

9
0.2

(as

0.45

1 V )
0.65 mA
236

236