SESSION I

RESEARCH
PROBLEM
IDENTIFICATION

R K JAIN
PRINCIPAL
ADIT, NEW V V NAGAR

ADIT 24.04.2009 1
BASIC STEP OF RESEARCH WORK
1. Read , read, read
and read
To know what is
going on not only
around you but
around whole
world

(Do not try to

reinvent the wheel)

ADIT 24.04.2009 2
 O
2. Classify the
T
reading and
priorities as H
per your E
interest and R
capabilities W
I
S
E

ADIT 24.04.2009 3
3. Write down salient
points you have
read as work done
4. Note down
research need
stated by the
researcher if any
5. Discuss with the
people in that field

ADIT 24.04.2009 4
6. Judge them against
infrastructure
facility available
and time frame
available with you

ADIT 24.04.2009 5
 ASK FOLLOWING QUESTIONS
What is to be done?
Why it is to be done?
How it is to be done?
Who will be beneficiary?
When he will be beneficiary?

If all answer are as per your satisfaction then

Result: Identification of research problem

If not, go to step 1 i.e. Read, read , read and read

ADIT 24.04.2009 6
 If you can identify the research problem
MAKE HYPOTHESIS

DON’T JUST AIM, EXECUTE ACTION !!!!!!!

ADIT 24.04.2009 7
 SESSION II
RESEARCH DESIGN:
A METHODOLOGICAL BACKGROUND FOR SCIENTIFIC WORK

By
Dr. Jitesh Thakkar

All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often

better than overconfidence, for it leads to
inquiry, and inquiry leads to invention!
 Outline
• What is research?
• What are the components of research design?
– Research Milestones
• Milestone 1: Research problem formulation
• Milestone 2: Literature review
• Milestone 3: Research methodology
• Milestone 4: Data collection
• Milestone 5: Data analysis and interpretation
 Faculty Characteristics
Quick Starters Unsuccessful
 Seek social  Confused about
support / advice expectations

 Exemplary teachers  Feel socially isolated

 Scholarly work only
 positive attitude
verbal priority, low
towards students
actual time
 less time  Defensive teachers
preparing for class
 lecture only
 more time
 content focus
on scholarly work
 avoid bad
 complain less evaluations 10
 Research… Introduction
Refers to search for knowledge

Systematic search for information on specific

topic

Art of scientific investigation

Movement from know to the unknown

Method which man employs for obtaining the

knowledge of unknown

Academic Activity : used in the technical sense

 What research is not
1. Research is not information gathering from
books or journals
(No contribution to new knowledge)

2. Research isn’t the transportation of the facts

3. Research is not merely rummaging for

information

4. Research is not a catch word used to get

attention.
 Why we undertake research
i) as a part of degree ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,Qualification

ii) solving an unsolved problem take as challenge

iii) Intellectual /creative work ………...joy of doing it.

iv) service/useful to society

v) get recognition & respectability

vi) directives of govt., employment conditions, social thinking etc.

 Objectives of Research
Main aim is to find truth which has not been discovered yet.

- To gain familiarity with the phenomenon – Exploratory or

Formulative research studies

- To portray accurately the characteristics of an individual or

group - Descriptive Research Studies

- To determine the frequency with which something occur -

Diagnostic Research Studies.

- To test relationship between variables – Hypothesis testing

research.
 Characteristics contd.
Collection and interpretation of data
- Primary data – Collected afresh for the first time
(Original Data)
- Secondary data – already collected by someone else
(Compilation)

Primary data is collected by

- Observations
- Interviews
- Questionnaires
- Schedules
- Discussions
- Projective Techniques

Secondary data is collected by :

- Publications, Books, Journals, Newspapers,
Records, Reports prepared by other research scholars.
 Good research results require a careful
design of the research methodology and
considerable evaluation efforts
 Basic Research Designs Compared

EXPLORATORY DESCRIPTIVE CAUSAL

Objectives Gather background Describe and measure Establish causality, develop

information, define terms, marketing phenomena, “if-then” statements
clarify problems and characteristics, or
hypotheses, establish functions of interest.
research priorities.
Characteristics Relatively simple, Prior formulation of Manipulation of one or more
versatile and flexible; specific hypotheses; independent variables;
Often the first phase of a Pre-planned and Pre-planned and structured
multiple research design, structured design. design;
unstructured. Control of other mediating
variables
Methods Secondary data analysis Secondary data Experiments:
Qualitative research analysis Laboratory
Expert surveys Surveys Field
Pilot surveys Panels Test marketing
Observational and
. other data
Results/Findings Tentative Conclusive Conclusive

17
 Design research process

knowledge
flows + operation and goal knowledge

circumscription
process
steps
Awareness of
Suggestion Development Evaluation Conclusion
problem

logical
formalism
abduction deduction

[Takeda,1990]
Research Paradigm
Research Process
 Research Process
1. Formulating a research problem
2. Research design: It includes selection of research approach, design of
sampling plan, design of experiment and design of questionnaire.
3. Constructing an instrument for data collection: Methods and tools of data
collection.
4. Selecting a sample: Sampling theory and designs
5. Writing a research proposal: It includes Problem definition, objectives,
methodology, data and data sources and scope of the study
6. Collecting data from various sources: Primary data and secondary data
7. Data Analysis: Data processing using different statistical methods
8. Interpretation of results: by inferring the solutions
9. Validation of results: to ensure the credibility of the results.
10.Writing a research report
Milestone 1: Stating the Research
Problem
 Stating the Research Problem
• Once you’ve identified a research problem:
– State that problem clearly and completely.
– Determine the feasibility of the research.
• Identify subproblems:
– Completely researchable units.
– Small in number.
– Add up to the total problem.
– Must be clearly tied to the interpretation of the
data.
Defining the Research Problem
1. There must be some objectives to be attained at. If one
wants nothing, one cannot have problem.
2. There must be alternative means (or the courses of
action) for obtaining the objective(s) one wishes to
attain. There must be at least two means available to a
researcher for if he has no choice of means, he cannot
have a problem.
3. There must remain some doubt in the mind of a
researcher with regard to the selection of alternatives
(efficiency of the possible alternatives).
 Research Problem: An Illustration

Why is productivity in Japan so much higher

than in India?

What ambiguities do you observe?

 Ambiguities Involved
• What sort of productivity is being
referred to?
• With what industries the same is related?
• With what period of time the
productivity is being talked about?
 Research Problem Reframed

What factors were responsible for the higher labour

productivity Japan’s manufacturing industries
during the decade 1971 to 1980 relative to India’s
manufacturing industries?
Milestone 2: Literature
Review
 Literature Review

• The available literature is reviewed to

determine if there is already a solution to the
problem.
– Existing solutions do not always explain
new observations.
– The existing solution might require some
revision or even be discarded.
 LITERATURE CLASSIFICATION
• EMERGING TRENDS AND ISSUES
• USE OF METHODOLOGIES/ APPROACHES
• NO. OF ARTICLES
• THRUST AREAS
• POSITIONING OF A PARTICULAR ISSUE IN
THE PRESENT BODY OF KNOWLEDGE
 Suggest Hypotheses

• The researcher generates intermediate

hypotheses to describe a solution to the
problem.
–This is at best a temporary solution
since there is as yet no evidence to
support either the acceptance or
rejection of these hypotheses.
 What is a Hypothesis?

• A hypothesis is a
claim (assumption) I claim the mean CGPA of this

about the population

class is 7.5!

parameter
– Examples of parameters
are population mean
or proportion
– The parameter must
be identified before
analysis
 Types of Hypotheses
• Descriptive hypotheses: Typically state the existence, size, form or
distribution of some variable. For example, “American cities (case) are
experiencing budget difficulties (variables)”
• Relational hypotheses: Describes a relationship between two variables with
respect to some case. For example, “Foreign (variable) cars are perceived by
American consumers (case) to be of better quality (variable) than domestic
cars” – Dictates relationship between “country of origin” and “perceived
quality”
• Correlational hypothesis: state merely that the variables occur together in
some specified manner without implying that one causes the other. For
example, “Young machinist are less productive than those who are 35 years of
age or older”
• Explanatory (causal) hypothesis: there is an implication that the existence of,
or a change in, one variable causes or leads to a change in the other variable”
– relationship between dependent and independent variables. For example,
“An increase in family income (IV) leads to an increase in the percentage of
income saved (DV)”.
Milestone 3: Selecting Research
Methodology
 Research Methodology
• Methodology is not just method.
• Methodology is the philosophical basis for
methods
• Methodologies are high-level approaches
to conducting research.
–The individual steps within the
methodology might vary based on the
research being performed.
 Types of Research Methodologies
Two commonly used Methodologies
- Qualitative
- Quantitative
Qualitative means collection of extensive narrative data leading to verbal
synthesis
- Historical research (study of past events)
- Case study research (study of current events over an extended period
of time)
Quantitative means collection of numerical data leading to statistical
collection
- Descriptive (Collecting numerical data to test hypothesis)
- Co-relational (determine whether and to what degree a relationship
exists between two or more quantifiable variables)
- Causal Comparative Research (establish cause effect relationship
among the variables involves group comparisons)
- Experimental Research (establish cause effect relationship in case of
experimental research – the cause is under control of experimenter
 Research Methodology
1. Exploratory Research: A study is undertaken to explore an area
where little is known or to investigate the possibilities of
undertaken a particular research study.
Different types of exploratory research are:
• Literature survey- collection of literature in the related area.
• Experience survey- survey of experiences of experts/specialists
in a particular field.
• Study of problems to have an insight – case study of related
topics
2. Explanatory research: attempts to clarify why and how these is
a relationship between two aspects of situation or
phenomenon.
 Research Methodology (Contd.)
3. Conclusive research: tests the hypothesis of a research
problem formulates by exploratory research and draws
definite conclusion (conclusions) for implementation. This
types of research is classified as:
a) Descriptive Research: tries to discover answers to the
questions who, what, when, where and sometimes, how. This
studies may or may not have the potential for drawing
powerful inferences. It is popular in business studies because
of its versatility across disciplines.
b) Experimental Research: used to study the effect of a set of
factors on the response variable of system of study.
 Research Methodology (Contd.)
4. Modeling Research
• This type of research includes the formulation of different
models of real life problems. eg.
(i) Mathematical model: mainly operations research models
aimed to solved complex real –life problems. eg:- Linear
programming models, transportation models, inventory models,
replacement models, goal programming models etc. This type
of research is mainly aimed to the development of improved
methods to obtain the results of complex problem.
(ii) Simulation model: Simulation is an experiment conducted over
a real-life stochastic system in a scaled time frame to extract as
many average operational statistics as possible to formulate
respective decision guide lines.
Milestone 4: Acquiring
Data
 Acquire Data
• The researcher now begins to gather data relating to
the research problem.
– The means of data acquisition will often change
based on the type of the research problem.
– This might entail only data gathering, but it could
also require the creation of new measurement
instruments.
 DATA

• Data are source of information or

observation in a research.

• The type of data depend on research

purposes and the academic discipline of
the researcher.
 TYPES OF DATA
• Primary Data
– Original
– Obtained by researcher from field observations,
interviews, questionnaires, etc.

• Secondary Data
– Not original
– Use of already published material such as government
reports, tables, work of other researcher.
 Levels of Data Measurement

• Nominal — Lowest level of

measurement

44
• Ordinal
• Interval
• Ratio — Highest level of measurement
Usage Potential of Various Levels of Data

Ratio

45
Interval
Ordinal

Nominal
 Data Level, Operations,
and Statistical Methods
Data Statistical
Meaningful Operations
Level Methods

46
Nominal Classifying and Counting Nonparametric

Ordinal All of the above plus Ranking Nonparametric

Interval All of the above plus Addition, Parametric

Subtraction, Multiplication,
and Division

Ratio All of the above Parametric

 SAMPLE
• The manner in which the sample is drawn
determines to what extent we can generalise
from the findings.
• Sample to be an accurate representation of the
whole population.
• IF NOT than the research is limited to the
sample studied.
Types of sampling
procedures
 Random Versus Nonrandom Sampling
• Random sampling
• Every unit of the population has the same probability of being
included in the sample.
• A chance mechanism is used in the selection process.
• Eliminates bias in the selection process
• Also known as probability sampling
• Nonrandom Sampling
• Every unit of the population does not have the same
probability of being included in the sample.
• Open the selection bias
• Not appropriate data collection methods for most statistical
methods
• Also known as nonprobability sampling
 Non-random sampling
• Provides a weak bases of generalization
• Accidental sampling – using what is immediately
available. The researcher does not know in what way
the data is biased. Study limited to those studied.
• Accidental quota sampling – having a set quota for
each characteristic or group.
• Purposive sampling- using own judgment and
intuition select the sample.
 Random sampling procedure
• Assure that sample drawn is representative of
population.
• Simple random sampling - the ideal method of
drawing samples.
• Systematic sampling – selection of every nth
case in a list.
• Stratified random sampling – similar to quota
sampling.
• Cluster Sampling – several stages of random
selections. Population is divided into
segments.
 Simple Random Sample
• Number each frame unit from 1 to N.
• Use a random number table or a random
number generator to select n distinct
numbers between 1 and N, inclusively.
• Easier to perform for small populations
• Cumbersome for large populations
 Errors
u Data from nonrandom samples are not appropriate for analysis by inferential
statistical methods.

u Sampling Error occurs when the sample is not representative of the

population

u Non-sampling Errors

• Missing Data, Recording, Data Entry, and Analysis Errors

• Poorly conceived concepts , unclear definitions, and defective

questionnaires

• Response errors occur when people so not know, will not say, or
overstate in their answers
Sampling Distribution of
x
Proper analysis and interpretation of a
sample statistic requires knowledge of its
distribution.

Calculate x
to estimate 
Population Sample
 Process of x
Inferential Statistics
(parameter ) (statistic)

Select a
random sample
 Two Basic Rules about Sample Size
1. About thirty (30) individuals are required in
order to provide a pool large enough for
even simple kinds of analysis.

2. You need a sample large enough to ensure

that it is theoretically possible to each cell in
your analytical table to have five cases fall in
it.
 Central Limit Theorem

If a large number (typically n30) of units are

drawn by from a population (with any
probability distribution), then the
sampling(probability) distribution of the
sample mean can be approximated by a
normal distribution, i.e.
 2
X  N ( , )
n
 Sample size
• Homogenous – can have a small sample
• Highly variable consider
– Statistics
– Reflection of total population
– More questions more controls
therefore the larger the sample
• Larger the sample the more accurate.
 Distribution of Sample Means
for Various Sample Sizes
Exponential n=2 n=5 n = 30
Population

Uniform n=2 n=5 n = 30

Population
 Distribution of Sample Means
for Various Sample Sizes
U Shaped n=2 n=5 n = 30
Population

Normal
Population n=2 n=5 n = 30
 Milestone 5:
Data Analysis & Interpretation
 Data Analysis
• The data that were gathered in the previous
step are analyzed as a first step in ascertaining
their meaning.
• As before, the analysis of the data does not
constitute research.
– This is basic number crunching.
 General Steps in Hypothesis Testing
e.g.: Test the assumption that the true mean number of TV
sets in U.S. homes is three ( Known) 

1. State the H0 H0 :   3
2. State the H1 H1 :   3
3. Choose   =.05
4. Choose n n  100
5. Choose Test Z test
 General Steps in Hypothesis Testing
(continued)
6. Set up critical value(s) Reject H0

Z
-1.645
100 households surveyed
7. Collect data Computed test stat =-2,
p-value = .0228
8. Compute test statistic
and p-value Reject null hypothesis
The true mean number of TV sets is
9. Make statistical decision less than 3
10. Express conclusion
 Parametric vs Nonparametric Statistics

• Parametric Statistics are statistical techniques

based on assumptions about the population
from which the sample data are collected.
– Assumption that data being analyzed are randomly
selected from a normally distributed population.
– Requires quantitative measurement that yield interval or
ratio level data.

• Nonparametric Statistics are based on fewer

assumptions about the population and the
parameters.
– Sometimes called “distribution-free” statistics.
– A variety of nonparametric statistics are available for use
with nominal or ordinal data.
 Parametric / non-parametric tests
Parametric tests Non-parametric tests
• T-test Mann-Whiney test
• Z-test Wilcoxon Matched-
• Chi-square test Kruskal-Wallis Test
Friedman Test
 Data Interpretation
• The researcher interprets the newly analyzed
data and suggests a conclusion.
– This can be difficult.
– Keep in mind that data analysis that
suggests a correlation between two
variables can’t automatically be
interpreted as suggesting causality
between those variables.
 SESSION III
Managing R&D projects

Prof. Jagdish Hirani

67
 R&D
• The phrase research and development
(also R and D or, more often, R&D),
according to the Organization for
Economic Co-operation and
Development, refers to :
– "creative work undertaken on a systematic basis in
order to increase the stock of knowledge, including
knowledge of man, culture and society, and the use
of this stock of knowledge to devise new
applications”

68 Prof. Jagdish Hirani

 Technology & R&D

technology is ……..
the application of scientific and other knowledge to practical tasks by
organizations that involve people and machines.

There are 3 important aspects to this definition:

• Technology is about taking action to meet a human need rather
than merely understanding the workings of the natural world, which
is the goal of science
• It uses much more than scientific knowledge and includes values
as much as facts, practical craft knowledge as much as
theoretical knowledge.
• It involves organized ways of doing things. It covers the intended
and unintended interactions between products (machines,
devices, artifacts) and the people and systems who make them, use
them or are affected by them through various processes.”

69 Prof. Jagdish Hirani

 Are other options more attractive
than R&D ?market Gregory (1995)
partners

Exploitation
technology Patents etc

e.g. product
plans Protection
Acquisition
e.g. strategy
e.g. R&D
practice
partners internal

e.g. product R&D, learning

plans &
strategy

Selection Identification

capabilities customers
Science base
70
competitors Prof. Jagdish Hirani
 How to plan
Goals
Plan
Resources

Direction
Actions

Values
Competences
Objectives

71 Prof. Jagdish Hirani

 R&D management practices in
Indian organizations
• Ad-hoc systems are used for R&D project management
• Use of effective planning and control techniques is
missing
• Comprehensive systems for feedback are found but
these systems provide reactive control.
• Cost is considered most important criterion for public
organization and time is considered most important for
private organizations.
• No data capture for effective monitoring and control.

72 Prof. Jagdish Hirani

 PERT: one of the techniques
• Program evaluation and review technique
(PERT) is a management tool which has
been the subject of criticism when used
in research and development (R&D)
projects

73 Prof. Jagdish Hirani

 PERT
PERT is a method to analyze the involved tasks in completing
a given project, especially the time needed to complete each
task, and identifying the minimum time needed to complete
the total project.
PERT was developed primarily to simplify the planning and
scheduling of large and complex projects. It was able to
incorporate uncertainty by making it possible to schedule a
project while not knowing precisely the details and durations
of all the activities.
It is more of an event-oriented technique rather than start-
and completion-oriented, and is used more in projects where
time, rather than cost, is the major factor.
It is applied to very large-scale, one-time, complex, non-
routine infrastructure and Research and Development
projects.

74 Prof. Jagdish Hirani

 PERT conventions
A PERT chart is a tool that facilitates decision making;
The first draft of a PERT chart will number its events
sequentially in 10s (10, 20, 30, etc.) to allow the later
insertion of additional events.
Two consecutive events in a PERT chart are linked by
activities, which are conventionally represented as
arrows in the diagram above.
The events are presented in a logical sequence and no
activity can commence until its immediately preceding
event is completed.
The planner decides which milestones should be PERT
events and also decides their “proper” sequence.
A PERT chart may have multiple pages with many sub-
tasks.
Pert is valuable to manage where multiple task are going
simultaneously to reduce the redundancy
75 Prof. Jagdish Hirani
 PERT terminology
 A PERT event: is a point that marks the start or completion of one or more tasks. It
consumes no time, and uses no resources. It marks the completion of one or more tasks,
and is not “reached” until all of the activities leading to that event have been completed.
 A predecessor event: an event (or events) that immediately precedes some other event
without any other events intervening. It may be the consequence of more than one
activity.
 A successor event: an event (or events) that immediately follows some other event
without any other events intervening. It may be the consequence of more than one
activity.
 A PERT activity: is the actual performance of a task. It consumes time, it requires
resources (such as labour, materials, space, machinery), and it can be understood as
representing the time, effort, and resources required to move from one event to another.
A PERT activity cannot be completed until the event preceding it has occurred.
 Optimistic time (O): the minimum possible time required to accomplish a task, assuming
everything proceeds better than is normally expected
 Pessimistic time (P): the maximum possible time required to accomplish a task, assuming
everything goes wrong (but excluding major catastrophes).
 Most likely time (M): the best estimate of the time required to accomplish a task,
assuming everything proceeds as normal.
 Expected time (TE): the best estimate of the time required to accomplish a task, assuming
everything proceeds as normal (the implication being that the expected time is the
average time the task would require if the task were repeated on a number of occasions
over an extended period of time).
TE = (O + 4M + P) ÷ 6

76 Prof. Jagdish Hirani

 PERT terminology
 Float or Slack is the amount of time that a task in a project network can be
delayed without causing a delay - Subsequent tasks – (free float) or Project
Completion – (total float)
 Critical Path: the longest possible continuous pathway taken from the
initial event to the terminal event. It determines the total calendar time
required for the project; and, therefore, any time delays along the critical
path will delay the reaching of the terminal event by at least the same
amount.
 Critical Activity: An activity that has total float equal to zero. Activity with
zero float does not mean it is on critical path.
 Lead time (rhymes with "feed", not "fed"): the time by which a predecessor
event must be completed in order to allow sufficient time for the activities
that must elapse before a specific PERT event is reached to be completed.
 Lag time: the earliest time by which a successor event can follow a specific
PERT event.
 Slack: the slack of an event is a measure of the excess time and resources
available in achieving this event. Positive slack(+) would indicate ahead of
schedule; negative slack would indicate behind schedule; and zero slack
would indicate on schedule.
 Fast tracking: performing more critical activities in parallel
 Crashing critical path: Shortening duration of critical activities

77 Prof. Jagdish Hirani

 Pert approach with innovation
• I had opportunity of applying PERT for
managing research and development
(R&D) project in applied research.(
during 1977 -1980)
• I had added logic gate symbols from
electronics in preparing PERT chart for
R&D project

78 Prof. Jagdish Hirani

 Benefits
• With PERT application to R&D Project had
helped to envisage all uncertainties in
advance and plan for time and resources
required for the same.

79 Prof. Jagdish Hirani

Protecting Intellectual Property

• Patents

• Copyright

• Embedding Technology

• None

Prof. Jagdish Hirani 80

Retaining Knowledge

• Important when developing new Technology to ensure that the

knowledge created is retained in the business.
• Knowledge can be lost because of:
 Lack of documentation

 Loss of personnel and hence expertise

Prof. Jagdish Hirani 81

 SESSION IV
RESEARCH APPROACHES
By
Dr. Jitesh Thakkar
 Outline
• Qualitative v/s Quantitative research approaches
• Comparative analysis of various research
approaches
• Parameters deciding quality of research
• Approach 1: Case study research
• Approach 2: Action research
• Approach 3: Survey research
• Approach 4: Experimental research
• Approach 5: Simulation research
 Research Design - First Thoughts
Focuses upon the planning of scientific
research. It is the development of a strategy
for finding out something

This involves the following:

 Purpose of Research
Exploratory, Descriptive, Explanatory
Explanatory: Nature of Relationships/Hypotheses
Association v/s Causation
 Specifying what you want to find out
 Determining the best way to proceed with finding out
 Choice of Research Design - Qualitative versus Quantitative
QUALITATIVE V/s QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH TRADITIONS
 Quantitative Approaches
Useful for factual information
Focus is upon variables
Reliability is a primary virtue
Tendency to be devoid of context
Many cases and subjects
Statistical Analysis
Detachment of researcher is more likely

Examples: Experimentation, Survey Research, Secondary

Research
 Qualitative Approaches
• Construct social reality, cultural meaning
• Focus is upon interactive processes, events
• Validity or Authenticity is a primary virtue
• Contextual circumstances prevail
• Few cases and subjects
• Thematic Analysis
• Immersion of researcher is more likely
• Examples: Biographies/Narratives, Case studies,
Grounded Theory, Historical-Comparative Research
 Comparison of Select Research Strategies
Case study research approach Rationalist research Analytical -
conceptual
 Focus is to investigate  Focus is to know “what” and  Conceptual
“why” “how” definitions.
 Ability to incorporate issues  Looks for statistical  Relationships
in a subjective manner which generalizability, validity, are usually
can further improve reliability and repeatability by developed
objectivity of results analyzing quantitative survey logically
 Intent is not to statistically data  Predictions
infer relationships but to  Does not guarantee objectivity come from
observe the processes and just by generating few mere logical analyses.
use logic to deduce or infer numbers which can not covey Empirical
relationship. anything evidence comes
 Addition of case is not  Involves two types of inference from case
equivalent to increasing the representation inference (about studies
sample size but rather to the target population) and
extending the experiment or relational inference (explain the
survey to another population relationship of one factor with
that may have different another)
parameters in some ways,  Availability of standard
but is similar in other ways procedures, testability
Parameters deciding Quality of
Research
 Reliability & Validity
• Researchers want their findings to reflect the truth

• Quantitative researchers use several criteria to assess

the quality of a study, and two the most important are
reliability and validity
 Reliability & Validity
• Reliability refers to the accuracy and consistency (the
property of holding together and retaining its shape) of
information

• The term is most often associated with the methods

used to measure research variables

• Ex. if a thermometer measured bob´s temperature as

98.1ºF one minute and as 102.5 ºF the next minute,
the reliability of the thermometer would be highly
suspect
 Reliability & Validity

• Statistical reliability refers to the probability that the

same results would be obtained with a completely new
sample of subjects that is the results are an accurate
reflection of a wider group than just the particular
people who participated in the study
 Reliability & Validity

• Validity is a more complex concept that broadly

concerns the soundness of the study´s evidence- that
is, whether the finding are cogent (powerfully
persuasive), convincing and well grounded

• Validity question is whether there is evidence to

support the assertion that the methods are really
measuring the abstract concepts that they purport to
measure
 Bias
• It can threaten the study´s validity
• Bias is an influence that produces a distortion (Any
undesired change in an signal between input and
the output) in the study results
• Bias can result from a number of factors
including:
– Study participants
– Subjectivity of the researcher
– Sample characteristics
– Faulty methods of data collection
– Faulty study design
 Bias
• Random bias: a handful of study participants
might fail to provide totally accurate information
as a result of extreme fatigue at the time the data
were collected
• Systematic bias: results when the bias is
consistent or uniform. E.g. If a scale consistently
measured people’s weights as being 2 ponds
heavier than their true weight, they would be
systemetic bias in the data on weight
 Generalizability

• Generalizability to assess the extent to which the

findings can be applied to other groups and settings

• Design study strong in reliability and validity

• The type of people to whom the results might be

generalized, select them nonbiased
 Research Control

• Holding constant other influences on the

dependent variable so that the true
relationship between the independent and
dependent variables can be understood

• Research control attempts to eliminate

contaminating factors that might cloud the
relationship between the varaibles that are of
central interest
 Triangulation
Triangulation is the collection of
information in many ways rather than
relying solely on one source. It is also
referred to as a "multi-instrument"
approach.
 Approach I
Case Study Research
 Case Research
• Case research methodology is just one of many
empirical approaches that aim to develop
understanding of “real world” events on its ability to
combine a variety of information sources including
documentation, interviews, and artifacts (e.g.,
technology or tools) by allowing the researcher to
exercise control over factors/parameters to be studied
(Yin, 2003).
• It could be divided into two categories – exploratory
case studies (focuses on theory development) and
explanatory case studies (focuses on hypothesis
testing).
 Approach 2:
ACTION RESEARCH
 Why Action Research?
• “Action” research is an approach that always
involves participants making or implementing
change, rather than just investigating an issue.
• Action “research” involves the participants making
informed decisions about what and how they are
going to implement change. Data is gathered to
support decisions made.
 Action research process

1. Identify an area of focus

2. Collect data
3. Analyze and interpret data
4. Develop an action plan
 Phases of Action Research
DIAGNOSING

Identifying or
Defining a Problem ACTION PLANNING

SPECIFYING Considering alternative

LEARNING courses of action
Identifying general
CLIENT SYSTEM
findings
INFRASTRUCTURE
Specification and agreement
that constitutes the research
environment

EVALUATING ACTION TAKING

Studying the outcomes Implementing

of an action a course of action
Approach 3: Survey Research
 Components of a survey method

• The survey design

• The population and sample
• The instrumentation
• Variables in the study
• Data analysis
 The instrumentation
• The instrument (tool)
– Existing
– New
• Rating scale
– Likert scale: Rating the Items. 1-to-5 rating scale where:
1. = strongly unfavorable to the concept
2. = somewhat unfavorable to the concept
3. = undecided
4. = somewhat favorable to the concept
5. = strongly favorable to the concept

• Pilot
• Administration
– Postal survey
– email
 Variables
• Something that varies

• Weight, anxiety level, income and body

temperature are all variables

• Quantitative research seek to understand how or

why things vary and to learn how differences in one
variable are related to differences in another
 Dependent versus independent variables
• Variability in the dependent variable is presumed to
depend on variability in the independent variable

• For example, researchers investigate the extent to

which lung cancer (the dependent variable) depends
on smoking (the independent variable)

• The terms independent variable and dependent

variable are used to indicate direction of influence
rather than causal link
 Relationship
• What is the direction of the relationship
between variables E.g. Are people who smoke
more likely or less likely to get lung cancer than
those who do not ?

• How strong is the relationship betwen variables

E.g. How powerful is the relationship between
smoking and lung cancer? How probable is it that
smokers will be lung cancer victims?
 Hypothesis Testing
• For example: hypothesis 1 : X is statistically
significantly related to Y.
– The relationship is positive (as X increases, Y
increases) or negative (as X decreases, Y increases).
– The magnitude of the relationship is small, medium,
or large.
If the magnitude is small, then a unit change in x is
associated with a small change in Y.
 Correlation & Regression
• Correlation: it is a measure of the strength of the
relationship between two variables.
• For example, a correlation might relate distance from
urban location to gasoline consumption. Expressed on a
scale from -1.0 to +1.0, the strongest correlations are at
both extremes and provide the best predictions.
• Regression: Answer ‘What is the relationship between
the variables?’
Regression is all about finding relationships
between two or more variables!!!
 GENERALIZING FROM THE MODEL

• Empirical research provides information about

relationships among scores obtained on a group of
cases at one point in time.

• Researchers usually are not particularly interested

in this relationship. They are usually more
interested in knowing how the relationship
generalizes beyond the specific situation studied.

• For example, does the relationship generalize to

other groups of cases, to other times, and to other
ways of assessing the relationship?
 Statistical Generalization…

An inference is made from an

empirical relationship
observed on a sample (d) to
the corresponding, but
unknown, empirical
relationship (D) in the
population.

Public opinion polls illustrate a well-

known use of statistical generalization
procedures.
Approach 4: Experimental
Research
 Experimental Design
• Improve a process by increasing
performance
• Establish Statistical control
• Factor: A variable that is changed, and
results observed
• Level: A value that is assigned to change
the factor
 Experimental Design (Contd.)
• Treatment condition (TC): The set of
conditions for a test in an experiment
• OA: Simplified method of putting together
the TC, so that design is balanced. Factors
can be analyzed singly/combination
• Interaction: Two or more factors produce
a result that is different than their
separate effect
 Experimental Design
• Full Factorial Design - the total no. of
experiments required to run all possible
combinations of all the levels for each of
the factors
• Fractional Factorial Design- a portion of
total combinations
 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
ONE FACTOR AT A TIME

Treatment Factors/ Levels Response

conditions

A B C D NF

1 1 1 1 1 1 y0
2 2 1 1 1 1 yA
3 1 2 1 1 1 yB
4 1 1 2 1 1 yC
5 1 1 1 2 1 yD
NTC 1 1 1 1 2 yNF
 Orthogonal Arrays
• If there are N options or factors, the full
optimization space contains 2N combinations.
• This space is called a full factorial design.
• A fractional factorial design is a subset of the full
factorial design.
• An Orthogonal Array (OA) or Taguchi design is a
well-known approach to fractional factorial designs.
An OA allows us to determine the effect of a factor
in the presence of other factors using a reduced
space.
 OA Selection Rules
Taguchi developed OAs to identify factors
influence without loss of accuracy.

For 2- levels
No. of factors OA
2 to 3 L4
4 to 7 L8
8 to 11 L12
12 to 15 L16
Selection Rules … contd..

For 3- levels

No. of factors OA
2 to 4 L9
5 to 7 L27
Approach 5: Simulation
 SUMMARY
• System Analysis
• Simulation
• Requirement of Simulation
• Models
• Simulation Languages
• Validation
• Common Mistakes
• Example
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 SYSTEM
• A part/process /entity under consideration

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 System

Experiment Experiment
with the with a model
actual system of the system

Mathematical Physical
model model

Analytical
SIMULATION
solution

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 SIMULATION
 Prediction of performance for given
Input
Reproduction of the conditions of a
situation.
The modeling of a process or system
in such a way that the model is able
to produce the response of the actual
system.
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 Requirement for Simulation
 Evaluate decisions before implementation
 Is less costly, time consuming, and disruptive than
experimenting on the actual system
 Save money
 Save time
 Save resources
 Avoid mistakes
 Optimize solutions
 Useful when the system is not available
 Good for exploring a large parameter space

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 Requirement for Simulation
Gives planners unlimited freedom to try out
different ideas for improvement, risk free,
with virtually no cost, no waste of time and
no disruption of the current system

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 IMPORTANCE OF SIMULATION
• Pre-requisite for optimal Design
• Off Design Performance Prediction
• Sensitivity Analysis
• Control Strategy can be developed

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 SIMULATION MODELS
 Continuous & Discrete
 Deterministic & Probabilistic
 Steady State & Dynamic

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 Static and Dynamic Models
• Static model: time is not a variable
– E.g., E = mc2

• Dynamic model: system state changes with

time
– CPU scheduling

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Continuous-time model Discrete-time model
• System state is defined at all • System state is defined only
times at instants in time
Number
Time of students
spent attending
executing this class
a job

Time
Time Tuesdays and
Thursdays

Continuous and Discrete-time Model

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Continuous-state model Discrete-state model
• Use continuous state • Use discrete state variables
variables
Time
spent Number
executing of jobs
a job

Time Time

Continuous and Discrete-state Model

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Deterministic model Probabilistic model
• Output of a model can be • Gives a different result for
predicted with certainty the same input parameters

output output

input input

Deterministic and Probabilistic Model

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Linear model Nonlinear model
• Output parameters are • Otherwise
linearly correlated with
input parameters

Linear and Nonlinear Models

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Stable model Unstable model
• Settles down to a steady • Otherwise
state

Stable and Unstable Models

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 Open and Closed Models

Open model Close model

• Input is external to the • No external input
model and is independent
of the model

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 SYSTEM SIMULATION
• Component Simulation
• Equation Fitting
– Mathematical (Physical insights Lead to
elaboration of model).
• Modeling
– Physical Insight, Differential equation. Knowledge
of process Science.

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 Selecting a Language for Simulation
• Simulation language
• General-purpose language
• Dedicated Softwares
Other Tools
• Algorithms
• Flow charts
• Information Flow Diagram (Component,
System)
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 Simulation Languages
• Have built-in facilities
– Time advancing
– Event scheduling
– Entity manipulation
– Random-variate generation
– Statistical data collection
– Report generation
• Examples: SIMULA, Maisie, ParSEC

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 General-purpose Languages
• C++
• Java
• Matlab
Advantages
• Versatile
• Easy to use
• Portable
• Potentially more efficient
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 Dedicated Softwares
• FEA based softwares , ANSYS etc
• CFD based software , FLUENT etc

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 Validation
• Trends
• Experimental Results
• Accuracy Levels

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 Common Mistakes
• Invalid Mathematical models
• Improper initial/Boundary conditions
• Short simulations (Less Iterations)
• Improper language/ Software

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 SESSION V
THESIS WRITING

By:
Dr. Bharat Ramani
 Contents…..
• Motivation/Inspiration…

• What is a thesis ???

• Organization/Structure of thesis…

• Common problems / mistakes…

• Check-list

• Typical shortcomings

• Conclusion…
 “The difference
between the right
word and the almost
right word is the
difference between
lightning and
lighting.”
 The Bad News
• Writing a thesis is
hard, painful work
– You’ve already done
the fun part (the
research)

• It’s unlike any other

document
– Thesis writing is not a
marketable skill
Why write a thesis?
• It’s the union card for
academia
– You all have to suffer
like we did!

• In the procces, you will

learn
– How to write
Shorter conference &
journal papers will be
easy!
Just count……
Just repeat
 What is a Thesis ?

A promise that you will follow through on

what you say.
A contract between you and your readers.
A commitment.
How true you are to that commitment
determines how effective your essay is.
 How long ??

The most essential gift for a good

writer is a built-in, shockproof shit
detector.
Ernest Hemingway

Your thesis will not be judged by weight

PhD thesis 70,000 to 100,000 words
Masters thesis 40,000 to 50,000 words
Honours thesis/treatise 20,000 to 35,000 words
Thesis examiners like it crisp and tight;
they don’t like windbags…………….
 Thesis includes…..
• Inner cover page
• Certificate
– Signed by supervisor (s)
– Begin numbering pages with this page as number (i)
• Acknowledgement (s)
• Abstract
* 150 words….
• Keywords
– Maximum six
• Table of contents
– Includes above items; Titles and subtitles of all chapters, references,
appendices, drawings, program listing, floppies /CD roms, etc….
• Nomenclature and Abbreviations
- In alphabetical order followed by Greek symbols,
superscripts, subscripts, underlined quantities, etc.
• Body of report:
• Chapter 1: Introduction or Background
• Chapter 2: Literature Review and statement of problem
Critical Observation
Problem formulation
• Chapter 3: Work done covering
 Analytical modeling
 Employment of software package(s)
 Other computational algorithms
 Equipment design / Experimental set up
 Simulation
 Experimental verification
and any other aspect of the work you decide to mention.
• Chapter…..
• Conclusions/concluding remarks and scope for future
work
• References/Appendix
 Rule of Three
• Within each chapter, repeat yourself 3
times
– Intro. We will show ..
– Body. Show them ..
– Concl. We have shown ..

• Within thesis, repeat your contributions 3

times
– Intro chapter
– Main chapters
– Conclusion chapter

• But don’t bore reader

– E.g. in introduction be brief, in
conclusions be broader
Common mistakes
• Informal text
– Examiners will jump on
imprecision
• Opinions
“.. The main problem in CP is
modelling ..”
– A thesis is an argument!
“.. A major bottleneck
preventing the uptake of CP
is modelling [Freuder, AAAI-
98]
 Common mistakes
• Complex sentences
full of long words
– A thesis should be a
simple, convincing
argument!

• Entertainment or
humour
– Joke footnote
 Common problems
• It’s never possible to
cover all issues
– So you will never
finish?
– It’s sometimes enough
to identify the issues
– Examiners greatly
appreciate finding a
few mistakes
Common problems

• Much of your thesis is

joint work
– Identify some work that is
yours alone
– Include a statement at the
start of your contributions:
– Linkage/connectivity
throughout the text.
 Common problems
• Ideas become obvious
to you
– You stop writing to a
sufficient level of detail
– Especially hurts the
opening chapters as
they are often written
last
 Common problems
• Writing too much
– There are rules about
maximum length
– But rarely rules about the
minimum

• Nash’s PhD thesis

– 27 pages long
– Won him a Nobel prize

Je n'ai fait celle-ci plus longue que parce que je n'ai pas eu le loisir de
la faire plus courte. Blaise Pascal, 1657
Common problems
• At some point, your
brain will surely
become toast
– Take a break
– Eat properly, exercise,
sleep …

• Toasted brain is only

temporary
– Just look at me?
 Conclusion

• Writing Thesis is an art.

• Make proper planning.

• Prepare review paper.

• Maintain regularity.

• Develop habit of self reading.

• Learn from your published paper.

• Discuss every point with guide.

• Keep focused – and keep it simple!

• Make sure you stick to your subject and don’t

wander off

• If there is something interesting that you want to

include, but which is of dubious relevance to the
subject – use footnotes or appendices
 HOW TO WRITE AND PUBLISH A
SCIENTIFIC PAPER?
by
Dr. Jitesh Thakkar

Research is not finished until

the results are published!

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 Outline
• Select misconceptions
• Scientific writing and components
• Research paper writing – Manuscript
preparation
• Manuscript submission
• Review process
• Addressing review comments
• Review frameworks
• Select learning
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 Why
bother?

Fallacy Good papers

we write papers and talks are a
and give talks fundamental part
mainly to impress
others, gain of research
recognition, and excellence
get promoted

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 I‟ll write when it‟s time to write

First year plan

Second year collect data

Third year this is when I

write

Then bask in glory

 Delaying Tactics
• I‟ll first read all the „how to write a thesis‟ material available
on the planet
• After that I‟ll read everything ever written about my topic
and make exhaustive notes
• Then I‟ll plan my data collection strategy
• By then some new publications will have come out and I‟ll
have to go back to the literature
• I‟ll go to a conference on „How to focus when writing a
thesis‟
• I‟ll check the literature again
• I‟ll do a biostatistics course and then a course on „Counter-
intuitive aspects of Access databases”
• What‟s the world‟s literature up to now?
• Wow, there‟s a course on „Looking after your inner child
whilst writing a thesis‟
• A new bunch of paper has just come out. Amazing.
 Do not be Frightened
Fallacy You need to have a fantastic idea before
you can write a paper. (Everyone else
seems to.)

Write a paper,
and give a talk, about

any idea,
no matter how weedy and insignificant it
may seem to you

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 Writing papers: model 1

Idea Do research Write paper

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 Writing papers: model 2

Idea Do research Write paper

Idea Write paper Do research

• Forces us to be clear, focused

• Crystallises what we don’t understand
• Opens the way to dialogue with others:
reality check, critique, and collaboration
4/25/2009 177
 Wisdom

• It is wise policy to begin writing the

paper while work is still in progress.
• The writing process itself is likely to
point to inconsistencies in the results
or perhaps to suggest interesting
sidelines that might be followed.

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 Organization of a Research Paper

Main sections…
Title • Introduction
• Method
• Participants
• Apparatus
Abstract • Procedure
• Design
• Results and Discussion
• Conclusions
Body

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 Paper Writing: Design
• Abstract –summarizes the research contributions, not
the paper (i.e., it shouldn’t be an outline of the paper)
• Introduction/motivation – what you’ve done and
why the reader should care, plus an outline of the paper
• Technical sections – one or more sections summarizing

180
the research ideas you’ve developed
• Experiments/results/analysis – one or more sections presenting
experimental results and/or supporting proofs
• Future work – summary of where you’re headed next and open
questions still to be answered
• Related work – sometimes comes after introduction, sometimes
before conclusions (depends to some extent on whether you’re
building on previous research, or dismissing it as irrelevant)
• Conclusions – reminder of what you’ve said and why it’s
important

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 What Is Scientific Writing?
“State your facts as simply as possible, even boldly. No one
wants flowers of eloquence or literary ornaments in a research
article” – R.B. McKerrow

English need not be difficult - The best English is that which

gives the sense in the fewest short words!

Confusion results from an amorphous task. The easy task is

the one in which you know exactly what must be done and in
exactly what order it must be done!

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 Before starting to write
• Put together structure of the paper:
– Title, authors, addresses, possibly key words, etc.
– Abstract
– 1. Introduction
– 2. Methods & Materials
– 3. Results
– 4. Discussion & Conclusions
– Acknowledgements
– References
• IMRaD is a typical structure (AIMRaDAR). In some cases
other structures may be more appropriate.
• Divide long sections into subsections
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 Logic of IMRAD:
What question (problem) was studied?
The answer is the Introduction.
How was the problem studied?
The answer is Methods.
What were the findings?
The answer is the Results.
What do these findings mean?
The answer is Discussion.

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 How To Prepare the Title
First impressions are strong impressions; a title
ought therefore to be well studied and to
give, so far as its limits permit, a definite and
concise indication of what is to come.

4/25/2009 184
 How to Prepare Title
• The title often decides if the paper is looked at by colleagues: So
many papers, so little time!
– I first check the title (and/or authors). If interesting I look at
the abstract. If I’m still interested I look at the figures and
only then do I read through the text.
• What is a good title? – The fewest possible words that
adequately describe the contents of the paper
• Avoid waste words - “Studies on”, “Investigation on”, and
“Observation on”.
• It should not promise too much.
• Tell the complete story but keep it short!
• Focus on YOUR study!
• Don’t be ambiguous…tell what you found!

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 4/25/2009
How to Prepare Title
• An opening A, An or The is also a “waste” word.
• Example: “Action of Antibiotics on Bacteria”
• It is short and carries no excess baggage
• Alternation 1: “Preliminary observations on the effect of certain
antibiotics on various species of Bacteria”
• Alteration 2: “Action of Streptomycin on Mycobacterium tuberculosis”
• If the “Action of” can be defined easily, the meaning might be clearer”
• Alteration 3: “Inhibition of Growth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis by
Streptomycin”.
• Most of the indexing and abstracting services are geared to “key word”
systems, generating either KWIC (Key Word In Context) or KWOC (Key
Word Out of Context).

186
 Authorship
• Who should be an author?
– Anyone who contributed significantly to the conceptual
development or writing of the paper
– Not necessarily people who provided feedback,

187
implemented code, or ran experiments
• What order should the authors be listed in?
– If some authors contributed more of the
conceptual development and/or did most/all of the writing, they
should be listed first
– If the contribution was equal or the authors worked as a team, the
authors should be listed in alphabetical order
– Sometimes the note “The authors are listed in alphabetical order”
is explicitly included

4/25/2009
 Authorship
• An example – Suppose that Scientist A designs a series of
experiments that might result in important new
knowledge, and then Scientist A tells Technicians B
exactly how to perform the experiments. If the
experiments work out and a manuscript results, Scientist
A should be the sole author, even though Technician B
did all the work. (Of course, the assistance of Technician
B should be recognized in the Acknowledgment).
• The preferred designation normally is first name,
middle initial, last name.

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 How to Prepare the Abstract
I have the strong impression that scientific
communication is being seriously
hindered by poor quality abstracts
written in jargon ridden mumbo-jumbo
– Sheila M. McNab

4/25/2009 189
 Questions an Abstract Answers
Why did you do this study or project?

What did you do, and how?

What did you find?

What do your findings mean?

If the paper is about a new method or
apparatus the last two questions might
be changed to:

What are the advantages (of the method or apparatus)?

How well does it work?
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 Rule of Thumb
1. Write 1-2 introduction sentences that explain topic,
purpose, and research question(s).
2. Write 1-2 sentences describing your research
methods (this may also include the type of data
analysis you used).
3. Write 1-2 sentences describing the results /
findings.
4. Write 1-2 sentences containing your conclusions
and recommendations.

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 “Don’ts”
Do not commence with "this paper…”,
"this report…" or similar.

Write about the research, not the paper.

Do not explain the sections or parts of the paper.

Avoid sentences that end in "…is described",

"…is reported", "…is analyzed" or similar.

Do not begin sentences with "it is suggested that…”

"it is believed that…", "it is felt that…"or similar.

Do not merely copy key sentences from your

paper: you'll put in too much or too
little information.

In every case, the four words can be omitted without

damaging the essential message.

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 Use of Key Words
Titles and abstracts are filed electronically

Judicious use of keywords may increase the

ease with which interested parties can locate
your study

4/25/2009 193
 How to Write Introduction
A bad beginning makes a bad ending - Euripides

4/25/2009 194
 How to Write Introduction
• If you do not have a clear purpose in mind, you might go
writing off in six directions at once!
• The Introduction should also provide the rationale for the
present study.
• Choose references carefully to provide the most important
background information.
• It should generally be written in the present tense, because you
will be referring primarily to your problem and the established
knowledge relating to it at the start of your work.
In the Introduction you should have a “hook” to gain the reader’s
attention. Why did you choose that subject, and why is it
important?

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 INTRODUCTION
The first paragraph is crucial for catching the attention of the
audience and for conveying to them the importance of the
questions that you have addressed in the paper.

If you don’t’ catch the attention of the audience in the first

few sentences the chances are high that they won’t
continue reading.

So, make the first sentence both snappy and profound.

For example,
“ Cell polarity plays a fundamental role in development. By
asymmetrically localizing determinants in a cells before
division, daughter cells can adopt different fates”

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The last paragraph of the Introduction should be a short
summary of what you set out to do and what you have
achieved.

e,g
“In this paper, we have studied the …… by using a
novel technique in which
……. This approach has allowed us to directly
compare A and B, and to
distinguish between alternative possibilities for their
functions. We
conclude that ….. and provide a model to reconcile
our findings and
those of others”
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 Rules of Thumb
1. The Introduction should present first, with all possible
clarity, the nature and scope of the problem
investigated.
2. It should review the pertinent literature to orient the
reader.
3. It should state the method of the investigation and
reasons for the choice of a particular method should
be stated.
4. It should state the principal results of the
investigation.
5. It should state the principal conclusion(s) suggested
by the results.
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 No related work yet
I feel
stupid
• Problem 1: the reader knows
nothing about the problem yet; so
your (carefully trimmed) description
of various technical tradeoffs is
absolutely incomprehensible
• Problem 2: describing alternative
approaches gets between the
reader and your idea I feel
tired

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 Caution
• Your introduction makes claims
• The body of the paper provides evidence to
support each claim
• Check each claim in the introduction,
identify the evidence, and forward-reference
it from the claim
• Evidence can be: analysis and comparison,
theorems, measurements, case studies

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 How to write Literature
Review?

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 Literature Review
• Motivation for literature searches:
– full grasp of subject (large picture)
– show originality of own work
– list of references for your own paper
– ideas for new research
• Every day more than 1000 papers are published in
electrical engineering, thus you must carefully select
what you read
• The amount of papers is doubled every ten years
• Literature review is a written summary of the state of the art in
your area (should be the second chapter in your doctoral thesis)
– a review is written for experts in the field (a tutorial is
written for students)
– papers collected in your files are not a review!
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 Writing a literature review

Topic 2 Topic 1 Topic 2 Topic 1 time

x x x x
Landmark papers

Classification Literature review

- classification
- topic 1
Topic 1 Topic 3
- topic 2
- topic 3
- historical notes
Topic 2

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 How to Write the Materials and
Methods Section
The greatest invention of the nineteenth
century was the invention of the method of
invention
- A.N. Whitehead

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How to Write the Materials and Methods Section
• The purpose is to describe the experimental design and then
provide enough detail so that a competent worker can repeat the
experiments.
• Use past tense.
• Critically important because the cornerstone of the scientific
method requires that your results, to be of scientific merit, must
be reproducible.
• If there is serious doubt that your experiments could be
repeated, the reviewer will recommend rejection of your
manuscript no matter how inspiring your results.
• Questions such as “how” and “how much” should be precisely
answered by the author and not left for the reviewer or the reader
to puzzle over.

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 Methods and Materials
• Rule of thumb:
– New method, new instrument, new type of
data  Describe in detail, since required
for reproducibility.
– Known method or instrument, previously
used and described in other paper(s) 
Often a reference is sufficient.
• Often a figure can illustrate & clarify the
method

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 How to Write the Results

The great tragedy of science – the slaying of

a beautiful hypothesis by an ugly fact. –
T.H. Huxley

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 How to Write Results
 Usually two ingredients of the Results section.
 First, you should give some kind of overall description of the
experiments, providing the “big picture”, without, however, repeating
the experimental details previously provided in Materials and
Methods.
 Second, you should present the data.
 Results should be presented in past tense.
 If statistics are used to describe the results, they should be meaningful
statics.
 Do not be verbose in citing figures and tables. For example, Do not say
“It is clearly shown in Table 1 that nocillin inhibited the growth of N.
gonorrhoeae”. Say “Nocilling inhibited the growth of N. gonorrhoeae
(Table 1)”
The compulsion to include everything, leaving nothing out, does not
prove that one has unlimited information; it proves that one lacks
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208
 Results
• Be concise! Pre-select the results (i.e. identify the
important and new results) before writing about them in
the results section.
Keep in mind:
The fool collects facts, the wise man selects
them!
(John W. Powell)
(don’t be too wise: first collect the facts, then select them)

• Avoid repetition! (yes, I know that I’m repeating this

statement, but this is a talk and not a paper).

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 How to Write the Discussion
• The true meaning of the data may be completely obscured
by the interpretation presented in the Discussion, again
resulting in rejection.
• The primary purpose of the Discussion is to show the
relationships among observed facts.
• Discussion sections are too long and verbose. Occasionally,
“the author is doubtful about his facts or his reasoning and
retreats behind a protective cloud of ink”
• If the reader of a paper finds himself or herself asking “So
What?” after reading the Discussion, the chances are that
the author became so engrossed with trees (the data) that
he or she didn’t really notice how much sunshine had
appeared in the forest.

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 Essential Features of A Good Discussion
• Point out any exception of any lack of correlation
and define unsettled points.
• Show how your results and interpretations agree (or
contrast) with previously published work.
• Don’t be shy; discuss the theoretical implications of
your work, as well as any possible practical
applications.
• State your conclusions as clearly as possible.
• Summarize your evidences for each conclusion.

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 Conclusions and further work

• Be brief.

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 Acknowledgements
• The acknowledgements are placed between the
end of the regular text and the references.
• People who have contributed to the paper, but not
by a sufficient amount to be included in the author
list, should be thanked in the acknowledgements.
• Discuss with your supervisor, which people should
be acknowledged.

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 References
• First and most important rule: Check the style
manual of the journal to which you are submitting
the paper. Different journals have different styles for
the references.
• Example: Emerald Pattern
• Atkinson, A.A., Waterhouse, J.H. and Wells, R.B.
(1997), “A stakeholder’s approach to strategic
performance measurement”, Sloan Management
Review, Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 31-43.
• Brown, M.G. (2000), Winning Score: How to Design
and Implement Organizational Scorecards,
Productivity Press, Cambridge, MA.
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 References
• References are a place where a lot of errors are
propagated.
– Make sure that the references are correct!
– Check if all papers cited in the text are also
present in the references and vice versa
– Check if dates, authors etc. agree between text
& reference list; e.g. a paper that appeared in
1995a is also listed as such in the references.

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 Appendices
• Material that may be of interest for some
readers, but not for most (e.g. lengthy tables,
derivations of equations) can be put into an
appendix or into multiple appendices.
• Most papers do not have an appendix.
• An appendix must be referred to in the main
paper. E.g., “The derivation of Eq. (15) is given
in Appendix B.”

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 Where to Publish
• Workshops vs. conferences vs. journals
– Length of decision cycle
– Quantity vs. quality

217
– Aim high! (or at least appropriately)
– Acceptance rate vs. time to prepare/publish

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 Which Journal?
• Criteria for choice of journal:
– The journal should cover your field and
should be read by colleagues
– The journal should have a good reputation.
– Monetary considerations: page charges (if
any), cost of printing in colour, free reprints
provided?

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 WHAT DO REVIEWERS EXPECT? – SHARING
EXPERIENCES AS A RESEARCHER &
REVIEWER

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 Purpose of a Review
• Evaluate the paper’s scientific merit
– Check the validity of the paper’s claims and
evidence

220
– Judge the paper’s relevance and significance
• Provide constructive feedback to the author

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 Listening to your reviewers
Treat every review like gold dust
Be (truly) grateful for criticism as well
as praise

• Read every criticism as a positive suggestion

for something you could explain more clearly
• Thank them warmly. They have given up their
time for you.

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 Journal Reviewing
• Executive editor  Area editor  Board members or
reviewers
• Longer decision cycle

222
• Typically higher quality, longer, and deeper reviews
• Decision options:
– Accept as is
– Accept with minor changes
– Accept with major changes (subject to re-review)
– Reject with encouragement to resubmit
– Reject out of hand

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 Rejected!!  Now What?
• Fix the paper!
– Read the reviews, rail and complain, berate the
reviewer

223
– Calm down
– Read them again with an open mind
– Do more experiments, revise the paper, …
– Go back to the reviews again – have you addressed
all the points?
– Have people read the revision critically
– Do more experiments, revise the paper, …
– Repeat until the next deadline 

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 Most common reasons for rejection of a
manuscript
MOST COMMON REASONS FOR REJECTING ARTICLE MANUSCRIPTS
(Cited by 85 Editors of Scientific and Technical Journals)

Number of
Reason Respondents

Subject
Not suitable for journal 63
Not timely 4
Coverage
Questionable significance 55
Questionable validity 39
Too shallow 39
Too exhaustive 8
Length
Too long 26
Too short 4
Presentation
Bad organization 35
Ineffective expression 33
Ineffective or unusable illustrations 11
Failure to follow style guide
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 Know the Review Criteria
 Scientific content and merit

 Innovation and scope

 Relevance of problem

 Rigor of hypotheses

 Feasibility of research design

 Impact on broader issues

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 Learn to Interpret & Digest Rejections
• “Unacceptable” or “Unacceptable in its present
form”; seldom is the harsh word “reject” used
• Before you begin to weep, do two things.
• First, remind yourself that you have a lot of company;
most of the good journals have reject rates
approximately (or exceeding) 50%.
• Second, read the reject letter carefully because, like
modify letters, there are different types of rejections.

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Problems Encountered by Researchers in India
The lack of a scientific training in the methodology of research –
Most of the work, which goes in the name of research is not
methodologically sound
There is insufficient interaction between the university research
departments on one side and business establishments, government
departments and research institutions on the other side
Most of the business units in our country do not have the confidence
that the material supplied by them to researchers will not be
misused
Library management and functioning is not satisfactory at many
places and much of the time and energy of researchers are spent in
tracing out the books, journals, reports etc. rather than in tracing out
relevant material from them.
There is also the difficulty of timely availability of published data
from various government and other agencies.
The problem of conceptualization and also problems relating to the
process of data collection and related things.

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Good Luck!