Political Science, the systematic study of and reflection upon politics.

Politics usually describes

the processes by which people and institutions exercise and resist power. Political processes
are used to formulate policies, influence individuals and institutions, and organize societies.
Many political scientists study how governments use politics. But political scientists also study
politics in other contexts, such as how politics affects the economy, how ordinary people think
and act in relation to politics, and how politics influences organizations outside of government.
The emphasis upon government and power distinguishes political science from other social
sciences, although political scientists share an interest with economists in studying relations
between the government and economy, and with sociologists in considering relations between
social structures in general and political structures in particular. Political scientists attempt to
explain and understand recurrent patterns in politics rather than specific political events.
Importance of Political Science
Political science is important because politics is important. During the 20th century, tens of
millions of people were murdered by regimes devoted to particular political ideologies. All
peoples lives are affected in many ways by what governments do or choose not to do, and by
the power structures that exist in society.
The specific ideas of political scientists are only occasionally implemented by policy makers.
Political scientists usually influence the world in more indirect ways: by educating citizens and
political leaders, by contributing to debates on political issues, and by encouraging different
ways of looking at the world. The study of political science is motivated by the need to
understand the sources and consequences of political stability and revolution, of repression and
liberty, of equality and inequality, of war and peace, of democracy and dictatorship. The study
of political science suggests that the world of politics is complex and cannot be reorganized by
simple ideological schemes without unintended consequences.
Politics
n.
1. (used with a sing. verb)
a. The art or science of government or governing, especially the governing of a political entity,
such as a nation, and the administration and control of its internal and external affairs.
Government, political organization comprising the individuals and institutions authorized to
formulate public policies and conduct affairs of state. Governments are empowered to establish
and regulate the interrelationships of the people within their territorial confines, the relations
of the people with the community as a whole, and the dealings of the community with other
political entities. Government applies in this sense both to the governments of national states,
such as the federal government of the U.S., and to the governments of subdivisions of national
states, such as the state, county, and municipal governments of the U.S. and the governments
of the provinces of Canada. Such organizations as universities, labor unions, and churches are
also broadly governmental in many of their functions. The word government may refer to the

people who form the supreme administrative body of a country, as in the expression the
government of Prime Minister Churchill.
State, in political science, generally a group of people inhabiting a specific territory and living
according to a common legal and political authority; a body politic or nation. In this definition,
the term state includes government; in another usage, the two terms are synonymous. Among
types of states that developed at various times in history were the city-states of ancient Greece,
in which sovereignty rested with the free citizens of an independent city. During the Middle
Ages, Europe was divided politically into many small principalities, the boundaries and
sovereignties of which changed frequently. From this condition of political anarchy, the modern
nation-state, which consists of a group of people with the same or similar nationality inhabiting
a definite territory, emerged by a gradual process extending over centuries. The type of
government has varied, first taking the form of absolute monarchies and later of constitutional
monarchies or republics, some of them federations or unions of semi-independent states. In
the 20th century totalitarian dictatorships, in which one ruler assumes absolute power, have
been established in some states.
Democracy (Greek demos,the people; kratein, to rule), political system in which the people
of a country rule through any form of government they choose to establish. In modern
democracies, supreme authority is exercised for the most part by representatives elected by
popular suffrage. The representatives may be supplanted by the electorate according to the
legal procedures of recall and referendum, and they are, at least in principle, responsible to the
electorate. In many democracies, such as the United States, both the executive head of
government and the legislature are elected. In typical constitutional monarchies such as the
United Kingdom and Norway, only the legislators are elected, and from their ranks a cabinet
and a prime minister are chosen.
Political demonstration in manila
Residents of Manila fill the streets during the funeral procession of leftist Philippine labor
leader Rolando Olalia in 1986. Many Filipinos suspected that Olalia was assassinated by rightwing elements of the military. The freedom to hold public demonstrations is often considered a
key element of democracy.
Democratization (or democratisation) is the transition to a more democratic political regime. It
may be the transition from an authoritarianregime to a full democracy, a transition from an
authoritarian political system to a semi-democracy or transition from a semiauthoritarian political system to a democratic political system. The outcome may
be consolidated (as it was for example in the United Kingdom) or democratization may face
frequent reversals (as it has faced for example in Argentina). Different patterns of
democratization are often used to explain other political phenomena, such as whether a
country goes to a war or whether its economy grows. Democratization itself is influenced by
various factors, including economic development, history, and civil society.

Types of Government

Democracy
The word democracy comes from ancient Greek words meaning
people and rule of government. It is a system of government of a
country whose leaders have been elected by the people. When the
elected representatives meet in parliament to make laws, the form of
government is a parliamentary democracy.

Monarchy
A monarchy is a form of government led by an individual who holds
the position for life, having inherited the position, and who passes it
on to a relative, usually a son or daughter.
In the past, all monarchs held great power and made the all decisions
and laws of the country. This is known as absolute monarchy. Today
most monarchs act as Head of State, filling a ceremonial role with
little or no power regarding the actual governing of the country.
A constitutional monarchy is a country which has a written Constitution that sets out the rules
for how the country will be governed and therights and responsibilities of its people, and has a
monarch as Head of State.
Republicanism
A republic is a country whose head of government is an elected or
chosen president. Sometimes the president is also the head of
state, for example the President of the United States. Presidents
are usually elected for a specific length of time, called a term of
office. In some countries a president may only serve a particular
number of terms.
The United States Capitol building in Washington DC, meeting
place of representatives elected by the people
A republic may or may not be democratic. In a democratic republic, the people choose their
leaders through elections, although in countries where president is a ceremonial role, it may be
by government appointment rather than by election.
In some undemocratic republics the leaders are chosen by a small number of people and may
stay in office for a long time, sometimes without ever being elected or re-elected. In some

cases there may be elections, but these may be conducted in corrupt ways, or electors are not
given a free choice of who to vote for.
Totalitarianism
In a totalitarian society the government holds absolute control over all aspects of the lives of its
people. A set of beliefs is imposed on the people, who have to conform or face unpleasant
consequences. This form of government came into being in the 1920s and 1920s when the
fascist governments of Italy and Nazi Germany came into power.
Fascism
Fascism is a form of government usually headed by a dictator. It involves total government
control of political, economic, cultural, religious and social activities. Some industries may be
owned by individuals, but under government control. This form of government includes
extreme patriotism, warlike policies and extreme discrimination against minority groups.
Dictatorship
In a dictatorship, one person, called a Dictator, has absolute power. This differs from
totalitarianism in that it is less controlling and not marked by a rigid set of beliefs. Sometimes a
country run by dictatorship may be called a republic. Such republics have only one political
party and the Dictator makes most government policies and decisions.

Communism

Communism is an economic system in which there is little or

no private ownership - property is held by the community rather
than by individuals. All economic activity is controlled by the
government, including things like what crops are grown, what
goods are manufactured, and to whom they are sold and at what
prices. The decisions made by communist governments are those
that are normally made by private individuals in non-communist
countries.
Karl Marx, whose beliefs formed a foundation of communism
Communist governments are usually a form of totalitarianism, and
traditionally allow only approved candidates to stand for election and there is usually little or
no choice of candidate at an election.

Oligarchy
An oligarchy is a form of government in which only a few wealthy people hold power. A
republic may be an oligarchy if just a few people have the right to vote. An example of this was
the time of apartheid in South Africa. In most oligarchies, the power of the leadership is
supported by the wealthy and the military.

ORIGIN OF GOVERNMENT
I.V.1
Man, born in a family, is compelled to maintain society, from necessity, from natural
inclination, and from habit. The same creature, in his farther progress, is engaged to
establish political society, in order to administer justice; without which there can be no
peace among them, nor safety, nor mutual intercourse. We are, therefore, to look upon
all the vast apparatus of our government, as having ultimately no other object or purpose
but the distribution of justice, or, in other words, the support of the twelve judges. Kings
and parliaments, fleets and armies, officers of the court and revenue, ambassadors,
ministers, and privy-counsellors, are all subordinate in their end to this part of
administration. Even the clergy, as their duty leads them to inculcate morality, may justly
be thought, so far as regards this world, to have no other useful object of their
institution.
I.V.2
All men are sensible of the necessity of justice to maintain peace and order; and all
men are sensible of the necessity of peace and order for the maintenance of society. Yet,
notwithstanding this strong and obvious necessity, such is the frailty or perverseness of
our nature! it is impossible to keep men, faithfully and unerringly, in the paths of justice.
Some extraordinary circumstances may happen, in which a man finds his interests to be
more promoted by fraud or rapine, than hurt by the breach which his injustice makes in
the social union. But much more frequently, he is seduced from his great and important,
but distant interests, by the allurement of present, though often very frivolous
temptations. This great weakness is incurable in human nature.
I.V.3
Men must, therefore, endeavour to palliate what they cannot cure. They must
institute some persons, under the appellation of magistrates, whose peculiar office it is,
to point out the decrees of equity, to punish transgressors, to correct fraud and violence,
and to oblige men, however reluctant, to consult their own real and permanent interests.
In a word, OBEDIENCE is a new duty which must be invented to support that of JUSTICE;
and the tyes of equity must be corroborated by those of allegiance.

I.V.4
But still, viewing matters in an abstract light, it may be thought, that nothing is
gained by this alliance, and that the factitious duty of obedience, from its very nature,
lays as feeble a hold of the human mind, as the primitive and natural duty of justice.
Peculiar interests and present temptations may overcome the one as well as the other.
They are equally exposed to the same inconvenience. And the man, who is inclined to be
a bad neighbour, must be led by the same motives, well or ill understood, to be a bad
citizen and subject. Not to mention, that the magistrate himself may often be negligent,
or partial, or unjust in his administration.
I.V.5
Experience, however, proves, that there is a great difference between the cases.
Order in society, we find, is much better maintained by means of government; and our
duty to the magistrate is more strictly guarded by the principles of human nature, than
our duty to our fellow-citizens. The love of dominion is so strong in the breast of man,
that many, not only submit to, but court all the dangers, and fatigues, and cares of
government; and men, once raised to that station, though often led astray by private
passions, find, in ordinary cases, a visible interest in the impartial administration of
justice. The persons, who first attain this distinction by the consent, tacit or express, of
the people, must be endowed with superior personal qualities of valour, force, integrity,
or prudence, which command respect and confidence: and after government is
established, a regard to birth, rank, and station has a mighty influence over men, and
enforces the decrees of the magistrate. The prince or leader exclaims against every
disorder, which disturbs his society. He summons all his partizans and all men of
probity to aid him in correcting and redressing it: and he is readily followed by all
indifferent persons in the execution of his office. He soon acquires the power of
rewarding these services; and in the progress of society, he establishes subordinate
ministers and often a military force, who find an immediate and a visible interest, in
supporting his authority. Habit soon consolidates what other principles of human nature
had imperfectly founded; and men, once accustomed to obedience, never think of
departing from that path, in which they and their ancestors have constantly trod, and to
which they are confined by so many urgent and visible motives.
I.V.6
But though this progress of human affairs may appear certain and inevitable, and
though the support which allegiance brings to justice, be founded on obvious principles
of human nature, it cannot be expected that men should beforehand be able to discover
them, or foresee their operation. Government commences more casually and more
imperfectly. It is probable, that the first ascendant of one man over multitudes begun
during a state of war; where the superiority of courage and of genius discovers itself most
visibly, where unanimity and concert are most requisite, and where the pernicious effects

of disorder are most sensibly felt. The long continuance of that state, an incident
common among savage tribes, enured the people to submission; and if the chieftain
possessed as much equity as prudence and valour, he became, even during peace, the
arbiter of all differences, and could gradually, by a mixture of force and consent, establish
his authority. The benefit sensibly felt from his influence, made it be cherished by the
people, at least by the peaceable and well disposed among them; and if his son enjoyed
the same good qualities, government advanced the sooner to maturity and perfection;
but was still in a feeble state, till the farther progress of improvement procured the
magistrate a revenue, and enabled him to bestow rewards on the several instruments of
his administration, and to inflict punishments on the refractory and disobedient. Before
that period, each exertion of his influence must have been particular, and founded on the
peculiar circumstances of the case. After it, submission was no longer a matter of choice
in the bulk of the community, but was rigorously exacted by the authority of the supreme
magistrate.
I.V.7
In all governments, there is a perpetual intestine struggle, open or secret, between
AUTHORITY and LIBERTY; and neither of them can ever absolutely prevail in the contest.
A great sacrifice of liberty must necessarily be made in every government; yet even the
authority, which confines liberty, can never, and perhaps ought never, in any
constitution, to become quite entire and uncontroulable. The sultan is master of the life
and fortune of any individual; but will not be permitted to impose new taxes on his
subjects: a French monarch can impose taxes at pleasure; but would find it dangerous to
attempt the lives and fortunes of individuals. Religion also, in most countries, is
commonly found to be a very intractable principle; and other principles or prejudices
frequently resist all the authority of the civil magistrate; whose power, being founded on
opinion, can never subvert other opinions, equally rooted with that of his title to
dominion. The government, which, in common appellation, receives the appellation of
free, is that which admits of a partition of power among several members, whose united
authority is no less, or is commonly greater than that of any monarch; but who, in the
usual course of administration, must act by general and equal laws, that are previously
known to all the members and to all their subjects. In this sense, it must be owned, that
liberty is the perfection of civil society; but still authority must be acknowledged essential
to its very existence: and in those contests, which so often take place between the one
and the other, the latter may, on that account, challenge the preference. Unless perhaps
one may say (and it may be said with some reason) that a circumstance, which is
essential to the existence of civil society, must always support itself, and needs be
guarded with less jealousy, than one that contributes only to its perfection, which the
indolence of men is so apt to neglect, or their ignorance to overlook.

What are the important elements of the State?

ARVIND KUMAR
These definitions draw attention to the fact that the state has four essential elements. These
are: (1) population, (2) territory, (3) government, (4) sovereignty (or independence). The first
two elements constitute the physical or material basis of the state while the last two form its
political and spiritual basis.
1. Population:
The state is a human institution. So population is its primary element. There is no hard and fast
rule about population. The ancient Greek writers like Plato and Aristotle favoured a small
population. According to Plato, an ideal state should have a population of 5040.
Aristotle laid down a general principle that the population of a state should be large enough to
make it sufficient and small enough to makegood government possible. It must be
remembered that both of them were thinking in terms of small city-states.
In modern times, Rousseau, prompted by considerations of direct democracy, fixed the number
at 10,000. In modern times states vary greatly from the few thousands of Monaco or of San
Marino to the crores of China or of India. The modern tendency is in favour of large states. All
that can be said is that a large population is an advantage from the point of view of military
defense.
However, a large population can be a liability if the resources of the state are not adequate for
its maintenance. One of the main problems faced by developing countries is over-population.
Thus there should be a happy balance between the size of the population and material wealth
of a state.

2. Territory:
A definite and more or less permanent territory is also regarded as an essential element of the
state. In modern times, the citizens are bound together by residence on a common territory.
Land, water and air space comprise the territory of a state.
As in population, so in territory, no limit can be laid down. Small states and large ones exist side
by side. We have tiny states like San Marino with an area of less than twenty-five square miles.
On the other hand, there are giant states like the Russian Republic, China, U. S. A., and Australia
with millions of square miles.
According to international law, all states are equal in status and right, no matter how unequal
they are in population and area. It is claimed that small states are good for efficient
administration and inculcating among the people a sense of unity and love for the state.

However, the truth is that a small state is at a disadvantage in its relations with larger ones.
Small states are under the influence of one or the other large and powerful state. It is said in
favour of large states that they are strong in defense and because of availability of resources
they are economically self-sufficient.
It may be pointed out that the power and security of a state are not determined only by the size
of its territory. Some other factors in this regard are geographical location, resources and
climate.
3. Government:
A people occupying a definite territory cannot form a state unless they are politically organized
i.e., unless they possess a government. Government is the political organization of the state. It
is the concrete and visible instrument of state power.
According to Garner, government is the agency through which "common policies are
determined and by which common affairs are regulated." The state wills and acts through the
government. Government must be effective; it must possess the capacity to maintain order and
enforce obedience. Without a government there would be lawlessness and anarchy and
ultimately the state would be dissolved.
Government consists of three organs, namely, legislature, executive and judiciary. The
legislature makes laws; the executive enforces laws while the judiciary adjudicates cases or
disputes.
There are different kinds of government in different states such as monarchy, democracy and
dictatorship. Most of developed states are democracies. Many developing countries including
India have democratic governments. Whatever may be the form of government, one thing is
clear - there can be no state without government.
4. Sovereignty:
By far the most important characteristic of the state is its sovereignty. It is the characteristic
which distinguishes the state from all other associations. It denotes the supreme power or the
final authority from which there is no appeal.
Sovereignty has two aspects internal and external. Internally viewed, the state has supreme
power over all individuals and associations within its fixed area. It can compel obedience of its
people to its laws and commands. Externally viewed, the state is free from control of any
foreign state or alien rule. Before independence India was not a state as it was ruled by the
British.
Similarly, the Indian federation consists of many constituent units called 'states', but they are
really not states in the eyes of international law, as they are not sovereign. In the same vein,
the United Nations (UN) is not a state as it is not sovereign.

It should be noted, however, that absolute sovereignty is a legal concept. In actual practice no
state is able to exercise unlimited power either over individuals and associations within its
territorial domain or in its international relations.
A state respects and abides by international laws, treaties and the policies of the international
organizations like the UN and its agencies. A number of writers who have attacked the concept
of absolute sovereignty on theoretical grounds also hold that it is undesirable. H. J. Laski, for
example, regards it as incompatible with the interests of humanity and world peace.
5. International Recognition:
In modern times relations among nations have grown and many international organisations and
institutions have come into being. Therefore some scholars have argued that international
recognition be an essential element of state. The recognition of the sovereign status of a new
state by other states is called international recognition.
According to famous jurist, Oppenheim, "A state is and becomes an international person by
recognition only and exclusively. But there is no agreement an how many countries would have
to recognise a new state so that the latter gains statehood in the eyes of international law.
Recognition has also a political dimension. China was already a full-fledged state for many years
before the UN was established in 1945.
China came under communist rule in 1949. Communist China was not recognised by the US for
cold war. So communist China, though ruling the mainland China, was not allowed to become
the member of the UN due to America's opposition.
Communist China took its legitimate place in the UN in 1970's only after the establishment of
rapprochement between the US and communist china. It needs to be emphasized that even
when communist China was not a member of the UN, it was very much a state.
Absolute sovereignty is not feasible. A state needs to abide by international laws. Otherwise
there will be international anarchy causing serious threats to international peace and security.
Laski has rightly argued that unlimited sovereignty is a threat to world peace and humanity.