REGULATED POWER SUPPLY

POWER SUPPLY DESCRIPTION:

TRANSFORMER

BRIDGE
RECTIFIER

SHUNT
CAPACITOR

VOLTAGE
REGULATOR

The power supply circuit comprises of four basic parts:

The transformer steps down the 220 V a/c. into 12 V a/c. The transformer work on the principle of
magnetic induction, where two coils: primary and secondary are wound around an iron core. The two
coils are physically insulated from each other in such a way that passing an a/c. current through the
primary coil creates a changing voltage in the primary coil and a changing magnetic field in the core. This
in turn induces a varying a/c. voltage in the secondary coil.
The a/c. voltage is then fed to the bridge rectifier. The rectifier circuit is used in most electronic power
supplies is the single-phase bridge rectifier with capacitor filtering, usually followed by a linear voltage
regulator. A rectifier circuit is necessary to convert a signal having zero average value into a non-zero
average value. A rectifier transforms alternating current into direct current by limiting or regulating the
direction of flow of current. The output resulting from a rectifier is a pulsating D.C. voltage. This voltage
is not appropriate for the components that are going to work through it.

7812 12-0-12 V

1N4007
1000uF
TRANSFORMER

7805

The ripple of the D.C. voltage is smoothened using a filter capacitor of 1000 uF 25V. The filter capacitor
stores electrical charge. If it is large enough the capacitor will store charge as the voltage rises and give up
the charge as the voltage falls. This has the effect of smoothing out the waveform and provides steadier
voltage output. A filter capacitor is connected at the rectifier output and the d.c voltage is obtained across
the capacitor. When this capacitor is used in this project, it should be twice the supply voltage. When the
filter is used, the RC charge time of the filter capacitor must be short and the RC discharge time must be

long to eliminate ripple action. In other words the capacitor must charge up fast, preferably with no
discharge.
When the rectifier output voltage is increasing, the capacitor charges to the peak voltage Vm. Just past the
positive peak, the rectifier output voltage starts to fall but at this point the capacitor has +Vm voltage
across it. Since the source voltage becomes slightly less than Vm, the capacitor will try to send current
back through the diode of rectifier. This reverse biases the diode. The diode disconnects or separates the
source the source form load. The capacitor starts to discharge through load. This prevents the load voltage
from falling to zero. The capacitor continues to discharge until source voltage becomes more than
capacitor voltage. The diode again starts conducting and the capacitor is again charged to peak value Vm.
When capacitor is charging the rectifier supplies the charging through capacitor branch as well as load
current, the capacitor sends currents through the load. The rate at which capacitor discharge depends upon
time constant RC. The longer the time constant, the steadier is the output voltage. An increase in load
current i.e. decrease in resistance makes time constant of discharge path smaller. The ripple increase and
d.c output voltage V dc decreases. Maximum capacity cannot exceed a certain limit because the larger the
capacitance the greater is the current required to charge the capacitor.
The voltage regulator regulates the supply if the supply if the line voltage increases or decreases. The
series 78xx regulators provide fixed regulated voltages from 5 to 24 volts. An unregulated input voltage is
applied at the IC Input pin i.e. pin 1 which is filtered by capacitor. The out terminal of the IC i.e. pin 3
provides a regular output. The third terminal is connected to ground. While the input voltage may vary
over some permissible voltage range, and the output voltage remains constant within specified voltage
variation limit. The 78xx ICs are positive voltage regulators whereas 79xx ICs are negative voltage
regulators.
These voltage regulators are integrated circuits designed as fixed voltage regulators for a wide variety of
applications. These regulators employ current limiting, thermal shutdown and safe area compensation.
With adequate heat sinking they can deliver output currents in excess of 1 A. These regulators have
internal thermal overload protection. It uses output transistor safe area compensation and the output
voltage offered is in 2% and 4% tolerance.

Gear Motors

Gear motor is a motor that has a gear reduction system or the gearbox integrally
built into the motor. The gearbox increases the torque generating ability of the
motor while simultaneously reducing its output speed. The main advantage of a
gearmotor is that the driving shaft may be coupled directly to the driven shaft.
Belts, pulleys, chains, or additional gearing to step down motor speed are needed.
Also, coupling or belting of a motor to a separate speed-reducer unit is eliminated.
AC gearmotor consists of a series of three windings in the stator section with a
simple rotating section and an integral gearbox. DC gear motors are configured in
many types and sizes, including brushless and servo. They consist of a rotor and a
permanent magnetic field stator and an integral gearbox. They are used in variable
speed and torque applications. Direct motors are most common in industrial robots.
Important performance specifications to consider when searching for gearmotors
include shaft speed, continuos torque, continuos current, and continuous output
power. The terminal voltage is the design DC motor voltage. The continuous torque
is the output torque capability of the motor under constant running conditions.
Continuous current is the maximum rated current that can be supplied to the motor

windings without overheating. Continuous output power is the mechanical power

provided

by

the

motor

output.

Gear motors are designed and manufactured to be installed within another device.
The installation place should have ambient temperature of about 14 F ~ 104 F and
ambient humidity of maximum 85%. The motor should not be exposed to explosive,
flammable gas, to direct sunlight, dust, water, and oil. It should be placed where
heat can easily escape. Using gearmotors in location that does not satisfy the
conditions

can

damage

the

motor.

Standard
Gearmotor service factors and load classifications should confirm to AGMA
recommendations. The minimum service factor should be 1.0 for continuous
operation and the minimum gearing service factor should be 1.0 with a minimum
mechanical

strength

service

factor

of

1.3.

Applications
Gearmotors have a variety of successful applications. They are used in packaging
and labeling, case erectors, box taper, hot melt glue pumps, heat shrink tunnels,
tape dispensers and conveyor drives. They are also used in food processing
industry. They are used in ice making machines, weigh checking, baking machinery,
meat slicing, cooker drive, and breading equipment. In transport equipment they
are used in wheelchairs, stair lifts, golf carts and pipeline crawlers. In machine tools
they are used in drill heads, rotary table drives, and hardness test.

Michael Faraday invented the electric motor, which is used to convert electrical energy to mechanical
energy, in 1821. Electric current supplied from the power lines can only be used directly in heating,
lighting and other applications. To use this power to run devices like pumps, automobiles, domestic

appliances and machine tools, the electrical energy must be converted to mechanical energy, which rotates
shafts and gear trains.
Electric motors are available in three basic types of horsepower (hp) ratings: small, medium and large.
Small motors are made to produce fractional hp of 1/20 to 1 hp. Medium motors are available in the range
of 1 to 100 hp and large motors are available in ratings of 100 to 50,000 hp. Power can also be expressed
in kilowatts (1 kW = 1.33 hp; 1 hp = 746 W). Standard frequencies at which motors operate are 50 or 60
Hertz.

How Electric Motors work

The electric motor is based on the principle of electromagnetism and uses the Lorentz law. When current
flows through a wire it produces a magnetic field. The right hand rule is used to describe the magnetic
field. The right-hand rule is used to find the direction of the force. When the thumb points in the direction
of the current and the fingers point in the direction of the external magnetic field, then the force
experienced by the conductor is in the outward direction from the palm.
An electric motor has a rotating part called the rotor and a stationary part called the stator. Electromagnets
called poles are wound on the frame called the armature. When current is passed, the rotor rotates due to
the torque generated by the wires and the magnetic field. The rotation is transferred to a shaft which
transfers its rotation energy to any device that is attached to it.

Types of Electric Motors

Major types of electric motors are DC motors (direct current), AC motors (alternating current) and
Universal motors that can operate on either AC or DC current. Each category is an industry by itself and
has many different sub-types.
Universal Motors
These motors can use both DC and AC current and are commonly used in vacuum cleaners, food mixers,
blenders, small power tools and hair dryers and other appliances that operate at high speed but are not
used continuously. They are a variant of the wound DC motor and special care is taken to cover the
impedance and reluctance of AC motors. Thyristors or stepped speed control circuits are used for
continuous speed control.

DC Motors
DC motors provide momentary power bursts of up to five times the rated torque. The speed can be
brought down to zero smoothly and immediately raised in the opposite direction without any power
interruption.
DC motors have an electromagnet with two poles, which serve as a rotating armature. A commutator or
rotary switch is used to reverse the current direction twice in each cycle. This causes the poles of the
electromagnet to push and pull against the external permanent magnets. When the poles of the armature
pass through the poles of the permanent magnet, the commutator reverses the polarity of the armature.
The inertia maintains the current direction at the instance when polarity is switched.
Major types of DC motors are:

Brushless DC Motors: These motors are used to drive CD-ROM spindles,

fans, office products like Xerox machines, lasers and also in expensive aircraft
models. They have a permanent external rotor magnet; three phase driving
coils and Hall Effect devices that sense rotor position. They are more efficient
than AC motors, do not produce excessive heat and last longer since there is
no commutator.

Limited-Angle Torque Motors: These are special type of brushless DC

motors and the torque is produced within 180 degrees of rotation. They are
used in: direct laser mirrors, servo valves, open shutters used in heat-seeking
sensors, position missile guidance radar antennas and power systems where
the degree of rotation is small. The rotor carries field magnets and the stator
carries the armature winding.

PM DC Motors: These are small motors that produce about 50% greater
torque than other comparably sized motors. Magnets are made of Samariumcobalt and the torque ripple is greatly reduced.

Coreless DC Motors: In these motors, there is no iron core, thus giving a low
mass and higher acceleration and deceleration. The stator is made of a
cylindrical permanent magnet that is placed in a housing made of mild steel.
Rotors are wound in a honeycombed pattern to increase the torque. The

commutator is made of gold, platinum and other precious metals. They are
used to drive Capstan in magnetic tape drives and in high-performance servocontrolled systems.

Linear DC Motors: These are used in Maglev super fast trains and produce a
linear force and no a torque. It has a stator and a slider. The stator has a
laminated steel frame with conductors wound in transverse slots. The slider
has sets of magnets, commutators, a bearing surface and it makes a path of
magnetic flux between the magnets.

Working of Relays
What is a relay?
We know that most of the high end industrial application devices have
relays for their effective working. Relays are simple switches which are
operated both electrically and mechanically. Relays consist of a n
electromagnet and also a set of contacts. The switching mechanism is
carried out with the help of the electromagnet. There are also other
operating principles for its working. But they differ according to their
applications. Most of the devices have the application of relays.

Why is a relay used?

The main operation of a relay comes in places where only a low-power
signal can be used to control a circuit. It is also used in places where
only one signal can be used to control a lot of circuits. The application of
relays started during the invention of telephones. They played an
important role in switching calls in telephone exchanges. They were also
used in long distance telegraphy. They were used to switch the signal
coming from one source to another destination. After the invention of
computers they were also used to perform Boolean and other logical
operations. The high end applications of relays require high power to be
driven by electric motors and so on. Such relays are called contactors.

Relay Design
There are only four main parts in a relay. They are
Electromagnet
Movable Armature
Switch point contacts

Spring

The figures given below show the actual design of a simple relay.

Relay Construction
It is an electro-magnetic relay with a wire coil, surrounded by an iron
core. A path of very low reluctance for the magnetic flux is provided for
the movable armature and also the switch point contacts. The movable
armature is connected to the yoke which is mechanically connected to

the switch point contacts. These parts are safely held with the help of a
spring. The spring is used so as to produce an air gap in the circuit when
the relay becomes de-energized.

How relay works?

The working of a relay can be better understood by explaining the
following diagram given below.

Relay Design
The diagram shows an inner section diagram of a relay. An iron core is
surrounded by a control coil. As shown, the power source is given to the
electromagnet through a control switch and through contacts to the
load. When current starts flowing through the control coil, the
electromagnet starts energizing and thus intensifies the magnetic field.
Thus the upper contact arm starts to be attracted to the lower fixed arm
and thus closes the contacts causing a short circuit for the power to the
load. On the other hand, if the relay was already de-energized when the
contacts were closed, then the contact move oppositely and make an
open circuit.

As soon as the coil current is off, the movable armature will be returned
by a force back to its initial position. This force will be almost equal to
half the strength of the magnetic force. This force is mainly provided by
two factors. They are the spring and also gravity.
Relays are mainly made for two basic operations. One is low voltage
application and the other is high voltage. For low voltage applications,
more preference will be given to reduce the noise of the whole circuit.
For high voltage applications, they are mainly designed to reduce a
phenomenon called arcing.

Relay Basics
The basics for all the relays are the same. Take a look at a 4 pin relay
shown below. There are two colours shown. The green colour represents
the control circuit and the red colour represents the load circuit. A small
control coil is connected onto the control circuit. A switch is connected
to the load. This switch is controlled by the coil in the control circuit.
Now let us take the different steps that occour in a relay.

relay operation

Energized Relay (ON)

As shown in the circuit, the current flowing through the coils

represented by pins 1 and 3 causes a magnetic field to be aroused. This
magnetic field causes the closing of the pins 2 and 4. Thus the switch
plays an important role in the relay working. As it is a part of the load
circuit, it is used to control an electrical circuit that is connected to it.
Thus, when the relay in energized the current flow will be through the
pins 2 and 4.

Energized Relay (ON)

De Energized Relay (OFF)

As soon as the current flow stops through pins 1 and 3, the switch opens
and thus the open circuit prevents the current flow through pins 2 and
4. Thus the relay becomes de-energized and thus in off position.

De-Energized Relay (OFF)

In simple, when a voltage is applied to pin 1, the electromagnet
activates, causing a magnetic field to be developed, which goes
on to close the pins 2 and 4 causing a closed circuit. When
there is no voltage on pin 1, there will be no electromagnetic
force and thus no magnetic field. Thus the switches remain
open.

Pole and Throw

Relays have the exact working of a switch. So, the same concept is also
applied. A relay is said to switch one or more poles. Each pole has
contacts that can be thrown in mainly three ways. They are
Normally Open Contact (NO) NO contact is also called a make
contact. It closes the circuit when the relay is activated. It
disconnects the circuit when the relay is inactive.
Normally Closed Contact (NC) NC contact is also known as
break contact. This is opposite to the NO contact. When the relay is
activated, the circuit disconnects. When the relay is deactivated, the
circuit connects.

Change-over (CO) / Double-throw (DT) Contacts This type of

contacts are used to control two types of circuits. They are used to
control a NO contact and also a NC contact with a common terminal.
According to their type they are called by the names break before
make and make before breakcontacts.

Relays are also named with designations like

Single Pole Single Throw (SPST) This type of relay has a total of
four terminals. Out of these two terminals can be connected or
disconnected. The other two terminals are needed for the coil.
Single Pole Double Throw (SPDT) This type of a relay has a
total of five terminals. Out f these two are the coil terminals. A
common terminal is also included which connects to either of two
others.
Double Pole Single Throw (DPST) This relay has a total of six
terminals. These terminals are further divided into two pairs. Thus
they can act as two SPSTs which are actuated by a single coil. Out of
the six terminals two of them are coil terminals.
Double Pole Double Throw (DPDT) This is the biggest of all. It
has mainly eight relay terminals. Out of these two rows are designed
to be change over terminals. They are designed to act as two SPDT
relays which are actuated by a single coil.

Relay Applications

Relays are used to realize logic functions. They play a very important

role in providing safety critical logic.

Relays are used to provide time delay functions. They are used to
time the delay open and delay close of contacts.
Relays are used to control high voltage circuits with the help of low
voltage signals. Similarly they are used to control high current
circuits with the help of low current signals.
They are also used as protective relays. By this function all the faults
during transmission and reception can be detected and isolated.

Relay Selection
You must note some factors while selecting a particular relay. They are
Protection Different protections like contact protection and coil
protection must be noted. Contact protection helps in reducing
arcing in circuits using inductors. Coil protection helps in reducing
surge voltage produced during switching.
Look for a standard relay with all regulatory approvals.
Switching time Ask for high speed switching relays if you want one.

Ratings There are current as well as voltage ratings. The current

ratings vary from a few amperes to about 3000 amperes. In case of
voltage ratings, they vary from 300 Volt AC to 600 Volt AC. There are

also high voltage relays of about 15,000 Volts.

Type of contact used Whether it is a NC or NO or closed contact.
Select Make before Break or Break before Make contacts wisely.

Isolation between coil circuit and contacts

Types Of Relays
Here is a detailed list of the different types of relays.

1. Latching Relay
Latching relays are also called impulse relays. They work in the bistable mode, and thus
have two relaxing states. They are also called keep relays or stay relays because as soon as
the current towards this relay is switched off, the relay continues the process that it was
doing in the last state. This can be achieved only with a solenoid which is operating in a
ratchet and cam mechanism. It can also be done by an over-centre spring mechanism or a
permanent magnet mechanism in which, when the coil is kept in the relaxed point, the
over-centre spring holds the armature and the contacts in the right spot. This can also be
done with the help of a remanent core.

In the ratchet and cam method, power consumption occurs only for a particular time.
Hence it is more advantageous than the others.

2. Reed Relay
These types of relays have been given more importance in the contacts. In order to protect
them from atmospheric protection they are safely kept inside a vacuum or inert gas.
Though these types of relays have a very low switching current and voltage ratings, they
are famous for their switching speeds.

3. Polarized Relay
This type of relay has been given more importance on its sensitivity. These relays have
been used since the invention of telephones. They played very important roles in early
telephone exchanges and also in detecting telegraphic distortion. The sensitivity of these
relays are very easy to adjust as the armature of the relay is placed between the poles of a
permanent magnet.

4. Buchholz Relay
This relay is actually used as a safety device. They are used for knowing the amount of gas
present in large oil-filled transformers. They are designed in such a way that they produce
a warning if it senses either the slow production of gas or fast production of gas in the
transformer oil.

5. Overload protection Relay

As the name implies, these relays are used to prevent the electric motors from damage by
over current and short circuits. For this the heating element is kept in series with the motor.
Thus when over heat occurs the bi-metallic strip connected to the motor heats up and in
turn releases a spring to operate the contacts of the relay.

6. Mercury Wetted Relay

This relay is almost similar to the reed relay explained earlier. The only difference is that
instead of inert gases, the contacts are wetted with mercury. This makes them more
position sensitive and also expensive. They have to be vertically mounted for any

operation. They have very low contact resistance and so can be used for timing
applications. Due to these factors, this relay is not used frequently.

7. Machine Tool Relay

This is one of the most famous industrial relay. They are mainly used for the controlling of
all kinds of machines. They have a number of contacts with easily replaceable coils. This
enabkes them to be easily converted from NO contact to NC contact. Many types of these
relays can easily be setup in a control panel. Though they are very useful in industrial
applications, the invention of PLC has made them farther away from industries.

8. Contacor Relay
This is one of the most heavy load relay ever used. They are mainly used in switching
electric motors. They have a wide range of current ratings from a few amps to hundreds.
The contacts of these relays are usually made with alloys containing a small percentage of
silver. This is done so as to avoid the hazardous effects of arcing. These type of relays are
mainly categorized in the rough use areas. So, they produce loud noises while operated and
hence cannot be used in places where noise is a problem.

9. Solid State relay

SSR relays, as its name implies are designed with the help of solid state components. As
they do not have any moving objects in their design they are known for their high
reliability.

10. Solid State Contactor Relay

These relays combine both the features of solid state relays and contactor relays. As a
result they have a number of advantages. They have a very good heat sink and can be
designed for the correct on-off cycles. They are mainly controlled with the help of PLC,
micro-processors or microcontrollers.