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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Today is the 21st century and in this century the competition has increased to many
folds. Over the last decade or so there has been considerable demand for cost effective
and high turnaround machine tool for use in industries. The demand for composites in
aerospace and industrial applications has been skyrocketing in the past decade and the
same trend will continue for the next two decades. Conventional machine tools are
often not suitable for machining composites and so are lasers. This method of abrasive
waterjet machining involves entraining abrasive particles carried in air into a high
velocity waterjet. This stream is directed by means of a suitably designed nozzle on to
the work piece to be machined [4]. Metal removal occurs due to erosion caused by the
abrasive particles impacting the work surface at high speed. AWJs have several
inherent merits that are unmatchable by most other machine tools:
No HAZ and minimum surface
hardening and no tearing with minimum fraying.
-cost dry-grit
blasting.
Even for nanomaterials that are integrated seamlessly at the
molecular level.
ing extremely hard and tough
materials
-effective with fast turnaround (no tooling or mask needed) for ones and twos
(R&D) and/or for thousands (production) Complete a part from design to finish in
minutes to several hours, saving manufacturing jobs from outsourcing.
from macro to micro.
-machining mode - roughing, parting, drilling, turning, milling, and grooving,
etc. in a single setup with no need for tool change and part transfer No contact tool to
break when machining extremely hard and tough materials.
-In-Time practice for lean manufacturing
The method is very inefficient with less than 3% of a waterjets energy being
transferred to abrasive particles. The process of entraining abrasive carried in air 2
becomes increasingly ineffective at jet diameters under 500 micro meters and
ceases to operate at jet diameters of 300 micro meters. As jet diameters less than 100
micro meters are required for micromachining the current generation of abrasive
waterjets cannot be used to micromachine. Since the introduction of AWJs there has
been no paradigm shift in the way abrasive waterjets are generated but there have been
very substantial improvements in AWJ cutting performance. Improved cutting
performance is the result of incremental developments in ultra high pressure pumps,
cutting heads, software and control systems. Improving cutting performance, combined
with advances in machine tool design and innovative marketing and sales activities, has
resulted in AWJs becoming one of the three major non contact cutting methods; the
others being lasers and wire electric discharge machining (WEDM). Probably the most
important development leading to widespread commercialization of AWJ based
machine tools was the adoption of reacted tungsten carbide for cutting head focus tubes
a paradigm shift in super hard materials technology by a major chemical company
(Dow Chemical Company), exploited by a nozzle manufacturer (Boride Products Inc,
now part of Kennametal Inc). A twenty times improvement in focus tube life to 50 to
100 hours transformed the prospects of abrasive waterjets from a niche market to a
main stream machine tool [6].
CHAPTER 2
PRINCIPLE
Waterjets are fast, flexible, reasonably precise, and in the last few years have become
friendly and easy to use. They use the technology of high-pressure water being forced
through a small hole (typically called the orifice or jewel) to concentrate an
extreme amount of energy in a small area. The restriction of the tiny orifice creates high
pressure and a high-velocity beam, much like putting your finger over the end of a
garden hose. The inlet water for a pure waterjet is pressurized between 20,000 and
60,000 Pounds per Square Inch (PSI) (1300 to 6200 bar). This is forced through a tiny
hole in the jewel, which is typically 0.007" to 0.020" in diameter (0.18 to 0.4 mm). This
creates a very high-velocity, very thin beam of water (which is why some people refer
to waterjets as "water lasers") travelling as close to the speed of sound (about 600 mph
or 960 km/hr) [3].
An abrasivejet starts out the same as a pure waterjet. As the thin stream of water leaves
the jewel, however, abrasive is added to the stream and mixed. The high-velocity water
exiting the jewel creates a vacuum which pulls abrasive from the abrasive line, which
then mixes with the water in the mixing tube. The beam of water accelerates abrasive
particles to speeds fast enough to cut through much harder materials. The cutting action
of an abrasivejet is two-fold. The force of the water and abrasive erodes the material,
even if the jet is stationary (which is how the material is initially pierced). The cutting
action is greatly enhanced if the abrasivejet stream is moved across the material and the
ideal speed of movement depends on a variety of factors, including the material, the
shape of the part, the water pressure and the type of abrasive. Controlling the speed of
the abrasivejet nozzle is crucial to efficient and economical machining. The most
commonly used abrasive is garnet because of its optimum performance of cutting
power versus cost and its lack of toxicity. It is also a good compromise between cutting
power and wear on carbide mixing tubes. There are two types of garnet that are
generally used: HPX and HPA, which are produced from crystalline and alluvial
deposits, respectively.13 HPX garnet grains have a unique structure that causes them to
fracture along crystal cleavage lines, producing very sharp edges that enable HPX to
outperform its alluvial counterpart. There are other abrasives that are more or less
aggressive than garnet [2].
WORKING
Intensifier, shown in Fig. 1 is driven by a hydraulic power pack. The heart of the
hydraulic power pack is a positive displacement hydraulic pump. The power packs in
modern commercial systems are often controlled by microcomputers to achieve
programmed rise of pressure etc. The hydraulic power pack delivers the hydraulic oil to
the intensifier at a pressure of ph . By using direction control valve, the intensifier is
driven by the hydraulic unit. The water may be directly supplied to the small cylinder
of the intensifier or it may be supplied through a booster pump, which typically raises
the water pressure to 11 bar before supplying it to the intensifier. Sometimes water is
softened or long chain polymers are added in additive unit. Thus, as the intensifier
works, it delivers high pressure water. As the larger piston changes direction within the
intensifier, there would be a drop in the delivery pressure. To counter such drops, 4
a thick cylinder is added to the delivery unit to accommodate water at high pressure.
This is called an accumulator which acts like a fly wheel of an engine and
minimises fluctuation of water pressure. High-pressure water is then fed through the
flexible stainless steel pipes to the cutting head. It is worth mentioning here that such
pipes are to carry water at 4000 bar (400 MPa) with flexibility incorporated in them
with joints but without any leakage. Cutting head consists of orifice, mixing chamber
and focussing tube or insert where water jet is formed and mixed with abrasive
particles to form abrasive water jet.
Fig-1 Intensifier-Schematic
Fig. 2 shows a cutting head or jet former both schematically and photographically.
Typical diameter of the flexible stainless steel pipes is of 6 mm. Water carried through
the pipes is brought to the jet former or cutting head. The potential or pressure head of
the water is converted into velocity head by allowing the high-pressure water to issue
through an orifice of small diameter (0.2 0.4 mm). The velocity of the water jet thus
formed can be estimated, assuming no losses as using Bernoullis equation, pw is the
water pressure and w is the density of water. The orifices are typically made of
sapphire. In WJM this high velocity water jet is used for the required application where
as in AWJM it is directed into the mixing chamber. The mixing chamber has a typical
dimension of inner diameter 6 mm and a length of 10 mm. As the high velocity water is
issued from the orifice into the mixing chamber, low pressure (vacuum) is created
within the mixing chamber. Metered abrasive particles are introduced into the mixing
chamber through a port.
Fig. 3 schematically shows the mixing process. Mixing means gradual entrainment of
abrasive particles within the water jet and finally the abrasive water jet comes out of the
focussing tube or the nozzle. During mixing process, the abrasive particles are
gradually accelerated due to transfer of momentum from the water phase to abrasive
phase and when the jet finally leaves the focussing tube, both phases, water and
abrasive, are assumed to be at same velocity. The mixing chamber is immediately
followed by the focussing tube or the inserts.
The focussing tube is generally made of tungsten carbide (powder metallurgy product)
having an inner diameter of 0.8 to 1.6 mm and a length of 50 to 80 mm. Tungsten
carbide is used for its abrasive resistance. Abrasive particles during mixing try to enter
the jet, but they are reflected away due to interplay of buoyancy and drag force. They
go on interacting with the jet and the inner walls of the mixing tube, until they are
accelerated using the momentum of the water jet.
CHAPTER 3
PROCESS PARAMETERS
The variables that influence the rate of metal removal and accuracy of machining in this
process are:
Carrier Gas:
Carrier gas, to be used in abrasive jet machining, must not flare excessively when
discharged from the nozzle into the atmosphere. Further, the gas should not be
nontoxic, cheap, easily available and capable of being dried and cleaned without
difficulty. The gasses that can be used are air, carbon dioxide or nitrogen. Air is most
commonly used owing to easy availability and little cost.
Types Of Abrasive:
The choice of abrasive depends upon the type of machining operations, for example,
roughing, finishing etc., work material and cost. The abrasive should have a sharp and
irregular shape and be fine enough to remain suspended in carrier gas and should also
have excellent flow characteristics.
Grain Size:
The rate of metal removal depends on the size of the abrasive grain. Finer grains are
less irregular in shape, and hence, possess lesser cutting ability. Moreover, finer grains
tend to stick together and choke the nozzle. The most favourable grain size ranges from
10-50 . 7
10
Jet Velocity:
The kinetic energy of the abrasive jet is utilized for the metal removal by erosion.
Finnie and Sheldon have shown that for erosion to occur, the jet must impinge the work
surface with a certain minimum velocity. Figures 4 and 5 shows the effect of nozzle
pressure on the rate of metal removal.
11
Work Material:
AJM is recommended for the processing of brittle materials, such as glass, ceramics,
refractories, etc. Most of the ductile materials are practically unmachinable by AJM. 8
12
Nozzle Design:
The nozzle has to withstand the erosive action of abrasive particles, and hence, must be
made of materials that can provide high resistance to wear. The common materials for
nozzle are sapphire and tungsten carbide. The nozzle should be so designed that the
pressure loss due to bends, friction, etc. is as little as possible.
13
As shown in Fig. 7 the focusing nozzle, which is the most critical part in AWJ cutting
systems, is subjected to two modes of wear: 9
As the bore diameter of the nozzle increases owing to wear of the material, the
coherence of the jet beam decreases, which ultimately leads to failure of the nozzle:
The widening jet beam increases the kerf width, i.e. the width of the cut, and decreases
the cutting efficiency. The material of a brittle work piece is removed during AWJ
cutting owing to a network of cracks created by the direct impact of erodent particles
and by adjacent impacting particles. The crack network model Fig. 8, assumes a
14
vertical impact of erodent particles, which fragment during the impact. During impact
two types of cracks are produced:
Median and radial cracks normal to the surface,
Lateral cracks which are parallel to the surface.
15
The interaction of lateral and radial cracks is considered to result in material removal,
i.e. the spallation of tiny chips off the surface. Boron carbide displayed the highest
calculated wear resistance as compared with hard metals, alumina-based ceramics,
silicon nitride based ceramics and some grades of silicon carbide ceramics. However,
in erosion experiments boron carbide showed best resistance only at low impact angles
( <20), followed by a brittle response regime of erosion wear, in which wear rates
peak at 90 erodent impact angle (see Fig. 9). The technical superiority of boron carbide
16
as a blast nozzle material is well established; therefore its poor erosion resistance at
high impact angles does not compromise its effectiveness in this particular application.
Fig-9
17
18
19
20
inert
active
21
and
limitations.
Originally
developed
for
22
23
24
25
1) Hyperbaric welding
2) Cavity welding
26
27
of underwater welds can be difficult (but is possible using various nondestructive testing applications), especially for wet underwater welds,
because defects are difficult to detect if the defects are beneath the surface
of the weld. Underwater hyperbaric welding was invented by the Russian
metallurgist Konstantin Khrenov in 1932.
28
29
work. The chamber is filled with a gas (commonly helium containing 0.5
bar of oxygen) at the prevailing pressure. The habitat is sealed onto the
pipeline and filled with a breathable mixture of helium and oxygen, at or
slightly above the ambient pressure at which the welding is to take place.
This method produces high-quality weld joints that meet X-ray and code
requirements. The gas tungsten arc welding process is employed for this
process. The area under the floor of the Habitat is open to water. Thus the
welding is done in the dry but at the hydrostatic pressure of the sea water
surrounding the Habitat.
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CHAPTER 4
31
32
33
34
occurs with increase in laser intensity and duration of laser pulse applied to
the work piece. Combination of laser beam with metal inert gas (MIG) or
tungsten inert gas (TIG) arc (so-called hybrid technique) seems to be
promising from the viewpoint of bead , but occurrence of large blowholes
and voids still remains an important problem for further research.
35
Figure.4.3 Schematic view of (a) conduction melt pool, and (b) deep
penetration welding mode.
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CHAPTER 5
5.1 ADVANTAGES
Wet underwater MMA welding has now been widely used for
many years in the repair of offshore platforms. The benefits of wet welding
are: -
2) Other benefits include the speed. With which the operation is carried
out.
4) The welder can reach portions of offshore structures that could not be
welded using other methods.
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5.2 DISADVANTAGES
38
CHAPTER 6
6.1 ADVANTAGES
1) Welder/Diver Safety Welding is performed in a chamber, immune to
ocean currents and marine animals. The warm, dry habitat is well
illuminated and has its own environmental control system (ECS).
2) Good Quality Welds This method has ability to produce welds of
quality comparable to open air welds because water is no longer present to
quench the weld and H2 level is much lower than wet welds.
3) Surface Monitoring Joint preparation, pipe alignment, NDT
inspection, etc. are monitored visually.
4) Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) NDT is also facilitated by the dry
habitat environment
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6.2 DISADVANTAGES
40
CHAPTER 7
41
CHAPTER 8
42
CHAPTER 9
APPLICATIONS
43
CHAPTER 10
CONCLUSION
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CHAPTER 11
REFERENCES