Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Delta Cities
S H A R I N G K N OW L E D G E A N D WO R K I N G O N A DA P TAT I O N
TO C L I MAT E C H A N G E
S H A R I N G K N OW L E D G E A N D WO R K I N G O N A DA P TAT I O N
TO C L I MAT E C H A N G E
Connecting
Delta Cities
Colophon
Authors
We would like to thank all the authors who
contributed to this second CDC book and others that
helped us to make this a success. In particular we
would like to thank:
Alex Nickson (Greater London Authority), David
Waggonner (Waggonner & Ball Architects), Andy
Sternad (Waggonner & Ball Architects), Philip Ward
(VU University Amsterdam), Muh Aris Marfai (Faculty
of Geography, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta),
Aisa Tobing (Governors Office, Jakarta), Pieter
Pauw (VU University Amsterdam), Maria Francesch
(City University of Hong Kong), Bianca Stalenberg
(ARCADIS | Delft Technical University), Yoshito
Kikumori (Japan National Institute for Land
and Infrastructure Management), Philip Bubeck
(VU University Amsterdam) and Professor
Ho Long Phi (HCMC University of Technology
(National University HCMC).
Chapters 1 and 3 of this second CDC book are largely
based on the material on the same topics (climate
adaptation in general and New York City) that were
presented in the first CDC book. Most of the work
on these topics in the first CDC book was carried
out by David Major of Columbia University and
Malcolm Bowman of Stonybrook University. David
and Malcolm as well, and their respective universities,
contributed significantly to the success of the first
CDC book.
Sponsors
This book has been sponsored by the City of
Rotterdam, the Rotterdam Climate Proof Initiative,
VU University Amsterdam, Rotterdam University of
Contents
Colophon
Preface
4
10
12
14
16
9
20
21
2. Introducing CDC
2.1 Introduction
2.2 The CDC networkk in practice
23
3. Rotterdam
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Present situation
3.3 Climate and flood
fl
risks
3.4 Climate adaptation
3.5 Rotterdam adaptation strategy
28
29
31
32
37
44
4. New York
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Present situation
4.3 Climate and flood
fl
risks
4.4 Climate adaptation
46
47
50
51
55
5. Jakarta
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Present situation
5.3 Climate and flood risks
5.4 Climate adaptation
60
61
63
65
67
6. London
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Present situation
6.3 Climate and flood risks
6.4 Climate adaptation
6.5 From strategy to delivery
72
73
75
76
79
81
7. New Orleans
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Present situation
7.3 Climate and flood risks
7.4 Climate adaptation
86
87
89
93
97
9. Tokyo 114
9.1 Introduction 115
9.2 Present situation 117
9.3 Climate and flood risks 119
9.4 Climate adaptation 123
10. Ho Chi Minh City
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Present situation
10.3 Climate and flood risks
10.4 Climate adaptation
126
127
129
131
135
References
6
154
Preface
D. Miller
A. Aboutaleb
A. Aboutaleb
Mayor of Rotterdam,
The Netherlands
D. Miller
Chairman C40 and Mayor of Toronto,
Canada
11
Climate change
in delta cities
by Jeroen Aerts and Piet Dircke
13
Introduction
1
Currently, more than half of the worlds population
lives in cities, especially in vulnerable delta cities. It
is estimated that more than two thirds of the worlds
large cities will be vulnerable to rising sea levels and
climate change, with millions of people being exposed
to the risk of extreme floods and storms. By the middle
of this century, the majority of the worlds population
will live in cities in or near deltas, estuaries or coastal
zones, resulting in even more people living in highly
exposed areas. Such socioeconomic trends further
amplify the possible consequences of future floods,
as more people move toward urban delta areas and
capital is continuously invested in ports, industrial
centres and financial businesses in flood-prone areas.
It is also expected that the frequency, intensity and
duration of extreme precipitation events will increase,
as well as the frequency and duration of droughts.
15
A changing global
environmentt
17
19
Introducing
CDC
2
by Piet Dircke and Arnoud Molenaar
Introduction
2
The Connecting Delta Cities objective is to
establish a network of delta cities that are
active in the field of climate change related
spatial development, water management,
and adaptation, in order to exchange
knowledge about climate adaptation and
share best practices to support cities in
developing their adaptation strategies.
21
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best practices
Q Stimulating adaptation practice and enlarging
operation capacity
acquired expertise
Q Supporting the inclusion off climate adaptation in
local governments.
Figure 2.1 The current cities of the CDC initiative (orange squares) and interested cities (yellow squares).
23
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25
Delta Alliance:
Understanding and improving resilience
across river deltas
Delta Alliance is an alliance of people and
organizations committed to improving the resilience
of the deltas in which they live and work. Members
take part in activities that span the spectrum of
researching, monitoring, reporting, advising, and
implementing projects on resilience-building in deltas.
Delta Alliance integrates knowledge and visions on a
river delta as a whole, linking information and people
from across sectors and jurisdictions for the common
goal of improving resilience. Regional Wings of Delta
Alliance are self-organized and include individuals and
organizations from across all sectors. An international
secretariat coordinates international events and
communications between the Regional Wings.
World Estuary Alliance (WEA):
Increasing awareness about ecological and economic
value of healthy estuaries
The WEA aims to raise awareness of the economic and
ecological value of healthy estuaries and to stimulate
exchange of knowledge and implementation of best
practices. Where the rivers meet the sea has always
been one of the most important of habitats for
humanity, but in the past centuries enormous damage
has been done to the vibrant life in estuaries. There is
a need to work together to advance the best thinking
in sustainable estuary development and protection.
The WEA is a living network, with a shared belief that
economic development and nature can go hand in
hand. The growing network includes representatives
from NGOs, business, science and policy makers. The
WEA is currently based in Shanghai.
27
Rotterdam
by Arnoud Molenaar and Piet Dircke
Introduction
One off the main aspects off the Delta Plan was to
improve the protection off Rotterdam during an extreme
storm surge. It was decided to construct the Maeslant
Storm Surge Barrier, which protects Rotterdam in the
case off an extreme flood event but stays open under
normal conditions to allow free access to the older port
areas as well as the inland shipping canals behind the
barrier. Furthermore, as ships must have free access to
the port, the City off Rotterdam and the Port Authority
have chosen to develop the port area outside the dike
protection system, at such an elevation that most of
the port area is well protected against floods.
fl
Hence,
over the last hundred years, 12,000 hectares off land
have been elevated using fill
fi materials to several meters
above sea level. Along with the Palm Islands in Dubai,
this is the largest area off human-made land in the world
to be mostly surrounded by water.
ROTTERDAM
29
Present
situation
2
3
Rotterdam is considered the marine gateway to
Western Europe in the Dutch delta formed by the
rivers Rhine and Meuse and has a long history as
a port. Rotterdam not only serves as port for the
Netherlands but for the whole off Western Europe,
in particular Germany. The rivers provide excellent
means for inland water transport to transport the
goods from the port into the hinterland
An important date in the history off Rotterdam is
May 1940, when large parts off the city centre were
completely destroyed during a bombardment by
the German Air Force. The centre off Rotterdam,
therefore, was almost completely rebuilt after the
Second World War.
ROTTERDAM
International conference
Deltas in Times of
Climate Change
Rotterdam, the Netherlands
29 September 1 October 2010
31
Climate and
flood risks
3
3
Rotterdam has a temperate climate infl
fluenced by the
North Sea, with moderate temperatures throughout
the year. However, heat waves in which temperatures
rise above 30C, do occur and will occur more
frequently in the future. Summers are moderately
hot with short wet periods. Rainfall is almost equally
distributed over the year, with an average annual
rainfall off around 790 mm. A new precipitation record
was set in August 2006, when almost 300 mm of
precipitation fell in one month, causing extensive
fl
flooding
and damage in the Rotterdam city area.
Winters are relatively wet, with persistent rainfall
periods. These periods off excessive rainfall can cause
fl
floods
in the river basins off the Rhine and Meuse.R1
The low-lying parts off the Netherlands, including
Rotterdam, have been flooded many times throughout
Figure 3.1 Example off a flood riskk map off the port area off Rotterdam.
The colors indicate the potential flood
fl
losses in euro/m2.R2
Figure 3.2 The potential number off fatalities caused by simultaneous levee breaches at Katwijk, Ter Heijde and The Hague with current land use (left)
and possible future land use according to a high economic growth scenario (GE, right).R3
ROTTERDAM
33
ROTTERDAM
Figure 3.3 This picture, based on satellite images taken on clear and
warm days during the last 25 years, shows that the temperature of the
urban environment is significantly higher than in the rural areas.
35
Figure 3.4 Possible scenarios for the Rhine Estuary Closable but Open.
Climate
adaptation
4
3
Rotterdam is dealing with the consequences of
climate change in a pro-active way by turning climate
challenges into opportunities. Rotterdam wants to
protect its citizens against the future impacts, such as
climate change, by making Rotterdam climate proof
by 2025. The city also has the ambition to become
aims a global leader in water management and climate
change adaptation.
ROTTERDAM
37
Figure 3.6 A map from the Rotterdam Water Plan 2030 as part off the adaptation programme initiative Rotterdam Climate Proof (RCP) showing new
perspectives for water management.
both enhance fl
flood protection and add value to
the attractiveness off the city. To achieve this, an
innovative integrated adaptation strategy, combining
spatial planning, architecture and flood
fl
protection is
being introduced. Rotterdam plans to develop 1,600
ha (4.000 acres) off adaptive waterfront locations in
the old harbour area in the centre off the city. The
Stadshavens or City Ports project currently is one of
Europes largest urban redevelopments (Figure 3.5).
Through adaptive architecture, this neighbourhood
can be made climate prooff and serve as a high quality
waterfront living and working area. This requires new
ways off developing buildings that, for example, allow
water to move through the neighbourhood in the
event off a flood
fl
without causing casualties or damage
ROTTERDAM
39
Figure 3.8 Example of a Water Plaza that is used as a playground during normal conditions and as a reservoir in case of extreme precipitation.
Figure 3.9 Artists impression off creating more open water in the city
for storing excess rainwater in the Rotterdam area.R6
ROTTERDAM
41
Communication aspects
Communication is important and required on different
ff
levels and different
ff
scales. Adequate communication
with local (city council), regional (water boards) and
national government bodies is crucial in to create
awareness and commitment for funding off research
and measures. At local level, communication with
residents in the early stages off urban planning
processes is essential for the public acceptance,
and a requirement for successful implementation of
innovative solutions such as Water Plazas. These water
storage projects in the citys public spaces require
sophisticated communication about the risks of
drowning and the possibilities off mosquito plagues.
In Rotterdam, a campaign about green roofs resulted
in public participation. Good communication is also
Figure 3.11 Floating Pavilion in Rotterdam.
ROTTERDAM
43
Minimizing chance
Region
Minimizing consequences
Stimulating recovery
system
Q design an evacuation
plan
City
Quarter / street
Q arrange back-up
of dikes
Q create space for (innovative) water storage, e.g.
in underground parkings
Q greening the city,
converting paved to
unpaved surfaces
(utilities)
Q raise main roads for
evacuation
systems
(e.g. water supply)
Q arrange a help desk
for damage-related
questions
Q create flood damage
insurance fund
Q install pumps
of public space
Q apply permeable paving
Building
invest in adaptive
building
Q apply less tiles and more
green in gardens
ground floor
Q promote resilience
Q install pumps
ROTTERDAM
45
New York
Introduction
NEW YORK
47
The Brooklyn-Rotterdam
Waterfront exchange
June 2009
NEW YORK
49
Present
situation
2
4
The Italian explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano, is
believed to have been the first European to explore,
the area now known as the New Yorkk Harbour in
1524. Although Da Verrazzano was the first to visit
the location off present-day New Yorkk City, it was
Henry Hudson who claimed Manhattan for the Dutch
Government in 1609, sailing his ship The Halff Moon
275 km up the river which now bears his name to
the state capital off Albany. Over the next twenty
years, many Dutch and other Europeans settled in
New Amsterdam, the principal city and port off New
Netherlands. Peter Minuit, a Dutch political director,
is credited with making the deal off the century,
when he bought Manhattan Island from the Canarsee
Indians for just $24. The Dutch continued to control
New Amsterdam until 1664, when the British tookk over
from the Dutch and renamed the city New York, after
Climate and
flood risks
3
4
New Yorkk City has a temperate, continental climate,
with hot and humid summers and cold winters.
Records show an annual average temperature
between 1971 and 2000 off approximately 12.8C.
The annual mean temperature in New Yorkk City has
risen by 1.4C since 1900, although the trend has
varied substantially over the decades. Between 1971
and 2000, New Yorkk City averaged 13 days per year
with 1 inch (25.4 mm) or more off rain, 3 days per year
with 2 or more inches (50.8 mm) off rain, and 0.3 days
per year with over 4 inches (101.6 mm) off rain.
Regional precipitation in New Yorkk may increase by
approximately 5 to 10 percent by the 2080s. Climate
models tend to distribute much off this additional
precipitation to the winter months. Because off the
effects
ff
off higher temperatures, New Yorkk also faces on
increased riskk off drought.
NEW YORK
51
NEW YORK
53
Climate
adaptation
4
NEW YORK
55
NEW YORK
57
NEW YORK
59
Jakarta
5
by Philip Ward, Muh Aris Marfai,
Aisa Tobing and Christiaan Elings
Introduction
5
Flooding and flood management are not
new to Jakarta. The region has suffered
from flooding ever since the founding
of Batavia (the colonial name for the
current city of Jakarta) by the Dutch in
1619. Soon after this, a canal system
was constructed and by 1725 a dam had
already been built to divert the waters of
the Ciliwung westwards. Over the course
of the last four centuries, many more
technical flood managements strategies
have been designed and implemented,
JAKARTA
61
Presentt
situation
2
5
Jakarta, the capital and largest city off Indonesia, is
located on the northern coast off the island off Java, in a
#ENGKARENG $RAIN
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+ +RUKUT
+ "UARAN
+ "ARU
"RT
+ 3UNTER
+ #ILIWUNG
+ #IPINANG
JAKARTA
+ "ARU
4MR
63
Figure 5.4 Flood simulation of Ciliwung River for 1.5m and 2m inundation scenarios.
Climate and
flood risks
3
5
The physical causes off flooding in Jakarta are several and
interlinked and include land subsidence, climate change,
land use change, and clogged-up rivers and drainage
canals. Jakarta is subsiding rapidly, with an average
subsidence rate off 4 cm per year in northern Jakarta,
and areas where the subsidence rate is even higher.J6 On
top off this, the climate is changing, which is expected to
cause an increase in the frequency off both river flooding
fl
and coastal flooding.
fl
Climate models project that annual
rainfall will increase across most off Indonesia in the
future,J7 and that extreme rainfall events will increase
in severity and frequency in South-East Asia in the
21st century.J8 In recent decades, sea level in the Jakarta
Bay has risen by about 0.5 cm per year.J9 Furthermore,
tropical cyclones are predicted off increased intensities
for South-East Asia,J10 which could lead to increased
storm surge frequencies and heights.J8 Next to these
JAKARTA
65
Figure 5.5 Maintaining the drainage system and channels off the citys
waterways. Trash rackk at Manggarai Flood Gate, Southern Jakarta,
before and after cleaning. J13
Climate
adaptation
4
JAKARTA
67
JAKARTA
69
Delta Dialogues
2008 - 2009
Inundated area
JAKARTA
71
London
by Alex Nickson
Introduction
LONDON
73
Presentt
situation
2
6
From a peakk off 8.8 million in 1939, Londons
population steadily declined to 6.7 million in 1988.
Since then, the population has grown steadily to
7.6 million today and is expected to keep growing
to around 8.9 million by 2031.L1 Nearly all off this
growth will be accommodated on brownfield
fi
sites,
or further densification
fi
off development around high
transport accessibility nodes. This approach leads to a
compact, dense city, but also intensifies
fi vulnerability
by concentrating a high number off people and assets
within a relatively small area.
buffered
ff
from the continental climate by the Gulf
Stream, and thus has a marine climate. This means
that winters are less cold and summers are less hot.
This reduced seasonal variation is one off the key
reasons why much off the UK
K is poorly adapted to
extreme weather, as wide seasonal variations are very
uncommon and generally short-lived.
LONDON
75
Climate and
flood risks
3
6
Drought
Eighty percent off Londons water comes from the River
Thames and River Lea and 20 percent from the confined
fi
chalkk aquifer under the city. The Thames Basin is the
largest river basin in the southeast off England. As such,
it offers
ff a more dependable supply off water during
%VAPORATION
AND USED BY
GROWING PLANTS
2EQUIRED TO PROTECT
THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT
5SE IN AGRICULTURE
INDUSTRY AND FOR
OTHER PURPOSES
%FFECTIVE RAINFALL
2AINFALL
Figure 6.1 Diagram from draft water strategy.
7ATER AVAILABLE FOR
SUPPLY
0UBLIC SUPPLY
%FFECTIVE RAINFALL
7ATER AVAILABLE
5SED BY BUSINESS
HOSPITALS HOTELS
SCHOOLS AND FOR OTHER
PURPOSES
(OUSEHOLD USE
0UBLIC SUPPLY
Catchments
GLA boundary
be affected
ff
by flooding
fl
<1:20
1:75 - 1:100
1:20 - 1:50
1:1000
Flood risk
fl
from three key
London is vulnerable to flooding
sources: tidal flooding when tidal surges combine
with high tides and onshore winds, fluvial
fl
flooding
from the freshwater rivers in London; and surface
water flooding, when heavy rainfall overcomes the
drainage system.
Figures 6.4 and 6.5 show the observed monthly rainfall
and temperature for London for the period 1961-1990
(grey bars) and then the projected changes to these
variables for the 2020s, 2050s and 2080s (coloured
lines). It can be seen that in the future rainfall becomes
The UK
K water sector was privatized in the UK
K in the
early 1990s. Four private water companies supply
London with water but only one manages Londons
wastewater. The water companies are required to
produce Water Resource Management Plans (WRMPs),
which provide a long-term (25 year) perspective on
how the companies will balance their supply and
demand for water. In parallel, the water companies
must also prepare business plans, setting out how
they will fund their WRMPs over a 5-year period. The
Environment Agency assesses the WRMPs and OfWat
(the financial
fi
regulator for water companies) assesses
their business plans. There is a statutory requirement
for the water companies to deliver their business
plan, but not their WRMP. In this round or resource
and business planning, several water companies have
LONDON
77
Climate
adaptation
4
LONDON
79
2 AI NF AL L MM MONT H
&
"ASELINE 2AINFALL
S
3
S
S
4 EMPER AT UR E #
*
&
"ASELINE 4EMPERATURE
*
S
3
S
S
Figure 6.4 and 6.5 Baseline London climate (grey bars) 1961-1990, and projected future climate (generated using UKCP09 50% projections).
From strategy
to delivery
5
6
London is undertaking a wide range
of adaptation actions, the following examples
of which are transferable and scalable to
other cities.
LONDON
81
-AXIMUM WATER LEVEL RISE
0m
1m
2m
3m
4m
)MPROVE DEFENCES
)MPROVE 4HAMES "ARRIER AND RAISE DS DEFENCE
/VER
ROTATE 4HAMES
"ARRIER AND RESTORE
INTERIM DEFENCES
&LOOD STORAGE IMPROVE 4HAMES
"ARRIER RAISE US DS DEFENCES
%XISTING SYSTEM
-AXIMISE STORAGE
&LOOD STORAGE OVER ROTATE 4HAMES
"ARRIER RAISE US DS DEFENCES
2AISE
$EFENCES
&LOOD STORAGE RESTORE
INTERIM DEFENCES
.EW "ARRIER
.EW BARRIER RAISE DEFENCES
.EW BARRAGE
High ++ 2100
Defra 2100
Drain London
Surface water flood riskk is considered to be the
most significant
fi
short-term climate riskk to London.
Modelling L9 suggests that a one in a twohundred
years rainstorm event today would flood up to 680,000
properties in London. A study on Londons drainage
system L10 concluded that even a small increase in
rainfall could require the significant
fi
modification
fi
of
the drainage system to maintain current levels of
service.
To manage this existing and increasing risk, the
Greater London Authority has brought together all the
organizations with responsibility for, and information
on, surface water flood riskk management and created
a frameworkk to facilitate collaborative action. The
Drain London project will help every London borough
produce its own surface water management plan
(SWMP), but ensures that the individual SWMPs are
created in coherence with the SWMPs off neighbouring
borough. The project will also identify and prioritize
the regional flood riskk hotspots, and workk to develop
more detailed plans for the priority areas.
Urban greening programme
Workk on developing the LCCAS has highlighted that it
is the urban realm and land cover that intensifies
fi many
off the climate impacts. For example, it is the loss of
permeability caused by the traditional construction of
roads and buildings that causes flash
fl
fl
flooding,
and the
loss off vegetation helps create the UHI effect.
ff
The Greater London Authority is developing an urban
greening programme to offset
ff the loss off vegetation
and so manage the climate risks. The Mayor has set
a target off increasing green cover in Central London
LONDON
83
Figure 6.7
Legend
Water
Current Development
Undeveloped Land
Future Development
Figure 6.8 Tyndall Centre simulations off land use in East London on
a 100 100 m grid showing existing and future developments i under
the baseline land use paradigm,ii under conditions where a policy to
reduce exposure to flood riskk has led to a ban on future floodplain
development.
LONDON
85
New Orleans
7
by David Waggonner and Andy Sternad
Introduction
NEW ORLEANS
87
DD3 Workshop
The Dutch Dialogues workshops are the
outgrowth of extended interactions between
Dutch engineers, urban designers, landscape
architects, city planners and soils/hydrology
experts and, primarily, their Louisiana
counterparts. The efforts of the Dutch Dialogues
derive from the participants unwavering belief
that New Orleans can survive and prosper and
grow only when it gets certain fundamentals in
order. Dutch Dialogues exposes and hopefully
addresses some of those fundamentals.
Safety First is the key to organizing water
management principle in the Netherlands.
History repeatedly shows the folly of living in a
delta where disasters are common. However, to
ignore the waters magic the unique, abundant
opportunities that can and should be exploited
for economic, societal and cultural gain is
equally foolhardy. Living with the water has
recently become an ordering, corollary principle
of Dutch policy. Adapting a living with the
water principle is necessary in post-Katrina
New Orleans. The Dutch Dialogues posits that
both safety and amenity from water are crucial to
a future in which New Orleans is robust, vibrant
and secure.
Present
situation
2
General characteristics
New Orleans is a city on the edge, but it exists for
a reason. Guided by the native inhabitants in 1718,
French colonist Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville
founded New Orleans at its present location on the
relatively high natural levee along the Mississippi River.
Convenient and strategic access to the sea through
Bayou St. John and Lake Pontchartrain meant that
New Orleans could receive ocean-going commerce
in addition to the river trade that chugged past its
banks. According to historical geographer Richard
Campanella, the site (Bienville) finally selected
represented the best available site within a fantastic
geographical situation. Although the area was
predominantly marshland and prone to river flooding
fl
and intense storms, a city at the mouth off the greatest
water highway on the continent was inevitable.
Figure 7.1 Mississippi River Delta. New Orleans Metro Area at center.
NEW ORLEANS
89
Figure 7.2 19th century map of New Orleans. Note the compact city near the river with the backswamp and Lake Pontchartrain behind it.
Culture
New Orleans complex identity was formed from
people of different backgrounds sharing slender
dry space alongside the river. With the slaves the
early underpinnings of voodoo, blues and jazz
were imported from Africa. Elaborate Mardi Gras
celebrations grew out of French Catholic and African
traditions. Culinary specialties, then as now, rely
on local seafood bounties. As a growing centre of
world commerce, the city also attracted immigrants
in numbers second only to New York.NO1 Iconoclasts
Economy
South-eastern Louisianas economy is focused around
the oil, gas, and petrochemical industries, shipping
traffi
ffic, seafood and tourism. Petrochemical production
provides over $12 billion annually in household
earnings throughout the state. More than 25 percent
off the nations ocean bound exports pass through
Louisianas ports, and a quarter off all commercial
fi
fishing
catches in America land in Louisiana.
Additionally, tourism generates $5.2 billion statewide, mostly in New Orleans, which was recently rated
the worlds premier nightlife hotspot. Digital media,
fi
film-making,
and the water sector are emerging
industries.NO4, NO5
NEW ORLEANS
91
Climate and
flood risks
3
NEW ORLEANS
93
With confidence
fi
in this mastered terrain, post-World
War II development near the lakeshore abandoned
the traditional raised housing type and en-vogue,
ranch-style; slab-on-grade houses dominated the
new landscape. Ironically, the newly available land
was below sea level and continually subsiding due to
the same drainage system off levees and pumps that
permitted its development. Today, pile-supported
box culverts remain high while the adjacent land falls
away. Eventually, concrete floodwalls
fl
were required
along the outfall canals to prevent lake surges from
fl
flooding
the city. Despite improvements, street
fl
flooding
commonly occurs during rain storms due in
part to the systems inherent lackk off water storage.
On a macro scale, the flood-proof,
fl
leveed river can
no longer rebuild and sustain delta soils. Dams and
reservoirs far upstream trap fifty
fi percent off the rivers
historical sediment load, and much off the remaining
sediment is channelled past wetlands and over
the continental shelf.NO10 The comprehensive levee
and pump system now encircling the city provides
protection but also seals human development into a
slowly subsiding bowl. All off New Orleanss 150 cm
off rainfall per year must be pumped out and the
dried former backswamp continues to compact and
subside at a rate off anywhere from 5mm to almost
2 cm per year.NO9 At once New Orleanss lifeblood and
primary historical antagonist, water has been covered
up and walled off.
ff
Katrina
Among New Orleans lineage off natural disasters,
Hurricane Katrina in 2005 was not only the worst
in the citys history but the most costly ever to occur
in the United States. Damage estimates reached
NEW ORLEANS
95
Orleans Canal
Lake Pontchartrain
Levee
Bayou
Pump Station
Pump Station
Climate
adaptation
4
be amplified,
fi
supplemented and built upon in the
years and decades ahead.
The third component off the storm defence and water
management system is the urban water system. Here
the balances between existing and envisioned, manmade and natural can be explored. Implementing
the idea off living with water instead off fighting
against it, the urbanized settlement can over time
be transformed. A shift to cherishing the earth and
the roots it provides, and revealing and revering,
water is envisioned. Crucial balances in the process of
re-evaluation include land and water; habitation and
infrastructure; buildings and open spaces; hard and
permeable surfaces; fresh and salt water gradients;
levees, perimeter defense structures, and storm surge;
and the effect
ff off variable sea level and higher limits
on operating levels for the urban water system.
NEW ORLEANS
97
Key
Above 15 ft in elevation
-5 to 0 ft in elevation
10 to 15 ft in elevation
-10 to -5 ft in elevation
5 to 10 ft in elevation
0 to 5 ft in elevation
Lake Pontchartrain
L
o
WBV
V 12 Hero
Canal Levee
Reach 1
PS Fronting Protection
& Modifications
Loop Caernarvon
Floodwall
Chalmette Loop
Bayou Dupre to
Hwy 46 Levee
Figure 7.8 US Army Corps map off 100-year storm protection upgrades around metro New Orleans.
NEW ORLEANS
99
Hong Kong
Introduction
ONG KONG
101
Present
situation
2
Water
Water is threatening Hong Kong from all sides
(precipitation extremes, river discharge, sea level rise,
rising groundwater tables), but at the same time the
city has a long-standing problem off drinking water
shortages. In 1863 the British already built a first
freshwater reservoir as local streams and wells did not
provide sufficient
ffi
water for the growing population.
Currently the natural storage capacity is limited
and only a quarter off the water supply is provided
locally (Figure 8.5). The water demand is expected to
Natural resources
The territorys large population and wealth places
high demands on water, energy, food and raw
materials, for which Hong Kong is almost completely
reliant on imports. This makes the coastal city
susceptible to climate stressors hitting these other
areas as well.HK5 Energy and water are off particular
importance.
Energy
Per-capita energy consumption in has more than
tripled between 1971 and 2006.HK2 Electricity demand
for air-conditioning for example increased to
29 percent off the total electricity use in 2007.HK6
Figure 8.2 Map off Hong Kong.HK4
HONG KONG
103
Mm3
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
Year
Local Yield
DongJiang Water Supply from Guangdong
Local Yield + DongJiang Water Supply from Guangdong
Fresh Water Annual Consumption
2005
2006
2007
2008
Climate and
flood risks
3
8
Hong Kong has a subtropical climate with average
temperatures between 16C and 28C over the year,
and average annual precipitation levels off 1700-2800
mm.HK11 Records show that Hong Kong has been
warming up since measurements started in 1884.
Between 1980 and 2009, rural areas warmed up at a
rate off around 0.2C per decade. In the heart off urban
Hong Kong, however, the corresponding rise was
much higher at around 0.6C per decade. This 0.4C
difference
ff
can be attributed to the heat island effect
ff
through which the high density urban area absorbs
and retains heat.HK12 Compared with 1980-1999,
the temperature is projected to increase by +4.4C
to +5.2C in 2090-2099 depending on the level of
urbanization. Furthermore, the number off cold days
per year will be virtually nil and the number off hot
days and nights will increase dramatically from
HONG KONG
Figure 8.4 One off the earliest sketches off Hong Kong (1842).
The view is from Victoria Harbour looking towards the Victoria
Peak.
105
24.5
24.0
1885-2009 +0.12C/decade
1947-2009 +0.16C/decade
1980-2009 +0.28C/decade
Temperature (C)
23.5
23.0
22.5
22.0
21.5
21.0
1885
1895
1905
1915
1925
1935
1945
1955
1965
1975
1985
1995
2005
Year
Figure 8.8 Annual mean temperature recorded at the Hong Kong Observatory Headquarters (1885-2009). Data are not available from 1940 to 1946
(Source: Hong Kong Observatory).
HONG KONG
Flooding
In Hong Kong, typhoons and consequent fl
floods have
been a recurring phenomenon through history:
Q An unnamed typhoon in 1906 caused vast
107
Climate
adaptation
4
8
In his Policy Address in 1999, the Chieff Executive of
Hong Kong, Tung Chee-hwa made clear the citys
endeavours to become a clean, comfortable and
pleasant place. Every citizen, business, government
department and bureau is required to start working
in partnership to achieve sustainable development.
Furthermore, alongside twenty other Asia-Pacific
fi
Economic Co-operation economies, Hong Kong has
set a target to achieve at least a reduction in energy
intensity off at least 25 percent by 2030 compared to
2005.HK17
Flood protection
Climate change adaptation is a new issue in Hong
Kong. Flood protection, on the other hand, has always
been an issue and was addressed soon after Hong
Kong Island came under British rule in 1841. Although
Figure 8.10 Inflatable
fl
dam at Kam Tin River.HK15
HONG KONG
109
HONG KONG
111
200
180
160
Number of death
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Year
1960
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
Figure 8.12 The total number of deaths and missing people reported during tropical cyclone events in Hong Kong from 1960 to 2006.HK14
Types of Drainage
200
50
50
Village drainage
10
2-5
Table 8.13. Average recurrence interval of flooding prevention in Hong Kong drainage systems.HK9 These are based on land use type, economic
growth, socioeconomic needs, consequences of flooding, and cost-benefit analysis of flood mitigation measures.
HONG KONG
113
Tokyo
Introduction
TOKYO
115
Presentt
situation
2
Figure 9.1 Map off Tokyo T4 (nr. 1 Sumida river; nr. 2 Ara river;
nr. 3 Edo river).
TOKYO
117
a height difference.
ff
And also ground subsidence due
to groundwater pumping and sediment deposition in
river channel has a great impact. Japanese rivers are
short, steep and flow
fl rapidly down the mountains,
across the plains and into the Pacific
fi Ocean, the Sea of
Japan or the Seto Inland Sea.T7 They are fed by rain. The
ratio between normal flow
fl volume and that during a
storm is extremely great with the maximum discharge
is around 100 times as much as minimum discharge.
Heavy rainfall, in combination with steep slopes,
gives short flood
fl
pulses off less than two days in the
downstream river sections such as Tokyo Metropolis.
Many urban rivers in Tokyo help to drain the city from
fl
floods
caused by excessive rainfall. These urban rivers
are a ralued asset off this historic low-lying city T5.
The population figure
fi
off Japan increased from
84 million in the 150s to nearly 128 million in 2009.T8
The proportion off people working in the primary
industries such as, agriculture, forestry and fishing,
fi
fell over from more than 50 percent at the end of
the Second World War to 17 percent in 1970.T9 More
than 50 percent off the population and more than
70 percent off the nations assets are concentrated in
the flood
fl
plains.T1 About 80 percent off the villages
and cities have to deal with water damage caused by
floods. Today, next to the United States and China,
Japan produces the third highest Gross Domestic
Product (GDP) in the world. This makes Japan one of
h
l hi
i
h l
I 2007 h
Figure 9.2.
Figure 9.3 High rise at the river shores off the Sumida river.
Climate and
flood risks
3
TOKYO
119
TOKYO
121
Climate
adaptation
4
9
Next to conventional measures like flood walls, several
adaptive measures exist in Tokyo against river floods
fl
and ponds against storm water floods are used to
cope with climate change. Examples off such measures
are the super levee and multipurpose storage basin
against river floods, impermeable pavements against
storm water floods and a mobile evacuation system
against floods.
The super levee a multifunctional flood
fl
defence
In 1987, the Japanese government adopted a policy
for protection from extreme floods exceeding the
design levels off regular flood protection measures
applicable to highly urbanized areas.T14 Due to the
expected changes in peakk discharge and frequency
due to climate change, such extreme floods
fl
are likely
to occur on a more frequent basis in the future.
TOKYO
Emergency
View Blocked by
Dense Residential/
earthquake damage
123
TOKYO
125
10
Introduction
10
127
Present
situation
2
10
129
Climate and
flood risks
3
10
8MAXMM
Y X
9EAR
131
Period
1952-1961
1962-1971
1972-1981
1982-1991
1992-2002
2003-2009
Counts
Table 10.5 Count off rainfall events larger than 100 mm.
*7-year period
5PSTREAM FLOOD
5PSTREAM FLOOD
5RBAN (#-#
5PSTREAM FLOOD
4IDEL EFFECT AND
SEA LEVEL RISE
#OUNT OF FLOOD %VENTS
&LOOD EVENTS
#OUNT OF RAINFALL
EVENT WITH
VOLUME MM
#ENTRAL DISTRICTS
2ECENTLY 5RBANIZED $ISTRICTS
9EAR
2 MM
Flood risk
Urban flooding
fl
has become a wide-spread
phenomenon and a major concern in Ho Chi Minh
City in recent years that has been accompanying the
citys rapid growth. Especially since the beginning
off the 1990s the amount off flooded locations, flood
frequencies and flood
fl
duration has steadily increased
and has caused substantial economic and social
losses,H5 such as damage to infrastructure and assets,
water pollution as well as traffic
ffi jams.
HCMC faces flood riskk from several sources or
combinations off these. An overview off the hydrological
scheme off HCMC is provided in Figure 10.6. Dots
represent nodal points off the hydraulic model and the
red circle the projected urban extension according to
the General Development Plan off HCMC until 2025.H3
133
Climate
adaptation
4
10
135
Ho Chi Minh City Moving Towards the Sea with Climate Change Adaptation
HCMCs sea-harbour, being located in the central
districts on the banks of the Saigon River is
economically crucial for Southern Vietnam in
general and HCMC in particular. To ensure further
harbour and economic developments one has to
create room for urban planning in central districts,
HCMC currently plans to move its harbour facilities
southwards towards the sea. As such, a shift into
low-lying areas also means that vital infrastructure
of the city will be moved to areas highly vulnerable
to climate change and especially sea-level rise,
HCMC recognizes the importance to climate-proof
these activities.
Similar developments are currently implemented
by the city of Rotterdam that already shifts
its harbour facilities toward the sea. To share
respective knowledge and experiences regarding
Figure 10.12 Consultations: HCMC Moving towards the Sea with Climate Change Adaptation, June 2010.
137
Conclusions on best
CDC practices
11
by Piet Dircke, Arnoud Molenaar and Jeroen Aerts
Introduction
11
139
Best
practices
2
11
Urban planning and waterfronts
The role off urban planners in the implementation of
adaptation policies and management is vital for the
successful construction, operation and maintenance
off essential infrastructure and services in coastal
cities impacted by the challenges off climate change.
Careful urban planning, creative engineering solutions
and effective
ff
emergency management systems can
substantially reduce the consequences off climate
change. However, this requires the embedding of
climate change and adaptation considerations and
long-term policymaking into the daily operations of
urban planners and policy makers. It also requires
a flexible
fl
approach towards new technologies and
experiments and the careful review off legislation and
new urban building codes to ensure that plans are
eff
ffectively implemented to meet new climate-proofi
fing
141
143
climate and socioeconomic change. Many largescale infrastructure works take 10 to 20 years or
more to design, plan and implement. Postponing
adaptation planning and policy development to
future generations will only exacerbate the problems
of vulnerable city communities and expose them
to unacceptable threats to life and property. But
there is also money to be made, as creative and
pro-active adaptation will stimulate new business
and environmental opportunities and innovations in
economic activities. Thus, there are many challenges
and opportunities for both business interests and
researchers to feed policy makers with new ideas
and solutions.
Best CDC practices of dealing with the financial
aspects of climate adaptation are to be found in
London, with the Disaster Risk Reduction Framework
and in Rotterdam, were the Rotterdam Climate Proof
Programme has integrated the aspects of estimating
and financing costs of climate adaptation into their
planning. Important is to involve private business and
investors in the early stages of the climate adaptation
process to ensure commitment and to continuously
seek for mutual interests.
Capacity building, public awareness and
communication
An important element of a Climate Adaptation
Strategy is public awareness, as pointed out at the
CDC workshop in June 2009 in New York. Public
awareness is therefore one of the non-technical
measures that should become part of the climate
adaptation strategies. Awareness amongst
politicians and civil servants is even more crucial, as
they are respectively the decision makers, architects
145
Future
outlook
3
11
147
Melbourne
Figure 11.3 Melbourne dock city skyline (courtesy of Port of Melbourne)
149
151
Shanghai-Rotterdam
Water Conference at
World Expo 2010
153
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References HCMC
H1
H2
H3
H4
H5
H6
H7
H8
H9
H10
References Melbourne
M1
M2
M3
M4
Port of Melbourne Corporation (2009) Port Development Strategy 2035 Vision: www.portofmelbourne.com/portdev/portdevstrategy.asp
Maunsell Australia Pty Ltd (2008) City of Melbourne Climate Change Adaptation Strategy City of Melbourne:
www.melbourne.vic.gov.au/AboutCouncil/PlansandPublications/strategies/Pages/Environmentalpolicies.aspx
Victorian Coastal Strategy: www.vcc.vic.gov.au/vcs.htm
Future Coasts programme:
www.climatechange.vic.gov.au/Greenhouse/wcmn302.nsf/childdocs/-0A075FE0F68F56D6CA2575C40007BF74-A2C8013E5CEDE429CA25766D0016E286
References illustrations
The publishers gratefully acknowledge the following for permission to use the illustrations indicated: 30 Figure 8.11 - Roel Dijkstra; 32 RDM Campus - Fotografie Marijke
Volkers; 60 Figure 5.3 (left) Marfai (right) Novira; 66 Figure 5.6 - Marfai; 67 Figure 5.6 - Marfai; 70 Figure 5.9 - Marfai; 71 Mayor of London - James O. Jenkins; 92 Flood - ANP
Photos; 95 Photo left - Bas Jonkman; 103 Figure 8.4 - DSD; 103 Figure 8.4 - DSD; 111 Figure 8.11 - Fotografie W.P. Pauw; 126 HCMC - Peter Stucking; and iStockphoto.
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