U

1
U
2
A
2
Inflow must be equal to outflow in steady flows
Q
1
=Q
2
or u
1
A
1
=u
2
A
2
1- Conservation of Mass
2- Conservation of Energy
Energy (Bernoulli) Equation
p/(g) pressure head
u
2
/(2g) velocity (or kinetic) head
z elevation (or potential) head
( )

+ + + + = + +
L f
h h
g
V
y
g
p
g
V
y
g
p
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1

( )

+ + + + = + + +
L f P
h h
g
V
y
g
p
H
g
V
y
g
p
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1

If there is a pump in the system
where H
P
is the pump head
3- Conservation of Momentum
U
2
A
2
U
1
(F
p
+F
r
)
x
= Q (u
2
-u
1
)
F
p
Pressure force
F
R
Reaction force
Energy and momentum coefficients
L
h
g
v
z
g
p
g
v
z
g
p
+ + + = + +
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1

( F
p
+F
r
)
x
= Q (u
2
-u
1
)
where
Energy
Momentum
A V
dA u
A V
dA u
2
2
3
3


= =
A
Q
V =
Average velocity
Velocity and discharge measurement
gh u 2 =
1- Pitot Tube
) 1 ( 2 =

g
p
gR u
2
1
z
Where
g
is the density of the gauge fluid
2- Venturi meter
Where
g
is the density of the gauge fluid
and
The actual discharge
where C
d
is between 0.97 to 0.99
where
Note: Formula is the same for an inclined venturi meter
*
4
2
1
2
1
1
4
gh
m
D
Q
ideal
|
|

\
|

=

|
|

\
|
= 1
*

g
p
R h
2 1
/ D D m =
ideal d actual
Q C Q =
3- Orifice plate
Similar to the venturi meter
C
d
is typically about 0.65
ideal d actual
Q C Q =
*
4
2
1
2
1
1
4
gh
m
D
Q
ideal
|
|

\
|

=

4-Flow through a small orifice
C
c
=0.61-0.66
C
v
= 0.97-0.99
0
2
actual v c
Q C C A gh =
5-Flow through a large orifice
( )
2 / 3
1
2 / 3
2
2
3
2
h h g b C Q
d
=
Forces on solid objects
Total drag force:
1- Skin friction : due to the friction (shear) between the flow
and the body
2- Form drag (or pressure drag): due to the flow separation
and pressure differences before and after the body
http://content.answers.com/main/content/img/McGrawHill/Encyclopedia/images/CE659700FG0010.gif
Form drag could be reduced by optimizing
the body shape and reducing the wake size.
Turbulent flow
g
V
D
L
h
f
2
2

=
The Darcy-Weisbach formula
In a pipe, usually one of the following three variables is unknown
Discharge Q
Head loss h
f
Pipe diameter D
Usually, iteration is needed. Use D-W equation to find the unknown
Calculate using Moody diagram or C-W formula
Assume rough regime as the first guess if you dont know the Re number :
|

\
|
+ =
Re
51 . 2
7 . 3
log 2
1
D
k
s
2
7 . 3
log 2
1
|
|

\
|
|

\
|
=
D
k
s

g
V
D
L
h
f
2
2

=
The total head loss
g
V
k
D
L
h h H
L L f
2
2
|

\
|
+ = + =

In short pipes, local head losses become important but for very long pipes, local
head losses may be ignored as h
L
is small compared with h
f
.
Local head losses
g
V
k h
L L
2
2
=
Local loss in a sudden expansion
2
2
1
1
|
|

\
|
=
A
A
k
L
Local loss in a sudden contraction
k
L
=0.44
Series pipe systems
H= h
f1
+ h
f2
+
Q = Q
1
= Q
2
= Q
3
=
Solution method when the discharge is unknown:
Assume rough regime and calculate discharge. Correct and repeat...
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 2 2
1 2
2 2
1 2 1 1 2 2

2 2 2 2
f f
L V L V L L Q Q
H h h H
D g D g D gA D gA

= + = + = +
Parallel pipes
H= h
f1
= h
f2
=
Q = Q
1
+ Q
2
+ Q
3
+
Solution method:
Solution method is straightforward because the head loss in each pipe is known and
thus, the discharge in each pipe may be easily calculated as in a single pipe.
In junctions, first guess a value for the junction piezometric head H
J
.
Then
A junction of three pipes
Junctions
J f
H z h =
1 1
J
J
J
z
g
P
H + =

g
V
D
L
h
f
2
2
1 1
1

=
Repeat this for pipes 2 and 3. Then if the total inflow to the junction is larger than outflow,
increase your guess for H
J
and vice versa.
You increase H
J
because the junction head is too low which causes the inflow to be larger
than the outflow.
Calculate velocity and then discharge using
General pipe systems
Pipe systems usually include several joints and loops
1- At each node (junction), the inflow must be equal to outflow.
2-In each loop, the head must be the same when you
start from a point and return to the same point.
The correct solution must satisfy two conditions:
1 2 3 4
0 , 0 , 0 , 0 q q q q
Example: in the above figure, along the shown clockwise path,
the signs of discharges and head losses are as following:
1
2
3
4
Note (convention):
In a loop, the flow and head loss are positive in the clockwise
direction.
1 2 3 4
0 , 0 , 0 , 0
f f f f
h h h h
Another formulation:
D gA
L
K
2
2

=
i i
fi
q K
h
q
2

2
sgn( )
f
h Q Kq =
g
A
Q
n r n r
H
p
|
|

\
|

=
2
2
2 2
cot 2 2

n: the rotational speed of the impeller

r
2
: outer radius of impeller
A
2
: effective outer area of the pump A
2
=2r
2
b-A
vanes
A
vanes
: area occupied by the vanes of outlet
: efficiency

2
: outer angle of the impeller
The pump head is the head that is added by the pump to water.
b
r
2
Pump head in
centrifugal pumps
For centrifugal pumps if the flow enters in the radial direction:
Impeller
P
out
: output power of the pump
P
in
: hydraulic input power
: total input power
Summary
g
A
Q
n r n r
H
p
|
|

\
|

=
2
2
2 2
cot 2 2

out p
P gH Q =
If the flow enters in the radial direction, the pump head can be calculated from:
out
in
P
P

=
Total
out
in
P
P

=
: Hydraulic efficiency
: Mechanical efficiency
Total
in
P
Performance of pumps
The efficiency of pumps depends on the discharge. A typical efficiency curve is given below:
Q

Pump curve: Pump head versus discharge.

p
Q
Efficiency
Pump curve
System curve:
Pump
z
1
2
z z z
P V P
h h
g
V
z
g
P
H
g
V
z
g
P
f L P
=
= = =
+ + + + = + + +

1 2
2 1 1
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
0
) (
2 2
Example:
g
V
D
L
K z H
L P
2
) (
2
2

+ + =

p
Q
System curve
Thus the system curve is:
The discharge in the system, is the intersection point of the pump curve
and the system curve

p
Q
System curve
Pump curve
Duty point
Optimal design
At the duty point, pump must be close to its maximum efficiency:

p
Q
System curve
Pump curve
Efficiency
Pump selection
Calculate the specific speed N
s,
defined as
4 / 3 2 / 1
/
P s
H NQ N =
If 10 < N
s
< 70, then choose centrifugal pump
If 70 < N
s
< 165, then choose mixed flow pump
If 110 < N
s
then choose axial flow
N (rev/min) , Q (m
3
/s) , H
p
( m)
Cavitation
In order to calculate the maximum possible pump elevation:
1- Calculate
crit
2- Calculate NPSH
crit
3- The maximum elevation is given by
3 / 4
191
|
|

\
|
=
s
crit
N

crit p crit
H NPSH =
( )
crit f L
inlet
vap atm
NPSH h h
g
V
g
P P
z +

<

2
2

Pump
z
P
atm
NPSH
crit
is usually provided by manufacturer
Power
H
P
versus Q
Efficiency
NPSH
critic
The pumps of this
manufacturer
can work at
various speeds.
(Houghtalen)
Parallel Pumps
When pumps are parallel, their heads are equal and their discharges are added
...
...
2 1
2 1
+ + =
= = =
P P Pt
P P Pt
Q Q Q
H H H

p
Q
One Pump
Two identical Pumps (The discharge is doubled)
When the two pumps are not identical, the pump curve is not smooth:
Parallel Pumps
System curve
Q in the system
Pump curve for the two
parallel pumps
Efficiency of parallel pumps
2 1 in in t in
P P P + =
2
2
1
1
2 1

Q Q
Q Q
t
+
+
=
Pumps in series
In this case, the head of pumps are added together and their discharges are equal.
...
...
2 1
2 1
= = =
+ + =
P P Pt
P P Pt
Q Q Q
H H H

p
One Pump
Two identical pumps
Q
(The head is doubled)
When the two pumps are not identical:
Pumps in series
System curve
Q in the system
Duty point
Efficiency of pumps in series
2 1 in in t in
P P P + =
2
2
1
1
2 1

p p
p p
t
H H
H H
+
+
=
Physical modelling of pumps
kinematic similarity:
constant
constant
constant
5 3
3
2 2
2
3
1
= =
= =
= =
D N
P
D N
gH
ND
Q
p

2
5 3
1
5 3
2
2 2
1
2 2
2
3
1
3
|
|

\
|
=
|
|

\
|
|
|

\
|
=
|
|

\
|
|

\
|
=
|

\
|
D N
P
D N
P
D N
gH
D N
gH
ND
Q
ND
Q
p p

The same pump but working at different speeds, for kinematically similar cases
3
1
2
1
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2

|
|

\
|
=
|
|

\
|
= =
N
N
P
P
N
N
H
H
N
N
Q
Q
p
p
Generation of pump curves
The pump curve is given for N
1
Generate the pump curve for N
2
using
2
1
2
1 2
1
2
1 2

|
|

\
|
= =
N
N
H H
N
N
Q Q
p p
Case 1- Changing the pump speed

p
Q
System curve
The new duty point for N
2
The old duty point for N
1
Pump curve for N
2
(new)
Pump curve for N
1
(old)
Figure: Calculating the new duty pump when the pump speed changes.
Generate the pump curve for N
2
and find the new duty point
Unsteady flow in reservoirs
H=y
1
-y
2
A
1
A
2
Q
1
Q
2
dH
1
dH
2
y
2
y
1
The change in H in time is given by: (H is the difference between water surfaces in two
reservoirs at each time t)(assume k
L
=1 for the exit velocity head) :
(

|
|

\
|
+
=
2 1
5 . 0
2
2
1
1
1 1
A A
H K
A
Q
A
Q
dH
dt
|

\
|
+
=
Li
k
D
L
g A
K

2
5 . 0
KH Q =
Water hammer
( ) ( ) Ee D K
c
/ / 1
/ 1
+
=

when pipe is rigid (E=) , the above formula is simplied to
/ K c =
0
cu p =
c
t
u L
p
0
2
=
c
t
u L
p
0

=
c
L
t
c
L
c
20 2
< <
c
L
t
c
2
<
c
L
t
c
20
> if
if
if
Considered Instantaneous
Considered rapid
Considered slow
The shock speed c
u
0 u=0
c
Valve
ST
ST
A
A
g
L
V Z
0
max
=
Surge tower
In uniform flows, depth is constant and
1
2
f
S S =
0
0
RS C V =
Chezy formula
2 / 1
0
3 / 2
3 / 5
1
S
P
A
n
Q = (The Mannings formula)
2 / 1
0
3 / 2
S R
n
A
Q =
2
2
2
2 1
2
1
1
2 2
z
g
V
y z
g
V
y + + = + +
the energy equation
q= Q / A

=
i t
Q Q
General sections: find Q
i
for each subsection and then
Specific energy
g
V
y E
s
2
2
+ =
or
2
2
2gy
q
y E
s
+ =
E
s
45
o
y
y
1
y
2
y
1
and y
2
are alternate depths: they have the same specific energy
q is constant
Subcritical and supercritical flow
E
s
45
o
y
E
sc
y
c
Subcritical y > y
cv
Supercritical y < y
c
Subcritical y > y
cv
Supercritical y < y
c
The critical depth
At the critical depth we have:
where
B
c
is the channel surface width at the critical depth
A
c
is the channel cross section area at the critical depth
1
3
2
max
=
c
c
gA
B Q
Critical depth in rectangular channels
c c
gy V =
c c
y E
2
3
=
3
2
g
q
y
c
=
Effect of a local bed rise z
z
*
= E
s1
E
sc
E
s
45
o
y
z*
E
s2
=E
sc
E
s1
y
1
y
2
=y
c
3
2
g
q
y
c
=
c sc
y E
2
3
=
if z > z
*
Choking happens and upstream depth increases.
z E E
s s
+ =
2 1

E
s
45
o
y
q
2
= Q/b
2
q
1
= Q/b
1
Change in channel width
b
1
b
2
If contraction is too narrow, choking happens.
Subcritical flow:
Depth decreases
E
s1
y
2
y
1
2 1

s s
E E =
1- Calculate y
c2 ,
E
sc2 ,
E
s1
4- Compare E
s1
and E
sc2
If E
s1
- z > E
sc2
: No choking, find y
2
using
If E
s1
- z = E
sc2
: Critical condition: y
2
= y
c2
If E
s1
- z < E
sc2
: Choking: y
2
= y
c2
find y
1new
using
3
2
2 2
/ g q y
c
=
2 2
2
3
c sc
y E =
2
1
2
1
1 1
2gy
q
y E
s
+ =
z
gy
q
y
gy
q
y z E E
s s
+ + = + + =
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
1 2 1
2 2

z y
gy
q
y z E E
c
new
new s new s
+ = + + =
2
2
1
2
1
1 2 1
2
3
2

Solution method for changes in channel width and/or bed ( z=z
2
-z
1
)
,
,
The Froude number
m
gD
V
Fr =
gy
V
Fr =
For a rectangular channel, D
m
=y , thus:
Fr > 1 : supercritical
Fr < 1 : subcritical
Fr = 1 : critical