Reactor Characteristics

Introduction
Chemical, biological and physical processes in nature and in engineered systems
usually take place in what we call "reactors." Reactors are defined by a real or
imaginary boundary that physically confines the processes. Lakes, segments of a
river, and settling tanks in treatment plants are examples of reactors. Most, but not all,
reactors experience continuous flow in and out!. "ome reactors, experience flow
input and output! only once. #hese are called "batch" reactors. $t is important to
know the mixing level and residence time in reactors, since they both affect the
degree of process reaction that occurs while the fluid usually water! and its
components often pollutants! pass through the reactor.
#racer studies can be used to determine the hydraulic characteristics of a reactor
such as the disinfection contact tanks at water treatment plants. #he results from
tracer studies are used to obtain accurate estimates of the effective contact time.
Reactor Classifications
Mixing levels give rise to three categories of reactors% completely mixed flow
CM&!, plug flow '&! and flow with dispersion &(!. #he plug flow reactor is an
ideali)ed extreme not attainable in practice. *ll real reactors fall under the category
of &( or CM&.
Reactor Modeling
+oth the CM& and the '& reactors are limiting cases of the &( reactor. #herefore the
&( reactor model will be developed first. ,-uation is the governing differential
e-uation for a conservative i.e., non.reactive! substance in a reactor that has
advective transport i.e., flow! and some mixing in the direction of flow x .
dimension!.
/
d
/
.0 (
C C C
t x x

+

C 1 concentration of a conservative substance
0 1 average fluid velocity in the x direction
(
d
1 longitudinal dispersion coefficient
t 1 time
#he dispersion coefficient is a measure of the mixing in a system.
Flow with Dispersion
2ne of the easiest methods to determine the mixing dispersion! characteristics of a
reactor is to add a spike input of a conservative material and then monitor the
concentration of the material in the reactor effluent.
*ssuming complete mixing in y.) plane then transport occurs only in the x
direction and the concentration of tracer for any x and t after t13! the solution to
e-uation gives4
/
Cx,t! exp
d
d
M x
D t
A D t
1

1
4
4
]
where M 1 mass of conservative material in the spike, (
d
1 axial dispersion
coefficient 5L/6#7, x8 1 x . 0t, 0 1 longitudinal advective velocity in the reactor, and
* is the cross.sectional area of the reactor. * measure of dispersion can be obtained
directly from e-uation . &rom this e-uation we expect a maximum value of C at t 1
x60. *t this time
Cx,t!
d
M
A D t

4
. $f the mass of the tracer input M! and reactor
cross.sectional area *! are known, then (
d
can be estimated.
#he form of e-uation is exactly like the normal distribution curve4
/
/
9
exp
x
x
CA x
M

1

1
4
2
]
where
/
/
x d
D t
#he variance in concentration over space
/
x
! is the variance in concentrations
taken from many different positions in the reactor at some single moment in time, t.
#he variance in x
/
x
! has dimensions of length s-uared.
#he variance of tracer concentration versus time
/
t
, with dimensions of time
s-uared! can be measured by sampling at a single point in the reactor at many
different times and can be computed using the following e-uations.
/ /
/ / 3 3
3 3
t
C t t t dt t C t dt
t
C t dt C t dt

( )( ) ( )

( ) ( )


where
3
3
!

!
t C t dt
t
C t dt

&or discrete data points4

/
/ / 3
3
n
i i
i
t
n
i
i
t C t
t
C t

and
3
3
n
i i
i
n
i
i
t C t
t
C t

$nlet and outlet boundary conditions affect the response obtained from a reactor.
Closed reactors have little dispersion across their inlet and outlet boundaries whereas
"open" reactors can have significant dispersion across their inlet and outlet
boundaries. #ypically open systems have no physical boundaries in the direction of
flow. *n example of an open system would be a river segment. Closed systems have
small inlets and outlets that minimi)e dispersion across the inlet and outlet regions.
*n example of a closed system is a tank or a lake! with a small inlet and outlet. #he
reactors used in the lab are closed. #he t in e-uation is the measured average
residence time for the tracer in the reactor. &or ideal closed reactors the measured
residence time, t , is e-ual to the theoretical hydraulic residence time 1 reactor
volume6flow rate!.
#he above e-uations suggest that from the reactor response to a spike input we can
compute the dispersion coefficient for the reactor. :e have two options for measuring
reactor response4
9! synoptic measurements4 at a fixed time sampling many points along the axis of
the reactor will yield a ;aussian curve of concentration vs. distance. $n practice
synoptic measurements are difficult because it re-uires sampling devices that are
time.coordinated. +y combining e-uations , , and it is possible to estimate the
dispersion coefficient from synoptic measurements.
/! single point sampling4 measure the concentration at a fixed position along the x
axis of the reactor for many times. $f the reactor length is fixed at L and
measurements are made at the effluent of the reactor observe the concentration of
a tracer at x 1 L as a function of time! then x is no longer a variable and Cx,t!
becomes Ct! only. #he response curve obtained through single point sampling is
skewed. #he curve <spread= changes during the sampling period and the response
curve is skewed.
Peclet Number
#he dimensionless parameter 'e 'eclet number! is used to characteri)e the level of
dispersion in a reactor. #he 'eclet number is the ratio of advective to dispersive
transport.
d
U
Pe
D L

$n the limiting cases when 'e 1 3 very high dispersion! we have a complete mix
regime CM&R! and when ', 1 > (
d
1 3, no dispersion! we have a plug flow
reactor '&!.
&or single point sampling of the effluent response curve, skew increases as the
dispersion level in the reactor increases. #he degree of skew depends on the
dispersion coefficient, the velocity in the x.direction, and the length of the reactor.
'eclet values in the range 933?'e?> result in a symmetric response curve.
Response curve skew makes the assumption of a symmetrical normal distribution
curve inappropriate and a new relationship between the variance and the dispersion
coefficient or 'e! has to be determined. +oundary conditions affect the determination
of the dispersion coefficient. #he relationship between the 'eclet number and
variance for open systems is given b4
/ /
/
/ @
t
Pe Pe

_
+

,
&or closed systems the relationship is4
( )
/ /
/
/ /
9
Pe
t
Pe Pe
e

1

1
]
#he term
/
Pe
in e-uations and is dominant for 'eclet numbers much greater than
93 as is shown in ,rror4 Reference source not found. #he additional terms in
e-uations and are corrections for skewedness in the response curve. #hese
skewedness corrections are not very significant for 'eclet numbers greater than 93.
#hus for 'eclet numbers greater than 93 the 'eclet number can be determined using
e-uation for both open and closed systems.
/
/
/
t
Pe

Flow through Porous Media

&low through porous media such as groundwater through soil! is a type of flow
with dispersion. #he above e-uations can be applied by recogni)ing that the relevant
10000
1000
100
10
1
0.1
0.01
0.001
10000 1000 100 10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001
Pe
2/Pe
open
closed

2

2
&igure 9. Relationship between e-uations through .
water velocity is the pore water velocity. #he pore water velocity is 0 1
Q
A
where *
is the cross sectional area of the porous media and volume of voids6total volume! is
the porosity of the porous media.
Completely Mixed Flow Reactor
$n the case of CM& reactors, there is not an analytical solution to the advective
dispersion e-uation so we revert to a simple mass balance. &or a completely mixed
reactor a mass balance on a conservative tracer yields the following differential
e-uation4
( )
in
dC
V C C Q
dt

where A is the volumetric flow rate and B is the volume of the reactor.
,-uation can be used to predict a variety of effluent responses to tracer inputs such
as the pulse input used in this experiment. $f a mass of tracer is discharged directly
into a reactor so that the initial concentration of tracer in the reactor is C
3
1
M
V
and
the input concentration is )ero C
in
1 3! the solution to the differential e-uation is4
3
.t
C C exp
t
_

,
$f a reactor has a complete mix flow regime its response C6C
3
vs. time! to a pulse
input should plot as a straight line on a semi.logarithmic plot. #he slope of this plot is
the negative inverse of the average hydraulic residence time, t , of the reactor.
Complete mix flow regimes can be approximated -uite closely in practice.
Plug Flow Reactor
'lug flow regimes are impossible to attain because mass transport must be by
advection alone. #here can be no differential displacement of tracer relative to the
average advective velocity. $n practice some mixing will occur due to molecular
diffusion, turbulent dispersion, and6or fluid shear. &or the case of the plug flow
reactor the advective dispersion e-uation reduces to4
C C
U
t x



&igure /. 'ulse and step input in a plug flow reactor.#he velocity 0 serves to
transform the directional concentration gradient into a temporal concentration
gradient. $n other words, a conservative substance moves with the advective flow of
the fluid. #he solutions to this differential e-uation for a pulse input and for a step
input are shown graphically in &igure /.
Mass Conservation
:hen a pulse of conservative tracer is added to a continuous flow reactor, all of the
tracer is expected to leave the reactor eventually. #he mass of a substance that has left
the reactor is given in e-uation .
3
n
i i
i
M QC t

where A is the flow rate and M is the mass of any substance whose concentration is
given by C. $f A and Ct are constant, then e-uation can be rewritten as
3
n
i
i
M Q t C

,-uation can be used to determine if all of the tracer was measured in the reactor
effluent.
Conductivity Measurements
:e will use a tracer containing salt DaCl! and red dye E F3 for visuali)ation!. #he
concentration of DaCl will be monitored using a conductivity probe. Conductivity is
the measure of a material8s ability to conduct electric current. Conductivity is
measured by passing an electrical current between two electrodes and then measuring
the voltage. #he electrodes can be made of platinum, titanium, gold.plated nickel, or
graphite. Conductivity is defined as4
I
G
E

where ; is conductivity, $ is the current, and , is the measured voltage.

$f the current is held constant, as the conductivity of the solution increases the
voltage between the electrodes will decrease. &or a given current, the measured
voltage will increase as the si)e of the electrodes decreases and as the distance
U
X
C
C
o
U
X
C
C
o
pulse input
step input
C
between the electrodes increases. :e are interested, however, in measuring properties
of the solution, not properties of the conductivity probeG "pecific conductivity, C, is a
property of the solution.
L
C G
A

where L is the distance between the electrodes and * is the area of the electrodes. #he
term
L
A
_

,
is a property of the conductivity cell and is called the cell constant. $n
practice, the cell constant is determined during calibration by measuring the
conductivity ;! of a solution with known specific conductivity C!. #he units of
specific conductivity are "iemens6cm where "iemens are the inverse of 2hms.
&or a solution to be conductive, it must have ions that can transport the charge
between the electrodes. $n pure water, the only ions available are HI and 2H.. *dding
species that disassociate into charged ions increases both the concentration of ions
and the specific conductivity. *t low concentrations, specific conductivity increases
linearly with the concentration of ions. *t very high concentrations ion.ion
interactions become significant and the relationship is no longer linear. #he specific
conductivity of several common solutions is given in #able 9.
Conductivity measurements are
temperature dependent. #he
conductivity of a solution will
increase as the temperature
increases. #he *ccumetJ meter that
you will use in this laboratory
compensates for this effect by also
measuring the temperature and
reporting the solution specific
conductivity at /KLC.
$n this lab sodium chloride will
increase the specific conductivity of
the water in the reactors. #he concentration of sodium chloride will be low enough so
that specific conductivity will be linearly related to the concentration of sodium
chloride.
Procedures
* conservative tracer will be used to characteri)e each of the reactors. *
conservative tracer with /3 g DaCl6L and F g red dye E F36L will be used. #he salt
will increase the conductivity of the water and conductivity will be measured to
monitor the salt concentration. #he red dye was added to the tracer to make it possible
to see the tracer.
* common problem when using tracers is that the tracer may have a different
density than the fluid that is in the reactors. $n this case the salt and dye add
significantly to the density of the tracer. #he tracer would tend to sink to the bottom
of the reactors. #o compensate for this problem the density of the water being pumped
#able 9. Conductivity of some common
solutions.
"olution "pecific Conductivity
pure water 3.3KK M"6cm
distilled water 3.K M"6cm
deioni)ed water 3.9.93 M"6cm
typical drinking water 3.K.9.3 m"6cm
wastewater 3.N.N.3 m"6cm
maximum drinking water 9.K m"6cm
ocean water KO m"6cm
93P Da2H OKK m"6cm
FNK mg6L DaCl 9 m"6cm
into some reactors will be increased by using a glucose solution OQ g glucose6L!.
;lucose is nonionic and thus will not increase the conductivity of the solution.
Calibrate Conductivity probe
Calibrate the conductivity probe by placing it in a FNK mg DaCl6L standard. 'ress
the conductivity button on the *ccumetJ meter if it is not already in the
conductivity mode. 'ress standardie and enter !""" M"6cm. 'ress enter and the
meter will calibrate and return to the normal display mode.
Measure Conductivity of tracer
'repare a calibration curve for conductivity vs. concentration of the tracer
expressed as mg6L of DaCl!. #he tracer has /3 g6L of DaCl. Measure the
conductivity of tracer diluted with distilled water so that the final concentrations of
DaCl are K33, /33, and 933 mg6L. *s a )ero point measure the conductivity of
distilled water.
Measure Reactor Response to Pulse Input
&or each reactor add a pulse input of sodium, measure conductivity vs. time in the
reactor effluent and use the CompumetJ software to monitor the conductivity vs.
time see discussion below!. "ave the collected data for later analysis using a
spreadsheet program. #he experimental setup is shown in &igure O. "pecific
instructions for each type of reactor are detailed below.
Figure 3. Reactor schematic. Only one reactor at a time will be connected to
the peristaltic pump.Porous Media
#he porous media column is /.K cm in diameter, R3 cm long and contains R3 cm of
glass beads. #he overall porosity including headspace and underdrains is
approximately 3.F. 0se this information to estimate the volume of water in the
reactor. #he conductivity probe should be plumbed into the effluent line.
&eed
solution
glucose
solution!
'eristaltic
pump
&low with
dispersion
or
Completely
mixed
reactor
'lug flow
reactor
or
stirrer
$nSection port
9! Berify that the flow rate is set to 93 mL6min.
/! $nSect 93 mg DaCl 3.K mL of tracer! into the influent line.
O! "elect #et Method from the CompumetJ control palette. 0se automatic data
transmission with a timed interval of 9 second. "et channel * to Conductivity and
channel + to 2ff.
F! "elect Monitor #ample from the control palette.
K! "tart the pump and press the enter key on the keyboard to begin data ac-uisition.
R! Measure the actual flow rate by collecting a timed sample from the effluent. #o
get an accurate flow rate you should collect a sample for several minutes.
Q! ,stimate the width of the tracer pulse when the pulse nears the top of the reactor
and record the corresponding time. #his information will be used to obtain an
estimate of the dispersion coefficient.
@! #urn off the pump when the conductivity returns to the baseline conductivity.
N! "top data ac-uisition by clicking on the #top #ampling button.
93! "ave the data to TT,nviroTenviroTCoursesTFKOTreactorsTnetidUporousmedia by
selecting #ave data from the control palette. #he data will be saved in a file tab
delimited format! that can be opened by any spreadsheet program.
Completely Mix Flow Reactor (CMFR)
9! Berify that the flow rate is set to O33 mL6min.
/! &ill the CM&R with distilled water to within about / mm of the overflow drain .
O! Measure the conductivity of the distilled water.
F! "et the stirrer to the highest setting that doesn8t cause splashing setting @! and
place the conductivity probe near the stir bar.
K! *dd @33 mg DaCl F3 mL tracer! directly to the CM&R.
R! "elect #et Method from the CompumetJ control palette. 0se automatic data
transmission with a timed interval of 93 second. "et channel * to Conductivity
and channel + to 2ff.
Q! "elect Monitor #ample from the control palette.
@! "tart the pump and press the enter key on the keyboard to begin data ac-uisition.
N! Record the time when water begins flowing out the overflow this is your actual
time )eroG!
93! Measure the flow rate by collecting a timed sample from the effluent. #o get an
accurate flow rate you should collect a sample for several minutes.
99! #urn off the pump after / residence times.
9/! "top data ac-uisition by clicking on the #top #ampling button.
99! "ave the data to TT,nviroTenviroTCoursesTFKOTreactorsTnetidUCM&R by selecting
#ave data from the control palette. #he data will be saved in a file tab delimited
format! that can be opened by any spreadsheet program.
9O! (etermine the volume of water in the CM&R.
a!!led "an# Reactor
#he baffled tank reactor is a simple attempt to reduce mixing and short.circuiting.
#he channels are approximately F.K cm wide, F.@ cm deep and have a total length of
@3 cm.
9! Berify that the flow rate is set to O33 mL6min.
/! (etermine the volume of water in the baffled tank.
O! &ill the baffled tank with glucose water.
F! Measure the conductivity of the glucose water.
K! "elect #et Method from the CompumetJ control palette. 0se automatic data
transmission with a timed interval of 93 second. "et channel * to Conductivity
and channel + to 2ff.
R! "elect Monitor #ample from the control palette.
Q! $nSect /33 mg DaCl 93 mL of tracer! into the influent line with a syringe.
@! "tart the pump and press the enter key on the keyboard to begin data ac-uisition.
N! (uring data ac-uisition, it is important to gently move the conductivity probe up
and down to continually bring the probe into contact with the changing solution.
:hile moving the probe up and down, do not lift the probe so high that the
platinum contacts leave the solution
93! Measure the actual flow rate by collecting a timed sample from the effluent. #o
get an accurate flow rate you should collect a sample for several minutes.
99! #urn off the pump when the conductivity returns to the baseline conductivity.
9/! "top data ac-uisition by clicking on the #top #ampling button.
9O! Measure the average conductivity of the remaining solution in the baffled tank.
9/! "ave the data to TT,nviroTenviroTCoursesTFKOTreactorsTnetidUbaffled by selecting
#ave data from the control palette. #he data will be saved in a file tab delimited
format! that can be opened by any spreadsheet program.
Pipe Flow
#he pipe flow setup consists of 9K./F m of R mm $( tubing.
9! Berify that the flow rate is set to K3 mL6min.
/! &ill the pipe with glucose water.
O! "elect #et Method from the CompumetJ control palette. 0se automatic data
transmission with a timed interval of 9 second. "et channel * to Conductivity and
channel + to 2ff.
F! "elect Monitor #ample from the control palette.
K! $nSect 93 mg DaCl 3.K mL of tracer! into the influent line with a syringe.
R! "tart the pump and press the enter key on the computer keyboard to begin data
ac-uisition.
Q! Measure the actual flow rate by collecting a timed sample from the effluent. #o
get an accurate flow rate you should collect a sample for several minutes.
@! #urn off the pump when the conductivity returns to the baseline conductivity.
N! "top data ac-uisition by clicking on the #top #ampling button.
9O! "ave the data to TT,nviroTenviroTCoursesTFKOTreactorsTnetidUpipe by selecting
#ave data from the control palette. #he data will be saved in a file tab delimited
format! that can be opened by any spreadsheet program.
Prelab $uestions
9! :hy is a OQ g6L glucose solution used for the plug flow reactorV :hy is the
glucose solution not needed for the completely mixed flow reactorV
/! :hy is the conductivity of pure water not )eroV
Data %nalysis
0se a consistent set of units throughout your data analysis and include the units in
your spreadsheet and reportG
9! (erive an e-uation relating concentration of DaCl in the tracer to conductivity
based on the F point calibration curve. 0se the slope from the e-uation and the
baseline conductivity of each of the reactors to convert the conductivity data to
concentration of DaCl for each reactor.
/! 'erform a mass balance on the salt. :hen applicable include the measurements of
residual salt left in the reactors at the end of your experiments. 0se e-uation to
calculate the mass of DaCl measured in the effluent from each reactor and
compare with the mass of DaCl added.
O! Calculate the volume of the pipe flow and porous media reactors based on their
dimensions and porosity.
F! &rom the data determine t for each reactor use e-uation for the baffled tank,
pipe flow, and porous media column and use e-uation for the CM&R! and
compare with the hydraulic residence time 1 B6A!. (iscuss any discrepancies.
K! #he width of the plume as measured by eye for the porous media column is
approximately F standard deviations / on each side of the peak!. 0se your
measurement of the width of the plume and e-uation to estimate the dispersion
coefficient for the porous media reactor.
R! ,stimate the 'eclet numbers e-uation ! and the dispersion coefficients e-uation !
for the baffled tank, pipe flow, and porous media column. Compare the dispersion
coefficient for the porous media reactor with the estimate obtained in the previous
step.
Q! 'lot actual and theoretical effluent tracer concentration versus time for the three
reactors. 0se the calculated dispersion coefficient e-uation ! substituted into
e-uation to model the baffled tank, pipe flow, and porous media column. 2n the
graphs also show , and t these can be added to your graph in ,xcel as
additional plots!. 0se the CM&R volume to obtain the theoretical value of the
initial concentration.
@! Compare your results with theory. ;ive possible reasons for deviations from
theoretical expectations.
N! (iscuss what you learned.
&ab Prep Notes
#able /. ,-uipment list
Description #upplier Catalog
number
*ccumetJ K3
meter
&isher "cientific 9O.ROK.K3
floating stir bar &isher "cientific 9F.K99.NN*
magnetic stirrer &isher "cientific 99.K33.Q"
R L container &isher "cientific 3O.F@F.//
Conductivity
Cell 96cm
&isher "cientific 9O.R/3.9R3
column &isher "cientific WF/3@O3.R393
glass shot
/NQ.F/3 Mm
"unbelt
$ndustries
Mil K
R L container
with baffles
C,, shop
O.port leur
manifold
Cole 'armer H.3RFRF.@/
variable flow
digital drive
Cole 'armer H.3QK/O.O3
,asy.Load
pump head
Cole 'armer H.3QK9@.33
'harMed tubing
si)e 9@
Cole 'armer H.3RF@K.9@
/3 liter H(',
Xerrican
&isher "cientific 3/.NR9.K3C
#able O. Reagent list
Description #upplier'#ource Catalog
number
DaCl &isher "cientific +'OK@.9
red dye EF3 M; Dewell 3QQ3F.9
glucose *ldrich 9K,@NR.@
9333 M"
solution
FNK mg DaCl6L
#racer /3 g DaCl6L
F g red dye EF36L
glucose feed
solution
OQ g glucose6L
9! 'repare glucose solution for the baffled tank and pipe flow reactors in Xerricans.
/! 'repare 9 L of tracer.
O! 'repare 9 L of 9333 M"6cm solution conductivity standard!.
F! (istribute tracer and conductivity standard for each setup.
K! 0se E 9@ tubing for CM&R and baffled tank. 0se E9R tubing for pipe flow and
porous media reactors.
R! 'lace all conductivity probes in distilled water so they are conditioned. 2therwise
the readings will drift.
Q! 3.K mL tracer6933 mL 1 933 mg6L.
#he concentration of glucose re-uired to achieve the same density as a sodium
chloride solution is 9.@F@ times as great.
NN3
9333
9393
93/3
93O3
93F3
3 /3 F3 R3 @3 933
C g6L!
d
e
n
s
i
t
y

g
6
L
!
density 1 3.OQ@C I NN@./9K
&igure F. (ensity of glucose solution as a function of glucose concentration.
NNK
9333
933K
9393
939K
93/3
93/K
3 93 /3 O3
C g6L!
d
e
n
s
i
t
y

g
6
L
!
density 1 3.RN@KC I NN@./N
&igure K. (ensity of sodium chloride solution as a function of concentration.