Chapter 2:Ferrous Metals

2.0 Iron Productions

1. Iron ores are main material in iron ingot production.
2. In mining process, the iron ore are in pure state. It also found along with other
substances such as oxide, sulphade, sulphur, silicon, etc.
2.2 Iron Ores Characteristics
1. GRADE containing as much as possible iron oxide
2. COMPACTABILITY not too compact or too brittle
3. PURITY containing as less as possible impurities
4. SIMILARITY containing similar composition to one another
Hematite
Limonite Magnetite Iron Ore
Iron Ore Mining
2.3 Iron Production Process
Blast Furnace
Iron Ore is smelted in the Blast Furnace in
order to remove unwanted impurities such
as rocks, clay and sand, and also to separate
the Iron from the Oxygen. The result is Iron
which is about 95% pure. The remaining
impurities are other elements which can be
removed later if necessary. A Blast Furnace
is about 100ft. high and produces abut 1000
tons of molten Iron a day. It is made from
steel.
1. Its divided into 2 parts :
i. combustion chamber/ stove where the hot air from, blast into the furnace
ii. fire bricks (furnace) to form a wide space (shaft) to accommodate and discharge the heat

The Blast Furnace Process

1. The Iron Ore, Coke and Limestone, (the Charge), is
conveyed to the top of the Furnace.

2. The Charge is stored in Bells until the timing is right for
the charge to be dropped into the Furnace.

3. Hot air is then blown through pipes called Tuyeres, to fire
the mixture.

4. The Coke burns to increase the temperature in the
Furnace.



The Blast Furnace Process

5. The Limestone attracts the impurities in the Iron Ore and forms
Slag. This Slag is lighter than the molten Iron and so floats on top of
it.

6. As the Furnace fills, the molten Iron is Tapped off. The Slag is
also tapped off at regular intervals.

Most Iron is taken straight from the Blast Furnace to the Steel Mill,
but some is poured into buckets called Pigs. This Iron is called Pig
Iron and is used to make Cast Iron.
Three important chemical processes in the blast furnace :
i. carbon from the coke burning with oxygen in the air blast
ii. oxide reduction to the irons
iii. flushing the gauge and ashes from the iron ores using the limestone

The disadvantages:
i. high in cost and capital for operation
ii. controlling iron composition are weak
iii. small furnace using coke are incompetent, huge production from bigger furnace are
no necessity.

The output (products) of the blast furnace :
i. the iron ingots contains 93% of basic irons, 3% - 5% of carbon, silica, sulphur,
phosphorus and manganese.
ii. besides, slags also can be used when separated from melting irons in the furnace such
as road ways and building blocks
2.4 Steel Production
Basic Oxygen Process Furnace (BOP)
(Using pure oxygen.)
The Water-Cooled Lance
The Water-Cooled Lance provides the oxygen to the Furnace so that the temperature
in the Furnace will increase. The Oxygen that comes through the Lance is extremely hot after
coming through special heating ovens. The Lance has to be Water-Cooled so that it will not melt
in the Furnace.


The Steel Shell
The main body of the Basic Oxygen Furnace is made from Steel, as the
material is strong and durable, or tough. The Steel Shell does not melt because of the
Refractory Lining.

The Refractory Lining
The Refractory Lining is a special type of cement that has the ability to reflect
heat. If you look at the back of an open fireplace, the cement you see on the back wall is
a Refractory material, although it would not be of the same quality as the Refractory
lining in a Furnace. The Refractory Lining has two purposes. The first is to keep the
heat from the furnace in so that less energy is required to keep the Furnace at operating
temperature. The second reason is to protect the Steel Shell of the Furnace.



The Molten Metal
The Molten Metal at the bottom of the Furnace is the Steel. The Steel is below the Slag as it
is heavier or denser. The Molten Steel is removed from the Furnace when the Steel is of the correct
consistency, through the Tap Hole.

The Slag
The Slag which sits on top of the Molten Metal, because it is less dense, is the waste
material from the process of creating Steel. It consists of the impurities, that is most materials other
than Iron and Carbon which were put into the Furnace at the start when the Furnace was being
Charged. The Slag is removed from the Furnace when the time is ready.
The slag
The Tap hole
The Tap hole is used to remove the Molten Steel from the Furnace when it is of the right
consistency. During the process of manufacturing the Tap Hole is "plugged" so as not to allow heat to
escape from the Furnace.

The Converter Fumes
The Converter Fumes has two purposes. The first is to trap the dangerous gases that the Basic
Oxygen Process produces so that they cannot escape into the atmosphere to poison people or create Acid
Rain. The gases are "cleaned" or put to other uses. One important use of the gases is to heat the Oxygen
that is going through the Water-Cooled Lance. The second purpose is to reduce the amount of heat loss in
the Furnace.

The Basic Oxygen Process

1. Scrap Charging
Scrap Iron and Steel are tipped into the Furnace.
The Iron and Steel comes from old or scraped cars, bridges,
buildings, etc. Also used is Iron or Steel that when
manufactured into a product was not of good enough quality
to be used for its intended purpose.

2. Molten Iron Charging
Molten Iron, which comes straight from the Blast
Furnace is then tipped into the Furnace. The Furnace is now
ready for the blow.


3. The Blow
The Converter Fume is lowered onto the Furnace.
The water cooled lance is then lowered. This carries the hot
Oxygen to the surface of the hot metal, increasing the
temperature in the Furnace and melting all of the metal. The
Oxygen combines with the impurities to form oxides in the
form of gases and slag.

4. Sampling
During the Blow the temperature of the Furnace
is monitored, and at regular intervals samples of the molten
metal are taken to be analyses. When the Steel is of the right
composition, then the Steel workers can move onto the next
stage.
5. Pouring
When the Steel is of the right composition
the Converter fume and the water cooled Lance are
removed. The molten Steel is then poured out the Tap
hole by turning the Furnace to one side. The Steel is
then cast into ingots, or processed by continuous
casting.

6. Slagging
When all of the Steel has been poured out,
the Furnace is turned upside down, in the opposite
direction to that when pouring, and the Slag is removed.




This furnace has high ability in production and easier to handle.
Low in oxygen rates made it suitable in producing steel alloy
because the metal did not react with the oxygen in the furnace.
This furnace used widely and suitable for upgrading the steel,
produces tool steel and high quality alloy steel.
It can produce up to 120 tones of steels within 4 hours.
2.5 Steel Production
Electric Arc Furnace (EAF)
Electric Arc Furnace Diagram
Electric Arc Furnace operation

1. Charging
Charge materials which containing steel scraps,
iron ores, oxide irons and limestone were added
into the furnace.
Electric current flow to the carbon electrode to
supply the electric arc.
2. Melting
The electric arc will melted the oxidize
charge materials.
Silicon, manganese and phosphorus will
start to oxidize and combined with
limestone to form slags.
Only the carbon electrodes are burning,
therefore there is no metal lost.
3. Slagging
The limestone, fluorspars and oxide
irons are added to form slags.
After the reaction, it will form the
needed steel compositions.
Sulphur then added to the slags as
calcium sulphade.
The reaction are shown as below :
FeS + CaO + C CaS + Fe + CO
4. Finishing or tapping
The steel oxidized by aluminum, ferro-
silicon or ferro-manganese to retracted
the steels.
Slags will be plucked or poured start
from its surface and then will be
separated or tapped through a hole/ exit
channel by leaning the furnace.

The advantages of electric arc furnace :

i. blazing process can be controlled and arranged efficiently
ii. no oxidation gases, so can produce high quality steels
iii. the temperature can be control accurately
iv. free from soils and smokes

2.6 Plain Carbon Steel
Plain carbon steel is an iron carbon alloy containing 0.02 to 2%
carbon. All commercial plain carbon steels contains manganese,
sulphur, phosphorus and silicon impurities.

2.6.1 Iron-Carbon Phase Equilibrium Diagram
1. The Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram are a phase diagram that shows the connection
between amount of carbon and the changes of internal structure by irons and steels
while heated until reaching their melting point.
2. Only ferrous metals could show the changes while it is heated.
3. First stage/ phase called lower critical temperature and the second stage of
changes called upper critical temperature.
4. The levels of lower critical temperature for every eutectoid steels (0.8% carbon)
are the same which it is about 723C.
5. However, the upper critical temperatures are different depends on the amount of
carbon. The higher the amount (more than 0.8%), the higher the temperature.

2.6.1.1 Irons, Steels and Cast Irons in the Iron-Carbon Phase
Equilibrium Diagram
1. Between the temperature of 1400C and 1537C, the solid irons exist in body-centered
cubic (BCC) and called as pearlite.
2. The temperature between 910C and 1400C, the crystalline structures are face-centered
cubic (FCC) called austenite.
3. The temperature 910C and below, the iron structures are bodycentered cubic (BCC)
called ferrite.
4. At 1125C, cementite dissolvability in austenite irons is limited at 2% carbon only.
5. Cementite solid solutions in austenite called ferrite.
6. Eutectoid composition for ferrite and cementite called pearlite which containing a lamellar
structure consisting of alternate layers of cementite and ferrite.
7. Ferrite and cementite only transformed from austenite with slow cooling process. But with
fast cooling process, the martensite will transformed from austenite.

Fig 2: Microstructure for various phase of steel
2.7 Terminologies in Phase Diagram
1. Ferrite / (alpha-iron)
Ferrite is very soft, ductile and of relatively low
strength

2. Austenite / (gamma iron)
Austenite is also a soft and ductile phase but
stronger and less ductile than ferrite
3. Cementite / Fe3C (iron carbide)
It is combinations of carbon with iron (Fe) to
form iron carbide (Fe3C)
Cementite is a hard and brittle compound

4. Pearlite / + Fe3C
A lamellar structure consisting of alternate
layers of ferrite and cementite
A pearlite has a variable hardness

Pearlite
5. Martensite
The fast cooling of steel from austenite
phase results in the formation of a
martensite
Hard and brittle

6. Ledeburite
Consisting of a mixture of two phases,
austenite and cementite.
7. Lower Critical Temperature
It is the temperature, during heating, at which pearlite changes to austenite. This
transformation occurs at a fixed temperature of 723C irrespective of the composition of
the alloy

8. Upper Critical Temperature
It is the temperature, during heating, at which last traces of cementite change into austenite
and the alloy becomes completely austenite and it varies from 723C to 1148C depending
upon the carbon content in the alloy

2.8 Types of Carbon Steels
Low carbon steel
Contains less than 0.3% carbon (<0.3% C)
Low strength, good machinability, high ductility, formability and weld ability
Applications : bridge structures, buildings, ships, vehicles, nails, rivets
Good fabrication ductility characteristic and usually used in annealing and normalizing
conditions


Medium carbon steel
Contains 0.3 0.8% carbon
High strength and ductility after heat treatment, stability, tough and tensile strength
Applications : railways, wheels, shafts, gears, bolts
It can be quenched to form martensite and bainite if using media for quenching such
as water and brine

High carbon steel
Contains more than 0.8% carbon (>0.8% C)
Low in strength, high in hardness and wear resistance after heat treatment
Applications : moulds, hammers, knives, milling cutters
Also known as tool steel
Tempering process can accelerate martensite formation and maintain the low strength
properties



2.9 Alloy Steels
1. Alloy steel may be defined as carbon steel to which one or more elements are added to
get some beneficial effects.
2. Main purposes :
i. to improve the quality of steels
ii. to improve steel characteristics
iii. to make it suitable for engineering works
iv. to make it easier for heat treatment process

3. The commonly added elements to achieve these properties :
i. increase tensile strength
ii. increase hardness and toughness
iii. higher hardenability
iv. changeability for critical temperature
v. increase wear and abrasive resistance
vi. higher corrosion and oxidation resistance
vii. maintaining higher hardness (red hardness) at temperatures up to 600 C, due to the
presence of alloy carbides
viii. higher temperability, and maintain the hardness and strength at elevated
temperatures (creep strength)

2.9.1 Alloying elements and the effects
Nickel
increase the strength, hardness and toughness
increase the machineability in finishing process
improves the corrosion resistance of steels
Chromium
increase the strength and hardness machineability
Manganese
increase hardness and machineability
act as oxidation agent at higher temperature
high finishability
Silicon
deoxidizer, fixing oxidation resistance at high temperature
increase the critical temperature for heat treatment
increase the tensile strength and creep at higher temperature
Cuprum
gives resistance to corrosion and act as strengthened
agent
Aluminium
deoxidation, promotes the fine grain formation and
formed as nitriding steel
Boron
increase the hardenability properties
Plumbum
repairing the machineability properties
Bismuth
repairing the machineability properties
Vanadium
deoxidation, promotes the fine grain formation
Molybdenum
easier for hardnessability


2.9.2 Main Classes, Element Contents and Alloy Steels Applications

2.10 Cast Irons
1. An alloy of iron and carbon containing 2 4% carbon.
2. Carbon content form in two ways:
a) cementite (Fe3C)
b) graphite (Fe+C) as free carbon when the cementite is decomposed

2.10.1 Factors In Carbon Forming

Cooling / Solidifying Process Rate
The cooling rate depends on the thickness and type of die/mould.
1. Slow cooling : caused the carbon separated as graphite, producing grey cast iron
2. Rapid cooling : prevent the change of graphite and maintain it hardness and difficult to
machined, producing white cast iron

Heat Treatment
1. With long heating process, white cast iron will be forming graphite structure and are used to
produce malleable steel.

High Carbon Contents
1. With high carbon contents, the cast irons will have the tendency to solidify as grey cast irons.
2. The strength and hardness of irons increased with the increasing of carbon.

2.10.2 Alloying Elements

i. Silicon - The higher silicon contents, causing higher resistance and good magnetic
properties
ii. Sulphur - Causing the cast irons to be harden, embrittle and weak
iii. Phosphorus - Increasing strength, hardness and improving the resistance of
corrosion
iv. Manganese - Causing strength, toughness and high wear resistance, hard to
machine because of the hardness

2.10.3 The Advantages of Cast Irons

Widely used in industries as for :
i. cheaper and machineable
ii. low melting point (1140C - 1200C) compared to steels
iii. liquidity and formability in casting
iv. wear resistance and moistureability

2.10.4 Structures, Properties and the Usages of Cast Irons