ment

3.1 The problem

3.2 Conventional wastewater treatment processes
3.3 Natural biological treatment systems
3.1 The problem
The principal objective of wastewater treatment is generally to allow human and industrial effluents to be
disposed of without danger to human health or unacceptable damage to the natural environment. Irrigation with
wastewater is both disposal and utiliation and indeed is an effective form of wastewater disposal !as in slow"rate
land treatment#. $owever% some degree of treatment must normally be provided to raw municipal wastewater
before it can be used for agricultural or landscape irrigation or for a&uaculture. The &uality of treated effluent used
in agriculture has a great influence on the operation and performance of the wastewater"soil"plant or a&uaculture
system. In the case of irrigation% the re&uired &uality of effluent will depend on the crop or crops to be irrigated%
the soil conditions and the system of effluent distribution adopted. Through crop restriction and selection of
irrigation systems which minimie health ris'% the degree of pre"application wastewater treatment can be
reduced. ( similar approach is not feasible in a&uaculture systems and more reliance will have to be placed on
control through wastewater treatment.
The most appropriate wastewater treatment to be applied before effluent use in agriculture is that which will
produce an effluent meeting the recommended microbiological and chemical &uality guidelines both at low cost
and with minimal operational and maintenance re&uirements !(rar 1)**#. (dopting as low a level of treatment as
possible is especially desirable in developing countries% not only from the point of view of cost but also in
ac'nowledgement of the difficulty of operating comple+ systems reliably. In many locations it will be better to
design the reuse system to accept a low"grade of effluent rather than to rely on advanced treatment processes
producing a reclaimed effluent which continuously meets a stringent &uality standard.
Nevertheless% there are locations where a higher"grade effluent will be necessary and it is essential that
information on the performance of a wide range of wastewater treatment technology should be available. The
design of wastewater treatment plants is usually based on the need to reduce organic and suspended solids
loads to limit pollution of the environment. ,athogen removal has very rarely been considered an objective but%
for reuse of effluents in agriculture% this must now be of primary concern and processes should be selected and
designed accordingly !$illman 1)**#. Treatment to remove wastewater constituents that may be to+ic or harmful
to crops% a&uatic plants !macrophytes# and fish is technically possible but is not normally economically feasible.
-nfortunately% few performance data on wastewater treatment plants in developing countries are available and
even then they do not normally include effluent &uality parameters of importance in agricultural use.
The short"term variations in wastewater flows observed at municipal wastewater treatment plants follow a diurnal
pattern. .low is typically low during the early morning hours% when water consumption is lowest and when the
base flow consists of infiltration"inflow and small &uantities of sanitary wastewater. ( first pea' of flow generally
occurs in the late morning% when wastewater from the pea' morning water use reaches the treatment plant% and
a second pea' flow usually occurs in the evening. The relative magnitude of the pea's and the times at which
they occur vary from country to country and with the sie of the community and the length of the sewers. /mall
communities with small sewer systems have a much higher ratio of pea' flow to average flow than do large
communities. (lthough the magnitude of pea's is attenuated as wastewater passes through a treatment plant%
the daily variations in flow from a municipal treatment plant ma'e it impracticable% in most cases% to irrigate with
effluent directly from the treatment plant. /ome form of flow e&ualiation or short"term storage of treated effluent
is necessary to provide a relatively constant supply of reclaimed water for efficient irrigation% although additional
benefits result from storage.
3.2 Conventional wastewater treatment processes
3.2.1 ,reliminary treatment
3.2.2 ,rimary treatment
3.2.3 /econdary treatment
3.2.0 Tertiary and1or advanced treatment
3.2.2 3isinfection
3.2.4 5ffluent storage
3.2.6 7eliability of conventional and advanced wastewater treatment
Conventional wastewater treatment consists of a combination of physical% chemical% and biological processes
and operations to remove solids% organic matter and% sometimes% nutrients from wastewater. 8eneral terms used
to describe different degrees of treatment% in order of increasing treatment level% are preliminary% primary%
secondary% and tertiary and1or advanced wastewater treatment. In some countries% disinfection to remove
pathogens sometimes follows the last treatment step. ( generalied wastewater treatment diagram is shown in
.igure 2.
Figure 5: Generalized low diagram or municipal wastewater treatment !"sano et al. 1#$5%
3.2.1 &reliminar' treatment
The objective of preliminary treatment is the removal of coarse solids and other large materials often found in raw
wastewater. 7emoval of these materials is necessary to enhance the operation and maintenance of subse&uent
treatment units. ,reliminary treatment operations typically include coarse screening% grit removal and% in some
cases% comminution of large objects. In grit chambers% the velocity of the water through the chamber is
maintained sufficiently high% or air is used% so as to prevent the settling of most organic solids. 8rit removal is not
included as a preliminary treatment step in most small wastewater treatment plants. Comminutors are sometimes
adopted to supplement coarse screening and serve to reduce the sie of large particles so that they will be
removed in the form of a sludge in subse&uent treatment processes. .low measurement devices% often standing"
wave flumes% are always included at the preliminary treatment stage.
3.2.2 &rimar' treatment
The objective of primary treatment is the removal of settleable organic and inorganic solids by sedimentation% and
the removal of materials that will float !scum# by s'imming. (ppro+imately 22 to 29: of the incoming biochemical
o+ygen demand !;<32#% 29 to 69: of the total suspended solids !//#% and 42: of the oil and grease are
removed during primary treatment. /ome organic nitrogen% organic phosphorus% and heavy metals associated
with solids are also removed during primary sedimentation but colloidal and dissolved constituents are not
affected. The effluent from primary sedimentation units is referred to as primary effluent. Table 12 provides
information on primary effluent from three sewage treatment plants in California along with data on the raw
wastewaters.
Table 12= >-(?IT@ <. 7(A A(/T5A(T57 (N3 ,7IB(7@ 5..?-5NT (T /5?5CT53 T75(TB5NT ,?(NT/
IN C(?I.<7NI(
(ualit' parameters !mg)l*
e+cept as otherwise
indicated%
Cit' o ,avis -an ,iego .os "ngeles Count'
/oint &lant
0aw
wastewater
&rimar'
eluent
0aw
wastewater
&rimar'
eluent
0aw
wastewater
&rimar'
eluent
;iochemical o+ygen
demand%;<32
112 63 1*0 130 " 290
Total organic carbon 43.* 09.4 40.* 22.3 " "
/uspended solids 1*2 62 299 19) " 21)
Total nitrogen 03.0 30.6 " " " "
N$3"N 32.4 24.2 21.9 29.9 " 3).2
N<"N 9 9 " " " "
<rg"N 6.* *.2 " " " 10.)
Total phosphorus " 6.2 " 19.2 " 11.2
<rtho", " 6.2 11.2 "
p$ !unit# 6.6 " 6.3 6.3 " "
Cations=
Ca " " " " 6*.* "
Bg " " " " 22.4 "
Na " " " " 326 32)
C " " " " 1) 1)
(nions=
/<0 " 149 269
Cl " 129 3)6
5lectrical conductivity%
d/1m
2.22 2.30 2.1) "
Total dissolved solids " " *2) *21 1090 1094
/oluble sodium
percentage% :
" " 69.3
/odium adsorption ratio " " " " *.*2 4.*
;oron !;# " " " " 1.4* 1.2
(l'alinity (CaC<3) " " " 322 332
$ardness !CaC<3# " " 242
/ource= (sano and Tchobanoglous !1)*6#
In many industrialied countries% primary treatment is the minimum level of preapplication treatment re&uired for
wastewater irrigation. It may be considered sufficient treatment if the wastewater is used to irrigate crops that are
not consumed by humans or to irrigate orchards% vineyards% and some processed food crops. $owever% to
prevent potential nuisance conditions in storage or flow"e&ualiing reservoirs% some form of secondary treatment
is normally re&uired in these countries% even in the case of non"food crop irrigation. It may be possible to use at
least a portion of primary effluent for irrigation if off"line storage is provided.
,rimary sedimentation tan's or clarifiers may be round or rectangular basins% typically 3 to 2 m deep% with
hydraulic retention time between 2 and 3 hours. /ettled solids !primary sludge# are normally removed from the
bottom of tan's by sludge ra'es that scrape the sludge to a central well from which it is pumped to sludge
processing units. /cum is swept across the tan' surface by water jets or mechanical means from which it is also
pumped to sludge processing units.
In large sewage treatment plants !D 6499 m
3
1d in the -/#% primary sludge is most commonly processed
biologically by anaerobic digestion. In the digestion process% anaerobic and facultative bacteria metabolie the
organic material in sludge !see 5+ample 3#% thereby reducing the volume re&uiring ultimate disposal% ma'ing the
sludge stable !nonputrescible# and improving its dewatering characteristics. 3igestion is carried out in covered
tan's !anaerobic digesters#% typically 6 to 10 m deep. The residence time in a digester may vary from a minimum
of about 19 days for high"rate digesters !well"mi+ed and heated# to 49 days or more in standard"rate digesters.
8as containing about 49 to 42: methane is produced during digestion and can be recovered as an energy
source. In small sewage treatment plants% sludge is processed in a variety of ways including= aerobic digestion%
storage in sludge lagoons% direct application to sludge drying beds% in"process storage !as in stabiliation ponds#%
and land application.
1+ample 3: 2iological treatment biochemistr'
3.2.3 -econdar' treatment
The objective of secondary treatment is the further treatment of the effluent from primary treatment to remove the
residual organics and suspended solids. In most cases% secondary treatment follows primary treatment and
involves the removal of biodegradable dissolved and colloidal organic matter using aerobic biological treatment
processes. (erobic biological treatment !see ;o+# is performed in the presence of o+ygen by aerobic
microorganisms !principally bacteria# that metabolie the organic matter in the wastewater% thereby producing
more microorganisms and inorganic end"products !principally C<2% N$3% and $2<#. /everal aerobic biological
processes are used for secondary treatment differing primarily in the manner in which o+ygen is supplied to the
microorganisms and in the rate at which organisms metabolie the organic matter.
$igh"rate biological processes are characteried by relatively small reactor volumes and high concentrations of
microorganisms compared with low rate processes. Conse&uently% the growth rate of new organisms is much
greater in high"rate systems because of the well controlled environment. The microorganisms must be separated
from the treated wastewater by sedimentation to produce clarified secondary effluent. The sedimentation tan's
used in secondary treatment% often referred to as secondary clarifiers% operate in the same basic manner as the
primary clarifiers described previously. The biological solids removed during secondary sedimentation% called
secondary or biological sludge% are normally combined with primary sludge for sludge processing.
Common high"rate processes include the activated sludge processes% tric'ling filters or biofilters% o+idation
ditches% and rotating biological contactors !7;C#. ( combination of two of these processes in series !e.g.% biofilter
followed by activated sludge# is sometimes used to treat municipal wastewater containing a high concentration of
organic material from industrial sources.
i. Activated Sludge
In the activated sludge process% the dispersed"growth reactor is an aeration tan' or basin containing a
suspension of the wastewater and microorganisms% the mi+ed li&uor. The contents of the aeration tan' are mi+ed
vigorously by aeration devices which also supply o+ygen to the biological suspension . (eration devices
commonly used include submerged diffusers that release compressed air and mechanical surface aerators that
introduce air by agitating the li&uid surface. $ydraulic retention time in the aeration tan's usually ranges from 3 to
* hours but can be higher with high ;<32 wastewaters. .ollowing the aeration step% the microorganisms are
separated from the li&uid by sedimentation and the clarified li&uid is secondary effluent. ( portion of the biological
sludge is recycled to the aeration basin to maintain a high mi+ed"li&uor suspended solids !B?//# level. The
remainder is removed from the process and sent to sludge processing to maintain a relatively constant
concentration of microorganisms in the system. /everal variations of the basic activated sludge process% such as
e+tended aeration and o+idation ditches% are in common use% but the principles are similar.
ii. Trickling Filters
( tric'ling filter or biofilter consists of a basin or tower filled with support media such as stones% plastic shapes% or
wooden slats. Aastewater is applied intermittently% or sometimes continuously% over the media. Bicroorganisms
become attached to the media and form a biological layer or fi+ed film. <rganic matter in the wastewater diffuses
into the film% where it is metabolied. <+ygen is normally supplied to the film by the natural flow of air either up or
down through the media% depending on the relative temperatures of the wastewater and ambient air. .orced air
can also be supplied by blowers but this is rarely necessary. The thic'ness of the biofilm increases as new
organisms grow. ,eriodically% portions of the film Eslough off the media. The sloughed material is separated from
the li&uid in a secondary clarifier and discharged to sludge processing. Clarified li&uid from the secondary clarifier
is the secondary effluent and a portion is often recycled to the biofilter to improve hydraulic distribution of the
wastewater over the filter.
iii. Rotating Biological Contactors
7otating biological contactors !7;Cs# are fi+ed"film reactors similar to biofilters in that organisms are attached to
support media. In the case of the 7;C% the support media are slowly rotating discs that are partially submerged
in flowing wastewater in the reactor. <+ygen is supplied to the attached biofilm from the air when the film is out of
the water and from the li&uid when submerged% since o+ygen is transferred to the wastewater by surface
turbulence created by the discsE rotation. /loughed pieces of biofilm are removed in the same manner described
for biofilters.
$igh"rate biological treatment processes% in combination with primary sedimentation% typically remove *2 : of
the ;<32 and // originally present in the raw wastewater and some of the heavy metals. (ctivated sludge
generally produces an effluent of slightly higher &uality% in terms of these constituents% than biofilters or 7;Cs.
Ahen coupled with a disinfection step% these processes can provide substantial but not complete removal of
bacteria and virus. $owever% they remove very little phosphorus% nitrogen% non"biodegradable organics% or
dissolved minerals. 3ata on effluent &uality from selected secondary treatment plants in California are presented
in Table 13.
Table 13= >-(?IT@ <. /5C<N3(7@ 5..?-5NT (T /5?5CT53 A(/T5A(T57 T75(TB5NT ,?(NT/ IN
C(?I.<7NI(
(ualit' parameter !mg)3 e+cept
as otherwise indicated%
&lant location
Tric4ling ilters "ctivated sludge
Chino 2asin
56, !7o. 1%
Chino 2asin
56, !7o. 2%
-anta 0osa
.aguna
5ontecito
-anitar' ,istrict
;iochemical o+ygen demand%
;<32
21 * " 11
Chemical o+ygen demand " " 26 "
/uspended solids 1* 24 " 13
Total nitrogen " " " "
N$3"N 22 11 19 1.0
N<3"N 9.6 1) * 2
<rg"N " " 1.6 "
Total phosphorus " " 12.2 "
<rtho", " " 3.0 "
p$ !unit# " " " 6.4
Cations=
Ca 03 22 01 *2
Bg 12 1* 1* 33
Na *3 192 )0 "
C 16 29 11 "
(nions=
$C<3 2)3 1)2 142 "
/<0 *2 103 44 1)2
Cl *1 )9 121 202
5lectrical conductivity d/1m " " " 1.3)
Total dissolved solids 064 2)1 0*0 )09
/odium adsorption ratio 2.) 3.1 3.) 3.6
;oron !;# 9.6 9.4 9.4 9.6
(l'alinity !CaC<3# " " " 224
Total $ardness !CaC<3# 124 299 162 242
/ource= (sano and Tchobanoglous !1)*6#
3.2.8 Tertiar' and)or advanced treatment
Tertiary and1or advanced wastewater treatment is employed when specific wastewater constituents which cannot
be removed by secondary treatment must be removed. (s shown in .igure 3% individual treatment processes are
necessary to remove nitrogen% phosphorus% additional suspended solids% refractory organics% heavy metals and
dissolved solids. ;ecause advanced treatment usually follows high"rate secondary treatment% it is sometimes
referred to as tertiary treatment. $owever% advanced treatment processes are sometimes combined with primary
or secondary treatment !e.g.% chemical addition to primary clarifiers or aeration basins to remove phosphorus# or
used in place of secondary treatment !e.g.% overland flow treatment of primary effluent#.
(n adaptation of the activated sludge process is often used to remove nitrogen and phosphorus and an e+ample
of this approach is the 23 Bl1d treatment plant commissioned in 1)*2 in ;ritish Columbia% Canada !Aorld Aater
1)*6#. The ;ardenpho ,rocess adopted is shown in simplified form in .igure 4. 5ffluent from primary clarifiers
flows to the biological reactor% which is physically divided into five ones by baffles and weirs. In se&uence these
ones are= !i# anaerobic fermentation one !characteried by very low dissolved o+ygen levels and the absence
of nitrates#F !ii# ano+ic one !low dissolved o+ygen levels but nitrates present#F !iii# aerobic one !aerated#F !iv#
secondary ano+ic oneF and !v# final aeration one. The function of the first one is to condition the group of
bacteria responsible for phosphorus removal by stressing them under low o+idation"reduction conditions% which
results in a release of phosphorus e&uilibrium in the cells of the bacteria. <n subse&uent e+posure to an
ade&uate supply of o+ygen and phosphorus in the aerated ones% these cells rapidly accumulate phosphorus
considerably in e+cess of their normal metabolic re&uirements. ,hosphorus is removed from the system with the
waste activated sludge.
Figure 9: -impliied low diagram o 2ardenpho:plant !6orld 6ater 1#$;%
Bost of the nitrogen in the influent is in the ammonia form% and this passes through the first two ones virtually
unaltered. In the third aerobic one% the sludge age is such that almost complete nitrification ta'es place% and the
ammonia nitrogen is converted to nitrites and then to nitrates. The nitrate"rich mi+ed li&uor is then recycled from
the aerobic one bac' to the first ano+ic one. $ere denitrification occurs% where the recycled nitrates% in the
absence of dissolved o+ygen% are reduced by facultative bacteria to nitrogen gas% using the influent organic
carbon compounds as hydrogen donors. The nitrogen gas merely escapes to atmosphere. In the second ano+ic
one% those nitrates which were not recycled are reduced by the endogenous respiration of bacteria. In the final
re"aeration one% dissolved o+ygen levels are again raised to prevent further denitrification% which would impair
settling in the secondary clarifiers to which the mi+ed li&uor then flows.
(n e+perimentation programme on this plant demonstrated the importance of the addition of volatile fatty acids to
the anaerobic fermentation one to achieve good phosphorus removal. These essential short"chain organics
!mainly acetates# are produced by the controlled fermentation of primary sludge in a gravity thic'ener and are
released into the thic'ener supernatent% which can be fed to the head of the biological reactor. Aithout this
supernatent return flow% overall phosphorus removal &uic'ly dropped to levels found in conventional activated
sludge plants. ,erformance data over three years have proved that% with thic'ener supernatent recycle% effluent
&uality median values of 9.2"1.3* mg1l <rtho",% 1.0"1.4 mg1l Total nitrogen and 1.0"2.9 mg1l nitrate"N are
achievable. This advanced biological wastewater treatment plant cost only marginally more than a conventional
activated sludge plant but nevertheless involved considerable investment. .urthermore% the comple+ity of the
process and the s'illed operation re&uired to achieve consistent results ma'e this approach unsuitable for
developing countries.
In many situations% where the ris' of public e+posure to the reclaimed water or residual constituents is high% the
intent of the treatment is to minimie the probability of human e+posure to enteric viruses and other pathogens.
5ffective disinfection of viruses is believed to be inhibited by suspended and colloidal solids in the water%
therefore these solids must be removed by advanced treatment before the disinfection step. The se&uence of
treatment often specified in the -nited /tates is= secondary treatment followed by chemical coagulation%
sedimentation% filtration% and disinfection. This level of treatment is assumed to produce an effluent free from
detectable viruses. 5ffluent &uality data from selected advanced wastewater treatment plants in California are
reported in Table 10. In Near 5ast countries adopting tertiary treatment% the tendency has been to introduce pre"
chlorination before rapid"gravity sand filtration and post"chlorination afterwards. ( final oonation treatment after
this se&uence has been considered in at least one country.
3.2.5 ,isinection
3isinfection normally involves the injection of a chlorine solution at the head end of a chlorine contact basin. The
chlorine dosage depends upon the strength of the wastewater and other factors% but dosages of 2 to 12 mg1l are
common. <one and ultra violet !uv# irradiation can also be used for disinfection but these methods of
disinfection are not in common use. Chlorine contact basins are usually rectangular channels% with baffles to
prevent short"circuiting% designed to provide a contact time of about 39 minutes. $owever% to meet advanced
wastewater treatment re&uirements% a chlorine contact time of as long as 129 minutes is sometimes re&uired for
specific irrigation uses of reclaimed wastewater. The bactericidal effects of chlorine and other disinfectants are
dependent upon p$% contact time% organic content% and effluent temperature.
3.2.9 1luent storage
(lthough not considered a step in the treatment process% a storage facility is% in most cases% a critical lin'
between the wastewater treatment plant and the irrigation system. /torage is needed for the following reasons=
i. To e&ualie daily variations in flow from the treatment plant and to store e+cess when average wastwater flow
e+ceeds irrigation demandsF includes winter storage.
ii. To meet pea' irrigation demands in e+cess of the average wastewater flow.
iii. To minimie the effects of disruptions in the operations of the treatment plant and irrigation system. /torage is
used to provide insurance against the possibility of unsuitable reclaimed wastewater entering the irrigation
system and to provide additional time to resolve temporary water &uality problems.
Table 10= 5..?-5NT >-(?IT@ 3(T( .7<B /5?5CT53 (3G(NC53 A(/T5A(T57 T75(TB5NT ,?(NT/
IN C(?I.<7NI(
1
(ualit' parameter !mg)l
e+cept as otherwise
indicated%
&lant location
.ong
2each
.os
Co'otes
&omona ,ublin -an
0amon
Cit' o
.ivermore
-imi
<alle'
C-,
;iochemical o+ygen demand%
;<32
2 ) 0 2 3 0
/uspended solids " 2 " 1 " "
Total nitrogen " " " " " 1)
N$3"N 3.3 13.4 11.0 9.1 1.9 14.4
N<3"N 12.0 1.1 3 1).9 21.3 9.0
<rg"N 2.2 2.2 1.3 9.2 2.4 2.3
Total phosphorus " " " " " "
<rtho", 39.* 23.) 21.6 2*.2 14.2 "
p$ !unit# " " " 4.* 6.1 "
<il and grease " " " " " 3.1
Total coliform bacteria%
B,N1199 ml
" " " 2 0 "
Cations=
Ca 20 42 2* " " "
Bg 16 1* 10 " " "
Na 1*4 166 19) 14* 16* "
C 14 1* 12 " " "
(nions=
/<0 212 1*1 123 " " 292
Cl 122 1*0 192 106 16* 119
5lectrical conductivity% d/1m 1.32 1.00 1.92 1.26 1.22 "
Total dissolved solids *46 *26 269 " " 2*2
/oluble sodium% : 43.2 2).2 21.6 " " "
/odium adsorption ratio 2.23 0.)0 3.36 0.4 2.6 "
;oron !;# 9.)2 9.)2 9.44 " 1.33 9.4
(l'alinity !CaC<3# " 224 1)6 129 " "
Total $ardness !CaC<3# 212 202 294 220 1*0 "
1
(dvanced wastewater treatment in these plants follows high rate secondary treatment and includes addition of
chemical coagulants !alum H polymer# as necessary followed by filtration through sand or activated carbon
granular medium filters.
/ource= (sano and Tchobanoglous !1)*6#
iv. To provide additional treatment. <+ygen demand% suspended solids% nitrogen% and microorganisms are further
reduced during storage.
3.2.; 0eliabilit' o conventional and advanced wastewater treatment
Aastewater reclamation and reuse systems should contain both design and operational re&uirements necessary
to ensure reliability of treatment. 7eliability features such as alarm systems% standby power supplies% treatment
process duplications% emergency storage or disposal of inade&uately treated wastewater% monitoring devices%
and automatic controllers are important. .rom a public health standpoint% provisions for ade&uate and reliabile
disinfection are the most essential features of the advanced wastewater treatment process. Ahere disinfection is
re&uired% several reliability features must be incorporated into the system to ensure uninterrupted chlorine feed.