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3.2 Foundation
Engineers classify earth materials into two broad categories rock and soil. Although both materials play an
important role in foundation engineering, most foundations are supported by soil. In addition, foundations on
rock are often designed much more conservatively because of the rock's greater strength, whereas economics
prevents over conservatism when building foundations on soil. Therefore, it is especially important for the
foundation engineer to be familiar with soil mechanics.
A building is generally composed of a superstructure above the ground and a substructure which forms the
foundations below ground. The foundations transfer and spread the loads from a structure's columns and
walls into the ground. The safe bearing capacity of the soil must not be exceeded otherwise excessive
settlement may occur, resulting in damage to the building and its service facilities, such as the water or gas
mains. Foundation failure can also affect the overall stability of a structure so that it is liable to slide, to lift
vertically or even overturn.

3.2.1 Type of Foundation
Foundations are of two types and are classified on the basis of load transmission to the ground. They are
1. Wall footing
2. Isolated column footing or pad foundation
3. Combined footing
4. Cantilever or strap footing
5. Mat foundation
1. Wall Footing
A wall footing is provided to spread the load carried by the wall into the soil. The foundation is continuous
along the direction of the wall. In such foundation the base width is generally more than two or three times
the Width of the Wall at ground level. Stones, bricks and sometimes plain or reinforced concrete are used to
construct the Wall footing. Such foundations are generally used where loads to be supported are small. Wall
footings are the most suitable and economical in dense sands and gravels.

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Fig.3.1 Wall Footing
2. Isolated Column Footing or Pad Foundation
In a column footing the base of the column is enlarged. It may be either of plain or of reinforced concrete. A
column footing is also known as isolated column footing or pad foundation. The footing may be in the form
of a large flat slab, it may be stepped or it may be sloping from column face towards the edge. Such
foundations are economical for depth greater than 1.5 m.




Fig.3.1 Pad Footing


3. Combined Footing
When a footing is to be made common for two or more columns in a row, it is called a combined footing.
Combined footing is customarily used along the walls of the buildings at property lines where the footing for
the column cannot extend outside the limit of the structure. The other situations where the footings are to be
combined are when columns are closely spaced or the supporting soil is of low bearing capacity. The
combined footing may either be rectangular or trapezoidal.




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Fig. 3.2 Combined Footing
4. Cantilever or Strap Footing
When it is not possible to extend an edge footing beyond the boundary of a site due to presence of an
adjoining property, usually the edge column footing is combined with interior column footing by means of a
strap beam. Such footings are known as strap footings.








Fig.3.3 Strap Footing
5. Mat foundation
is a continuous reinforced concrete slab over a large area used to support many columns and walls. This kind
of foundation is used where soil strength is low or where column loads are large but where piles or caissons
are not used. For such cases, isolated footings would be so large that it is more economical to use a
continuous raft or mat under the entire area. The cost of the formwork for a mat footing is far less than is the
cost of the forms for a large number of isolated footings. If individual footings are designed for each column
and if their combined area is greater than half of the area contained within the perimeter of the building, it is
usually more economical to use one large footing or mat. The raft or mat foundation is particularly useful in
reducing differential settlements between columns-the reduction being 50% or more. For these types of
footings, the excavations are often rather deep. The goal is to remove an amount of earth approximately equal
to the building weight. If this is done, the net soil pressure after the building is constructed will theoretically
equal what it was before the excavation was made. Thus, the building will float on the raft foundation.

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Fig. mat foundation


3.2.2 Design Principles of foundation
foundation design builds from the principles and requirements outlined in the Uniform Building Code.
However, Critical structures that would have significantly greater than usual hazards to the environment or
public would require that more stringent and very customized design criteria and requirements be applied.
The design starts with a review of the applicable tank codes and standards as well as local building code
requirements, tank drawings, vendor drawings, and soil reports. to establish a final design, the relationship
between loads and soil bearing capacities arises from factors of safety. Typically, dead loads use a factor of
safety of 2.0, and for dynamic loads (wind and earthquakes) it is 1.5. Other factors such assetting the
foundation depth below the front line should also be considered.
The principal steps in the design calculations are as follows.
1. Calculate the plan size of the footing using the permissible bearing pressure and the critical loading
arrangement for the serviceability limit state.
2. Calculate the bearing pressures associated with the critical loading arrangement at the ultimate limit
state.
3. Assume a suitable value for the thickness (h) and effective depth (d ). Check that the shear stress at
the column face.
4. Check the thickness for shear, assuming a probable value for the ultimate shear stress.
5. Determine the reinforcement required to resist bending.
6. Make a final check of the shear, having established V
c
precisely.
7. Check the shear stress at the critical sections.
8. Where applicable. foundations and structure should be checked for
9. overall stability at the ultimate limit state.

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3.2.3 types of loads
A structure may be subjected to a combination of some or all of the following loads and forces.
Dead load includes the weight of the structure and all material permanently attached to it, such as the floor
finish, exterior walls, and fireproofing. Permanent and fixed service equipment such as plumbing stacks and
risers, electric feeders, heating, ventilating, and air conditioning systems, are usually considered as part of the
dead load. If the weight of earth is directly supported by elements of the structure, it should be considered as
dead load.
Live load includes all vertical loads that are not a permanent part of the structure but are expected to
superimpose on the structure during a part or all of its useful life. Vertical loads due to wind or snow are not
considered as live load. Human occupancy, partition walls, furniture, warehouse goods, and mechanical
equipment are major live loads.
Wind load acts on all exposed surfaces of structure. Overhanging parts are subjected to uplift pressure.
Snow load acts on ordinary roofs, either flat, pitched, or curved.
Earth pressure is a lateral force acting permanently against the portion of substructure below ground
surface. It should be treated as a basic load, similar to dead load.
Liquid pressure may act laterally against basement walls and vertically against base slabs. Considering the
substructure as a whole, the lateral hydrostatic pressure is always balanced, but the hydrostatic uplift or
buoyancy force must be counteracted by the dead load of the structure. If the dead load is insufficient, some
provision must be made to anchor the structure. The uplift force is often a problem during construction
before all the dead load is available. In such cases, the basement may be flooded during the high water stage,
or the site may be dewatered to a level such that the total hydrostatic uplift does not exceed the dead load.
Calculation of Loads
In design of foundation the area of the bases in contact with the ground should be such that the safe
bearing pressure will not be exceeded. Settlement takes place during the working life of the structure ,
therefore the design loading to be considered when calculating the base areas should be those that
apply to the serviceability limit state, and typical values that can be taken are
1. dead plus live load
2. dead plus wind load
3. dead plus live plus wind load
where



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Load Combinations for the Ultimate State
Various combinations of the characteristic values of dead load imposed load , wind load and their
partial factors of safety must be considered for the loading of the structure.

In the preceding expressions, the following values are used:

3.2.4 Bearing Capacity
In geotechnical engineering, bearing capacity is the capacity of soil to support the loads applied to the
ground. The bearing capacity of soil is the maximum average contact pressure between the foundation and
the soil which should not produce shear failure in the soil. Ultimate bearing capacity is the theoretical
maximum pressure which can be supported without failure; allowable bearing capacity is the ultimate
bearing capacity divided by a factor of safety. Sometimes, on soft soil sites, large settlements may occur
under loaded foundations without actual shear failure occurring; in such cases, the allowable bearing capacity
is based on the maximum allowable settlement.
Design of Wall Footings
The theory used for designing beams is applicable to the design of footings with only a few modifications.
The footings will be designed as shallow beams for the moments and shears involved. In beams where loads
are usually only a few hundred pounds per foot and spans are fairly large, sizes are almost always
proportioned for moment. In footings, loads from the supporting soils may run several thousand pounds per
foot and spans are relatively short. As a result, shears will almost always control depths.



Shear in footings
Beams and one-way slabs and footings: Shear carried by concrete can be calculated as
7

Maximum shear carried by concrete plus shear reinforcement can be calculated as

Where

Design of cross sections subject to shear shall be based on:

where Vu is factored shear force at section considered and Vn is nominal shear strength computed by:

where Vc is nominal shear strength provided by concrete and Vs is nominal shear strength provided by shear
reinforcement
For members subject to shear and flexure only,

Where

Computation of shear requires that the soil bearing pressure

be obtained from the factored loads

Minimum reinforcement of flexural members
The provision for a minimum amount of reinforcement applies to flexural members, which for architectural
or other reasons, are larger in cross section than required for strength. With a very small amount of tensile
reinforcement, the computed moment strength as a reinforced concrete section using cracked section analysis
becomes less than that of the corresponding unreinforced concrete section computed from its modulus of
rupture. Failure in such a case can be sudden.

To prevent such a failure, a minimum amount of tensile reinforcement is required by

and not less than

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Moment in footings

External moment on any section of a footing shall be determined by passing a vertical plane through the
footing, and computing the moment of the forces acting over entire area of footing on one side of that vertical
plane. Maximum factored moment for an isolated footing shall be computed at critical sections located as
follows:

(a) At face of column, pedestal, or wall, for footings supporting a concrete column, pedestal, or wall.
(b) Halfway between middle and edge of wall, for footings supporting a masonry wall.
(c) Halfway between face of column and edge of steel base plate, for footings supporting a column with steel
base plate.


Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
Concrete is a mixture of sand, gravel, crushed rock, or other aggregates held together in a rocklike mass with
a paste of cement and water. Sometimes one or more admixtures are added to change certain characteristics
of the concrete such as its workability, durability, and time of hardening.
As with most rocklike substances, concrete has a high compressive strength and a very low tensile strength.
Reinforced concrete is a combination of concrete and steel wherein the steel reinforcement provides the
tensile strength lacking in the concrete. Steel reinforcing is also capable of resisting compression forces and
is used in columns as well as in other situations, which are described later.

Reinforced concrete may be the most important material available for construction. It is used in one form or
another for almost all structures, great or small-buildings, bridges, pavements, dams, retaining walls, tunnels,
drainage and irrigation facilities, tanks, and so on.
The tremendous success of this universal construction material can be understood quite easily if its numerous
advantages are considered. These include the following:
1. It has considerable compressive strength per unit cost compared with most other materials.
2. Reinforced concrete has great resistance to the actions of fire and water and, in fact, is the best
structural material available for situations where water is present. During fires of average intensity,
members with a satisfactory cover of concrete over the reinforcing bars suffer only surface damage
without failure.
3. Reinforced concrete structures are very rigid.
4. It is a low-maintenance material.
5. As compared with other materials, it has a very long service life. Under proper conditions, reinforced
concrete structures can be used indefinitely without reduction of their load carrying abilities. This can
be explained by the fact that the strength of concrete does not decrease with time but actually
increases over a very long period, measured in years, because of the lengthy process of the
solidification of the cement paste.
6. It is usually the only economical material available for footings, floor slabs, basement walls, piers,
and similar applications.
7. A special feature of concrete is its ability to be cast into an extraordinary variety of shapes from
simple slabs, beams, and columns to great arches and shells.
8. In most areas, concrete takes advantage of inexpensive local materials (sand, gravel, and water) and
requires relatively small amounts of cement and reinforcing steel, which may have to be shipped from
other parts of the country.
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9. A lower grade of skilled labor is required for erection as compared with other materials such as
structural steel.
Material of concrete
1- Cements
Cement shall conform to one of the following specifications:
(a) "Specification for Portland Cement" (ASTM C150).
(b) "Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cements"(ASTM C 595), excluding Types S and SA which are not
intended as principal cementing constituents of structural concrete.
(c) "Specification for Expansive Hydraulic Cement" (ASTM C 845).


2- Aggregates
Concrete aggregates shall conform to one of the following specifications:

(a) "Specification for Concrete Aggregates" (ASTM C 33).
(b) "Specification for Lightweight Aggregates for Structural Concrete" (ASTM C 330).

It is recognized that aggregates conforming to the ASTM specifications are not always economically
available and that, in some instances, noncomplying materials have a long history of satisfactory
performance. Such nonconforming materials are permitted with special approval when acceptable evidence
of satisfactory performance is provided. It should be noted, however, that satisfactory performance in the past
does not guarantee good performance under other conditions and in other localities. Whenever possible,
aggregates conforming to the designated specifications should be used.

Nominal maximum size of coarse aggregate shall be not larger than:

(a) 1/5 the narrowest dimension between sides of forms, nor
(b) 1/3 the depth of slabs, nor
(c) 3/4 the minimum clear spacing between individual reinforcing bars or wires, bundles of bars, or
prestressing tendons or ducts.

3- Water
Water used in mixing concrete shall be clean and free from injurious amounts of oils, acids, alkalis, salts,
organic materials, or other substances deleterious to concrete or reinforcement.

4- Steel Reinforcement
Reinforcement shall be deformed reinforcement, except that plain reinforcement shall be permitted for spirals
or tendons; and reinforcement consisting of structural steel, steel pipe, or steel tubing shall be permitted as
specified in this code.
Concrete Volume
Concrete and mortar are normally delivered on a cubic volume basis. Cubic volume can be calculated as


Where

10


)

Table 3.1 Typical cement, sand and gravel mixtures

Contruction Materials Volume Ratio
Cement Sand Gravel
Normal static loads, no rebar, not
exposed
1 3 6
Foundations and walls, normal
static loads, exposed
1 2.5 5
Basement walls 1 2.5 4
Basement walls, waterproof 1 2.5 3.5
Floors, light duty, driveways,
sidewalks
1 2.5 3
Reinforced roads, walls, exposed 1 2 4
High strength, floors, columns 1 1 2


TABLE 3.2 Reinforcement Bar Sizes and Areas
Standard Inch-Pound Bars Soft Metric Bars
Bar No. Diameter (in.) Area (in
2
.) Bar No. Diameter (mm.) Area (mm
2
.)
3 0.375 0.11 10 9.5 71
4 0.500 0.20 13 12.7 129
5 0.625 0.31 16 15.9 199
6 0.750 0.44 19 19.1 284
7 0.875 0.60 22 22.2 387
8 1.000 0.79 25 25.4 510
9 1.128 1.00 29 28.7 645
10 1.270 1.27 32 32.3 819
11 1.410 1.56 36 35.8 1006
14 1.693 2.25 43 43.0 1452
18 2.257 4.00 57 57.3 2581