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Information technology (IT), as defined by the Information Technology Association of America (ITAA),
is "the study, design, development, implementation, support or management of computer-based
information systems, particularly software applications and computer hardware" IT deals with the use of
electronic computers and computer software to convert, store, protect, process, transmit, and securely
retrieve information
Computing is usually defined li!e the activity of using and developing computer technology, computer
hardware and software It is the computer-specific part of information technology
Computer science (or computing science) is the study and the science of the theoretical foundations of
information and computation and their implementation and application in computer systems "omputer
science has many sub-fields# some emphasi$e the computation of specific results (such as computer
graphics), while others relate to properties of computational problems (such as computational comple%ity
theory) &till others focus on the challenges in implementing computations 'or e%ample, programming
language theory studies approaches to describing computations, while computer programming applies
specific programming languages to solve specific computational problems A further subfield, human-
computer interaction, focuses on the challenges in ma!ing computers and computations useful, usable and
universally accessible to people
Software engineering is the application of a systematic, disciplined, (uantifiable approach to the
development, operation, and maintenance of software It encompasses techni(ues and procedures, often
regulated by a software development process, with the purpose of improving the reliability and
maintainability of software systems The effort is necessitated by the potential comple%ity of those
systems, which may contain millions of lines of code
The term software engineering was coined by )rian *andell and populari$ed by '+ )auer during the
,AT- &oftware .ngineering "onference in 1/01 The discipline of software engineering includes
!nowledge, tools, and methods for software re(uirements, software design, software construction,
software testing, and software maintenance tas!s &oftware engineering is related to the disciplines of
computer science, computer engineering, management, mathematics, pro2ect management, (uality
management, software ergonomics, and systems engineering
Computer engineering (or Computer Systems Engineering) encompasses broad areas of both electrical
engineering and computer science
314
"omputer engineers are engineers who have training in the areas of
software design and hardware-software integration
354
In turn, they focus less on power electronics and
physics
3citation needed4
than do electrical engineers &ome areas computer engineers are involved in are A&I"
design, '67A development, firmware development, software development, hardware-
(firmware8software) integration, circuit design, and system-level design and integration
Information Systems
The term information system (BCIS, IS) sometimes refers to a system of persons, data records and
activities that process the data and information in an organi$ation, and it includes the organi$ation9s
manual and automated processes "omputer-based information systems are the field of study for
information technology, elements of which are sometimes called an "information system" as well, a usage
some consider to be incorrect
5
Information Technology - Grade 12
Module 1 Information Systems
I!"#$M%TI#! &$#CESSI!G
'ata
:ata can be defined as raw facts and figures :ata may be meaningless or ambiguous :ata often
have little meaning until they are sorted or until we calculate something from them This sort of
calculation is called data processing ;hen data is processed, it provides information
&treams of raw facts representing events occurring in organi$ation or the physical environment
before they have been organi$ed and arranged into a form that people can understand and use
Information
Information is data that have been put into a meaningful and useful conte%t In other words,
information is structured data
:ata that have been shaped into a form that is meaningful and useful to human beings
(nowledge
<nowledge is the application of information to solve a problem or to ma!e a decision
=These terms will assist in developing and understanding and appreciation for information processing
and information systems.
Characteristics of data
*aw data is a term for unprocessed data, it is also !nown as primary data It is a relative term *aw data
can be input to a computer program or used in manual analysis procedures such as gathering statistics
from a survey It can refer to the binary data on electronic storage devices such as hard dis! drives In
computing it may have the following attributes> possibly containing errors, not validated# in several
different (collo(uial) formats# uncoded or unformatted# and suspect, re(uiring confirmation or citation
'or e%ample, a data input sheet might contain dates as raw data in many forms> "?1st @anuary 1///",
"?18A181///", "?1818//", "?1 @an", or "today" -nce captured, this raw data may be processed and stored
as a single format
)ualitati*e data are described in terms of (uality (that is, 9informal9 or relative characteristics such as
warmth and flavour) This is the converse of quantitative Bualitative data are generally (but not always)
of less value to scientific research than (uantitative data, due to their sub2ective and intangible nature
,umerical data (or +uantitati*e data) is data measured or identified on a numerical scale ,umerical
data can be analysed using statistical methods, and results can be displayed using tables, charts,
histograms and graphs 'or e%ample, a researcher will as! a (uestions to a participant that include words
how often, how many or percentage The answers from the (uestions will be numerical After the data is
collected the researcher will ma!e an analysis of the (uantitative data and produce statistics Buantitative
'%T% IS
&$#CESSE'
I!"#$M%TI#! '%T%
?
data falls into two broad categories> 'iscrete ,or attri-ute. data and Continuous ,or *aria-le. data
:iscrete data generally falls into three categories> "ategory data (eg car type), )i-nomial data (eg
pass8fail), and "ount 8 6oisson data (eg C of hairs on your head)
:etailed
&ampled
Characteristics of Information include/
"haracteristics of information
Information is data that has been transform by some type of processing and it is use to solve problems at
all levels Information has some characteristics with which you should become familiar if you are to
use it to solve problems &ome characteristics of information are>
Accuracy D the correctness of items and the completeness of the information
*eliability D the consistency with which the information is accurate Information that is consistently
correct is reliable
"omprehensibility D the ability of the data to be made useful This type of data one can ma!e sense of
Timeliness D the availability of information to users in time to ma!e relevant decisions :ata and
information have lifespans during which they are useful At the end of the lifespan, the information is
no longer useful in decision ma!ing The lifespan involves generation (or collection) of data,
transformation of data into information and reporting information to the user in time for appropriate
decision ma!ing
*elevance D the appropriateness of information to the solution of a problem or decision ma!ing
Interpretation D the same information is given different meaning by different users
&ecurity - the accessibility of data by authori$ed users and the prevention of any unauthori$ed users
from accessing the data The security of information determines its availability to users for probleEm
solving and decision ma!ing
"onfidentialioty D the availability of data only to a very restyricted set of users It must not be viewed
by anyone for whom it is not intended The data must be secure to ensure its confidentiality
Falue D the usefulness of information to facilitate problem solving and decision ma!ing and to enable
the organi$ation to gain advantage over its competitors &ince information has its value it is a saleable
commodity and it is shareable It may be presented on different media and in a variety of formats
:istortion D the presentation of data to induce a particular presentation :ata may also be disguised in
order to discourage certain interpretations
E
:istortion
:isguise
*eliability
Inconsistency
Incomprehensibility
&ub2ect to interpretation
Falue
*elevance
"onfidentiality
&ecurity
&hareability
Availability
+ifespan
Information as a saleable commodity
'ormat
Gedium
0ays of representing data and information
:ata include>
"haracter D used to represent letters eg A, or a
&tring D used to represent a word eg, man, dog
,umeric D used to resent numbers eg A, 1 /
Aural (for e%ample, Gorse "ode, dots and dashes)
Fisual (for e%ample, the individual frames of a movie, fingerprints)
Morse code is a character encoding for transmitting telegraphic information, using standardi$ed
se(uences of short and long elements to represent the letters, numerals, punctuation and special characters
of a given message The short and long elements can be formed by sounds, mar!s, or pulses, in on off
!eying and are commonly !nown as "dots" and "dashes" or "dits" and "dahs"
-riginally created for &amuel ' ) Gorse9s electric telegraph in the early 11EAs, Gorse code was also
e%tensively used for early radio communication beginning in the 11/As 'or the first half of the twentieth
century, the ma2ority of high-speed international communication was conducted in Gorse code, using
telegraph lines, undersea cables, and radio circuits However, the variable length of the Gorse characters
made it hard to adapt to automated circuits, so for most electronic communication it has been replaced by
machine readable formats, such as )audot code and A&"II
The most popular current use of Gorse code is by amateur radio operators, although it is no longer a
re(uirement for amateur licensing in many countries It also continues to be used for speciali$ed purposes,
including identification of navigational radio beacon and land mobile transmitters Gorse code is designed
to be read by humans without a decoding device, ma!ing it useful for sending automated digital data in
voice channels 'or emergency signaling, Gorse code can be sent by way of improvised sources that can
be easily "!eyed" on and off
I
Characteristics of Information include/
Te%t
7raphics
&ound
Fideo
&pecial purpose notation (mathematical, scientific and musical notation)
7raphical representation (graphs and chart)
Tables
0
Sources of Information
;e will consider sources of information under three main headings as follow>
1 6rint Gaterials
5 .lectronic &ources
? 6ersonal "ontacts
'or the purpose of this e%ercise, the sources under the main headings will be sub-divided as follow>
11 &rint Materials
11 )oo!s
111 *eference )oo!s
(a) .nclycopedias
(b) :ictionaries
(c) :irectories
(d) Jearboo!s and Almanacs
(e) Handboo!s and Ganuals
(f) Inde%es
(g) 7eographical *eference &ources
115 Te%tboo!s
11? 7eneral 'iction and ,on-'iction )oo!s
15 6eriodicals
151 @ournals
155 Gaga$ines
15? ,ewspapers
1? 6amphlets
21 Electronic Sources
51 +ocal &ources
511 ": *-Gs
515 .lectronic :atabases
55 *emote &ources
551 -nline :atabases
555 ;orld ;ide ;eb
55? :igital +ibraries
21 &ersonal Contacts
?1 ;ord of Gouth
?5 "ontact by mail (incl e-mail)
?? Interviews
?E -bservations
1.1.1 Reference Books
These are referred to in order to find answers to specific (uestions, to define terms, to give an
overview of a topic or to provide facts and salient points about people, places and events They are
K
not usually intended to be read from cover to cover, and are so organi$ed to allow for easy
retrieval of the information they contain
(a) .,"+J"+-6.:IA A compendium of !nowledge on a wide variety of sub2ects,
which are usually arranged in alphabetical order Gost often they appear in multi
volume sets or more recently on compact disc(s) and serve to provide bac!ground
information to a topic, e%planatory materials, brief informational data on famous
people, places and historical events It is one of the most important reference sources
and it is often the first to be consulted
.%amples>
Gicrosoft .ncarta :elu%e .nclycopedia
;orld )oo! .nclycopedia
(b) :I"TI-,A*I.&> )asically, this is an alphabetical list of words, phrases or
terms and their meanings In addition, many dictionaries provide much more details on
pronunciation, origin of words, usage, parts of speech and other grammatical details
There are also different types of dictionaries D general language, foreign language and
sub2ect The last category includes dictionaries of biography, (uotations, literature,
computing and such other sub2ects
E3amples
0e-ster4s &oc5et 'ictionary of the English 6anguage
"asselLs 'rench :ictionary
*ogetLs International Thesaurus
;hoLs ;ho International
(c) :I*."T-*I.&> A list of organi$ations, institutions or persons systematically
arranged in either alphabetical or classified order They provide names and addresses,
brief biographical information and the affiliations of persons or names and addresses of
the institution8organi$ation along with some detail of past and present activities They
may be broadly classified as> institutional, professional, governmental, trade and
business
Examples
Greater Kingston Telephone Directory
@amaica :irectory of .ducational Institutions
(d) J.A*)--<& A,: A+GA,A"&> These two reference sources are very similar
in contents and purposes The ma2or difference is that the J.A*)--< only records the
events for a particular year in a given country or internationally, while the A+GA,A"
also provides retrospective information )oth give a compendium of facts, statistics, and
events with brief information on countries and personalities &ome enclycopedia
companies issue yearboo!s as a means of updating their publications

1
Examples
A+GA,A"&
;hita!erLs Almanac (published annually since 1101)
The ;orld Almanac
J.A*)--<&
Annual *egister of ;orld .vents
&t Andrew High &chool for 7irls Jearboo!
)ritannica )oo! of the Jear
(e) HA,:)--<& A,: GA,MA+&> HA,:)--<& provide specific and detailed
information on a single sub2ect or field of study The GA,MA+ does basically the same
thing along with step-by-step information on how to carry out a tas! or operation
.%amples>
!"DB##KS
The "e$ Emily %ost&s Eti'uette
The %ractical S() an*+ook
,!"-!)S
)i.estock ,anual for the Tropics
(f) I,:.N.&> Are systematic guides to the contents of other information sources
They are usually arranged alphabetically with each entry providing sufficient
information to allow for the identification of the item and where it may be located
There are inde%es to almost every !ind of resource including periodicals, picture, boo!s
and films
.%amples>
7rangerLs Inde% to 6oetry
*eaderLs 7uide to 6eriodical +iterature
(g) 7.-7*A6HI"A+ *.'.*.,". &-M*".&> These include AT+A&.&,
7AO.TT..*&, and 7MI:.)--<& which are used to answer (ueries about places,
and the special geographical or even the cultural features associated with them
An AT+A& is a collection of maps bound together to form a boo!
A 7AO.TT*.* is a geographical dictionary, which gives the names of towns, rivers,
population, longitude, latitude and other geographical features
/
The 7MI:.)--< is intended to inform the traveler of places to see and stay and the
best way to get there There are very useful for providing many details about specific
locations
Examples
!T)!SES
Time !tlas of the /orl*
0ari++ean Secon*ary School !tlas
G!1ETTEERS
/e+ster&s "e$ Geographical Dictionary
G-IDEB##KS
2o*or&s Gui*e to the 0ari++ean
2iel*ing&s 0ari++ean
1.1.3 Reference Books
A te%tboo! is one that investigates a particular area of study and provides the information in a
concise systematic form for instructional purposes This category may also include any boo! that
is designated to be used as an integral part of the curriculum
1.1.4 General "on52iction an* 2iction Books
,on-'iction refers to sub2ect boo!s that are needed to supplement the te%tboo!s, as well as those
that cater for e%tra curricular interests of the students and staff They are intended to transmit
information and may be entertaining
'iction )oo!s refer to imaginary wor!s intended primarily for recreational purposes although
some of them are used in the study of literature
1.3 %erio*icals
(see handout on 6eriodicals for more details)
1A
This refers to a publication with a distinctive title that is issued at regular intervals for an indefinite
period of time 6eriodicals may be divided into> 2ournals, maga$ines and newspapers
11211 7ournals
6rofessional publications written in scholarly style aimed at informing users of
developments in a particular sub2ect area or field
.%amples>
"aribbean @ournal of .ducation
&chool +ibrarian
11212 Maga8ines
6opular types of publications intended for general circulation and so aimed at capturing the
readerLs interest by focusing on matters of topical interest such as news, fashion, hobbies,
etc
E3amples
Time
.conomist
Teen
11212 !ewspapers
6ublications issued with greater fre(uency than either of the two previously mentioned, or
may appear daily, wee!ly, or bi-wee!ly with emphasis on news and current events
Individually they are much cheaper in comparison to either 2ournals or maga$ines These
publication are usually sub-divided into the P(uality mediaQ and the Ppopular mediaQ, the
latter of which includes tabloids
.%amples
The &unday 7leaner
The ,ew Jor! Times
1.4 %amphlets
:efinitions for pamphlets vary greatly The most common one seems to be an independent
publication consisting of a few pages stitched (or stapled) together but not bound They cover a
wide range of sub2ects and contain concise information on topics, which sometimes never appear
elsewhere Gany of them are obtainable without cost or at a minimal price from associations,
institutions, and government departments
3.1 Electronic Sources
?I +ocal &ources
?I1 ": *-Gs
Compact 'isc-$ead #nly Memory, a small plastic optical dis!, EK5 inches or 15
centimeters in diameter, similar to an audio compact disc, used for storing information in
digital format and as a publishing medium -nce stored, information can be searched and
displayed on a computer screen, but not changed or erased Information is read from the
disc by a small laser beam inside a device called a ":-*-G drive
11
.ach disc has the capacity to store appro%imately 0IA megabytes of data or IIA million
characters, the e(uivalent of apporo%imately 5IA,AAA printed pages or 1,AAA boo!s ":-
*-Gs can be used to store sound trac!s, still or moving images, and computer files, as
well as te%t In libraries, ":-*-Gs are used primarily as a storage medium for
bibliographic databases and full te%t resources, such as encyclopedias and other reference
wor!s
?I5 :F:s
A type of optical dis!, the same si$e as a compact disc but with significantly greater
recording capacity, partly because it is double-sided :F: is e%pected to supersede video
":s, laserdiscs, and videotape as the preferred medium for motion pictures for home use
:F: players can also read most ": media
?I? .lectronic :atabases
?IE
?0 *emote &ources
?01 "hat *ooms
?05 :igital +ibraries
A library in which a significant proportion of the resources are available in digital
(machine-readable) format, as opposed to print or microform The process of digiti$ation
began with inde%es and abstracting services, then moved to periodicals and reference
boo!s, and is now entering the field of boo! publication
?0? .-mail
?0E 'T6
"ile Transfer &rotocol, the T"68I6 protocol which allows data files to be copied directly
from one computer to another over the Internet regardless of platform, without having to
attach them as in e-mail A computer which functions as a file server, storing files available
to other computers, is !nown as an FTP site If no username or password is re(uired for
access, such a computer is an anonymous FTP site---its files can be downloaded by anyone
with access to the Internet Although still widely available, anonymous 'T6 has been
supplanted by ;eb pages as the most popular method of disseminating information in
digital format
?0I Gailing +ists
An e-mail discussion forum which allows participants to subscribe and automatically
receive messages posted to the list by other subscribers 6articipants may also post their
own messages and replies which are automatically disseminated to the other subscribers to
the list Gailing lists may be moderated or unmoderated
?00 ,ewsgroups
An Internet message board on a specific topic which allows a participant to post an initial
comment or (uery and then view the replies of other participants, responses to the replies,
and so on A se(uence of related postings is !nown as a discussion thread The most
common types are Usenet and NetNews
?0K -nline :atabases
15
?01 6ortals
?0/ ;orld ;ide ;eb
1?
Characteristics of Information Sources
-ften times people debate about the (uality of information because of where it comes from 'or e%ample,
if I should say to you that the &TA* or the N-,.;& reported that some :@ artist was in some
disagreement then one could argue whether it is true or 2ust a plot to sell paper If the 7leaner however,
report that same information then the possibility is that the information is more truth than the &TA* or the
N-,.;&
;hy one would be more li!ely to believe the 7leaner over the &TA* or the N-,.;& is because of the
credibility of the papers The degree of confidence you have will ultimately determine whether you use
information from that source in decision ma!ing The following are some of the characteristics of
information sources>
1 scope D depth and breath of the information in the source
5 detail D number of features revealed by the source
? content D information contained in the source
E accuracy- truthfulness of the information
I purpose D stated reasons for maintaining information in the source and the intended users
0 authority D maintenance of the source by reputable persons or organi$ations who possess e%pert
!nowledge in the area
K currency D timeliness of truthful information
1 relia-ility D consistency with which information is correct
/ audience D group of persons for whom the information is presented
1A format D the manner in which information is presented
11 a*aila-ility D to access the available information when and where needed
15 medium- whether or not information is provided in te%t, audio or video
1? cost D e%penditure outlaid to access or ma!e the information available
191 amount of detailed
1I breadth of coverage
1E
Selecting of appropriate information source for a gi*en tas5
*e(uirement tas! including>
Time
"riticality
Accuracy
"urrency
Criteria for re:ecting or accepting a piece of information
)ias
Accuracy
"ultural conte%t
"ompleteness
"urrency of information
*efereed and unrefereed sources
!ature and structure of information/
&trategic
Tactical
-perational
&tructured
&emi-structured
Mnstructured
Management 6e*els and the types of information needed
+evel of
Ganagement
*ole of
manager
"haracteristics of the
:ecisions made
Type of
information
re(uired
"haracteristics of the
type of information
Top Ganager +ong range
planning and
direction
&trategic
"omple%
*arely based on
predetermined set
of procedures or
rules
Gay involve the
sub2ective element
of decision
ma!ing
Mnstructured -pposite of structured
Highly summari$ed
:ata re(uired is
historical, current,
futuristic
:ata gathered from
internal as well as
e%ternal range of
processes
Giddle
Ganager
-rganising
and staffing
Tactical
,ot based on any
&emi-
structured
A mi%ture of both
unstructured and
1I
clearly defined set
of informational
procedures
*e(uires further
analyses and
computations
structured type of
information
+ower or
&upervisory
Ganager
&upervising
and
controlling
day-to-day
routine
operations
-perational
6redictable
)ased on well
defined procedures
or rules
&tructured Information is
detailed
)ased on accurate,
factual, current data
that is generated from
the organi$ation
internal activities
associated with a
particular business
such as payroll
The importance of data and information
- decision ma!ing
- data (uality
- appropriateness of data
10
Tools used in Information technology
Hardware Dinput, output and storage, processing
&oftware
"ommunication
History of (si$e, cost, and processing ability)>
"omputer hardware
&oftware
Internet
Telecommunication
1K
"ommunication
"ommunication involves a sender, a receiver, a medium and a communication channel (cable) These are
the four basic elements of a communication act
:ata communication is the transfer of data from point A to point ) using a communication lin! ;hen
data travel a long distance, the communication is referred to as telecommunication The prefi% RteleL
comes from an ancient 7ree! word that means a Rfar offL
:ata "ommunication
This is the transmission of data to and from computers via communication channels The combination of
computing and telecommunication has given rise to new services and has opened up many new fields of
application :ata and information is transmitted over a communication medium such as a telephone line
from one computer to another
Telecommunication
This is the transmission of data over far distance without changing it A telecommunication system is
made of a sender, receiver and a medium
Internet
This is the worldsL largest networ! It is a world wide collection of networ!s that lin!s together millions of
other smaller networ! via different communication media The internet is not owned by anyone however,
the rules and standards that govern the internet is set by the ,etwor! Information "enter (impose by the
M& national &cience 'oundation (,&')
The Structure of the Internet
The basic components of the internet are>
1 host D this is a 6" on I)G or mi% platforms or mainframe computers
5 networ5s D when two or more host communicate it is called a networ!
? routers D these are used to connect networ!
Ser*ices a*aila-le on the internet
There are four main services that are available on the internet> communication# file access and transfer
services# terminal emulation services# and the world wide web (www)
Communication ser*ices
The electronic mail (e-mail) is the most popular and widely used service in the internet It enables users to
send and receive electronic messages A typical e-mail address begins with a userLs name, followed by the
S symbol and the providers name
Intranet
This is a type of networ! that belongs to an organi$ation and is accessible only by members of that
organi$ation It has similar features to an internet, the main difference is in who can access the data store
on it
Terminal Emulation Ser*ices
These services enable one to connect your computer to a remote host and uses the services available as if
your computer where a terminal of the remote host 'or e%ample, you can use a telnet to access data and
programs from a telnet server
Godems
11
Telephone system and computer systems have become fused together with the convergence of the
telecommunications and computing technologies :ata or information may now appear in a variety of
formats D te%t, voice or sound, pictures, graphics and video However, data is transmitted by two types of
signals# analogue (voice) and digital (computer) A modem is used to convert between the two different
signals The process of converting digital to analogue is !nown as modulation while the reverse is !nown
as demodulation
!ET0#$(S
A networ! is group of computers and associated devices connected by communications facilities
(both hardware and software) to share information and peripheral devices, such as printers and modems
There are a variety of networ!s available to facilitate the need of different organi$ations However,
there are some factors that need to be considered when selecting a networ! These factors are cost,
security, management, e%pandability and interconnectivity
Assignment: research on the advantages and the disadvantages of networks.
Types of !etwor5s
Internet
A worldwide networ! of computer networ!s It is an interconnection of large and small networ!s around
the globe The Internet began in 1/05 as a computer networ! for the M& military and over time has
grown into a global communication tool of many thousands of computer networ!s that share a common
addressing scheme Mnli!e online services, which are centrally controlled, the Internet is decentrali$ed by
design .ach Internet computer, called a host, is independent Its operators can choose which Internet
services to use and which local services to ma!e available to the global Internet community *emar!ably,
this anarchy by design wor!s e%ceedingly well There are a variety of ways to access the Internet Gost
users gain access through an Internet &ervice 6rovider (I&6)
E3tranet
An .%tranet is a private networ! that uses the Internet protocols and the public telecommunication system
to share part of business information with suppliers, vendors, customers, or other businesses An e%tranet
can be viewed as part of a company9s Intranet that is e%tended to users outside the company
Intranet
A private networ! inside a company or organi$ation, which uses software li!e that used on the
Internet, but is for internal use only, and is not accessible to the public "ompanies use Intranets to
manage pro2ects, provide employee information, distribute data and information, etc
A private networ! inside a company or organi$ation that uses the same !inds of software that you
would find on the public Internet, but that is for internal use only 'irewalls !eep unauthori$ed Internet
traffic off an intranet As the Internet has become more popular, many of the tools used on the Internet are
being used in private networ!s 'or e%ample, many companies have web servers that are available only to
employees ,ote that an intranet may not actually be an internet# it may simply be a networ!
6%! 6ocal %rea !etwor5
A non-public data communications networ! confined to a limited geographic area (usually within a few
miles), used to provide communication between computers and peripherals The area served may consist
of a single building, a cluster of buildings, or a campus-type arrangement
A geographically limited data communications system for a specific user group consisting of a group of
interconnected computers, sharing applications, data and peripheral devices such as printers and ":-
*-G drives intended for the local transport of data, video, and voice
1/
+ocal area networ!s are made up of several components
;or!stations, or 6ersonal "omputers with networ! interface cards
"abling or connection system, which may be wired (wire or cable) ore wireless
,etwor! operating system, the software to manage the activities of the networ! .%amples of
networ! operating systems are ,ovellLs ,etware, &"-, M,IN, and I)G 6" +A, ;indows /I
and ;indows ,T are e%amples of peer-to-peer networ!ing software
-ther shared devices, for e%ample printers, scanners and storage devices
)ridges, routers, and gateways> to connect a +A, to other networ!s
Assignment: Define Bridges, Routers and Gateways and state their function in a network.
Categories of 6%!s
6eer- to D peer networ! D
"lient8server networ!
.nterprise networ! D consist mainly of many traditional file servers, interconnected to provide a
total networ! solution for a large company This type of networ! involves connecting across widely
dispersed geographical locations
Assignment: research on peertopeer network and c!ient"server. Define them and state at !east #
advantages and # disadvantages of each.
M%! - Metropolitan %rea !etwor5
A group of +A,s with high-speed, seamless interconnection within a 9metropolitan9 area The latter is not
necessarily a city# it normally means any area which is spread out but in some sense a single entity> for
instance, two company buildings on opposite sides of the road or on a large site
0%! 0ide %rea !etwor5
A networ! which covers a larger geographical area than a +A, or a GA, and where telecommunications
lin!s are implemented, normally leased from the appropriate 6rivate Telephone -perator(s)
;%! ;alue %dded !etwor5
A secure electronic repository for electronic commerce A FA, provides you with an Interchange
I: that is uni(ue and that I: is assigned to a mailbo% ;hen you dial into your FA,, you send
transactions to your mailbo% and the FA, in turn routes those transactions to the appropriate Trading
6artner The FA, also receives transactions that are to be routed to you, they are sent to your mailbo% and
your .:I Translator downloads them when you call in to receive mail FA,9s also provide information
about any transactions that may not have been sent or received properly, and reset your document if there
was an error in downloading
A company that acts as a pipe or an electronic mailbo% for the transmission of data and provides
communications services such as line speed conversion and protocol matching
;&! ;irtual &ri*ate !etwor5
6rivate networ! built atop a public networ! Hosts within the private networ! use encryption to
tal! to other hosts# the encryption e%cludes hosts from outside the private networ! even if they are on the
public networ!
A private networ! within a public networ!, usually on the Internet 6rivacy for the virtual networ!
is achieved through encryption and provides a less e%pensive option than using dedicated lines
A private networ! that is configured within a public networ! F6,s en2oy the security of a private
networ! via access control and encryption, while ta!ing advantage of the economies of scale and built-in
management facilities of large public networ!s
5A
A virtual private networ! is what it says-a private networ! of computers that9s partially connected
over public phone lines .ncryption and secure protocols permit F6, users to transmit data secure in the
!nowledge that the data will be difficult, if not impossible, to intercept by unauthori$ed third parties This
technology allows F6, users to communicate with the assurance of total privacy and safety of data and
information while cutting the cost of traditional leased telephones lines by /A-/IT
Campus-area networ5s ,C%!s./
The computers are within a limited geographic area, such as a campus or military base
<ome-area networ5s ,<%!s./
A networ! contained within a user9s home that connects a person9s digital devices
Assignment: research on the advantages and the disadvantages of each type of networks
!etwor5 Topologies
The configuration or design of a networ! is called a topology ,6ayout. There are three designs star, bus
and ring topology
$%amp!es
The above diagrams are e%amples of the layout of each networ! topology
Star Topologies
All the nodes are connected to a central hub This means that each computer
has its own connection to the networ! and that a brea! in a cable will not affect the wor!ing of other
computers If the hub brea!s down, then all the computers on the hub will not wor! However, star
networ!s although more e%pensive to install than other types, are the (uic!est
Bus networ5
This is the simplest type of topology, where the networ! nodes (computers) are in a line )us networ! are
cheap and reliable, but if the cable brea!s the networ! split in two unconnected parts )us networ! are
slower than star networ!s, with the speed of the networ! limited to 1A Gb per second
$ing networ5
This type of networ! has no end to the line The last node (computer) is connected to the first node,
forming a ring loop If the cable brea!s it will affect all the computers on the networ! *ing networ!s are
slower than star
Communication Channel
This is the path through which information passes between two devices It can also be defined as the
method or medium used for transmitting data "haracteristics of communication channel include
transmission mode, direction of data flow, communication channel (media) and transmission speed
Transmission Mode ,rates.
51
This determines the number of characters that can be transmitted in one second Types of transmission
modes include>
Asynchronous
&ynchronous
Research on Asynchronous, &ynchronous
'irection of data flow
These include simple%, half duple% and full duple%
Research on simp!e%, ha!f dup!e% and fu!! dup!e%.
Transmission speed ,rate.
This is the amount of information that a channel can comfortably RhandleL at any one time It is usually
measured in bps (bits per second) and is referred to as baud rate
Bandwidth
This is the width of the communication channel The higher the bandwidth the more data and information
the channel can transmit :ifferent types of bandwidth include> base band, narrow band, broadband and
voice band
Research on 'ase 'and, narrow 'and, 'road'and and voice 'and.
Transmission Media
In communication there are two main types of transmission media These are wireless and physical
transmission media
&hysical transmission media
Mse wire, cables and other tangible materials to send communication signals These include twisted cable,
coa%ial cable and fiber optic
Twisted pair ca-le D these cables consists of one or more twisted-pair wires bundled together .ach
twisted pair wires consist of two separate insulated copper wires that are twisted together The wires are
twisted together to reduce noise ,oise is an electrical disturbance that can degrade communication
-ften used for telephone system
Research on shie!ded and unshie!ded twisted pair ca'!es
Coa3ial ca-les D often refer to as coa%# consist of a single copper wire surrounded by at least three
layers> (1) an insulating material, (5) a woven or braided metal, and (?) a plastic outer coating "able
television wiring often use coa%ial cable
"i-er- optic ca-le - this consist of do$ens or hundreds of strands of glass or plastic that use light to
transmit signal .ach strand is called an optical fiber (this is as thin as the human hair) Inside the fiber
optic cable, an insulating glass cladding and a protective coating surround each optical fiber
Assignment: find at !east # advantages and # disadvantages of the different types of transmission
media. (ind pictures of each.
0ireless Transmission Media
&ends communication signals though air or space using radio, microwave and infrared
Research on 'roadcast radio, B!uetooth, ce!!u!ar radio, microwaves, communication sate!!ites and
infrared.
55
=ses of Communication Technologies
"ommunication technologies use is all around you In the course of the day, for e%ample, you might use,
or use information generated by, one or more of the following communication technologies> voice mail,
fa%, e-mail, instant messaging, chat rooms, newsgroups (threaded discussion), telephony,
videoconferencing, collaboration, groupware and global positioning system (76&)
Assignment: research on the fo!!owing terms: voice mai!, fa%, emai!, instant messaging, chat rooms,
newsgroups, te!ephony, videoconferencing, co!!a'oration, groupware and g!o'a! positioning system
)G*&+.
!etwor5 communication Technologies
TodayLs networ!s connect terminals, devices and computers from many different manufacturers across
many types of networ!s, such as ;A,, +A, and wireless 'or the different devices on several types of
networ!s to be able to communicate, the networ! must use a specific combination of hardware and
software A variety of communication technologies e%ist for this purpose These include .thernet, to!en
ring, T"68I6 (transaction control protocol8 internet protocol, wireless application protocol (;A6),
intranets and firewalls
Assignment: $thernet, token ring, ,-*".* )transaction contro! protoco!" internet protoco!, wire!ess
app!ication protoco! )/A*+, intranets and firewa!!s
The telephone networ5
The public switched telephone networ! (6&T,) is the worldwide telephone system that handles
voice oriented telephone calls ,early the entire telephone networ! today uses digital technology, with the
final lin! from the telephone company to the home, which is often analog
The telephone networ! plays an essential role in computer communication data, instruction and
information can be sent over the telephone networ! using dial-up lines, dedicated lines, Integrated
&ervices 6rovider networ! (I&),), digital subscriber line (:&+), cable TF lines and T-carrier lines
Assignment: research on the fo!!owing terms: dia!up !ines, dedicated !ines, .ntegrated &ervices
*rovider network ).&BN+, digita! su'scri'er !ine )D&0+, ca'!e ,1 !ines, !eased !ines and ,carrier !ines.
Communication de*ices
This is any type of hardware capable of transmitting data, instruction and information between a sending
device and a receiving device, via a communication channel &ometimes the communication device also
must convert the data, instructions, and information from analog to digital or vice versa depending on the
services involves &ome of the more common types off communication devices are dial-up modem, I&),
and :&+ modems, cable modems and ,I" (networ! interface card)
Research on the fo!!owing terms: modems, dia!up modem, .&BN and D&0 modems, ca'!e modems and
N.- )network interface card+.
'efine the following terms/
1 Hyperte%t Gar!up +anguage (HTG+)
5 file transfer protocol ('T6)
? telnet
E Teleconferencing
I Telecommuting
0 ;orld ;ide ;eb (;;;)
5?
K Fideoconferencing
1 Internet
/ Internet *elay "hat (I*")
1A .%tensible Gar!up +anguage (NG+)
11 newsgroup
15 .lectronic mail
1? Intranet
1E Telemar!eting
1I Internet &ervice 6rovider (I&6)
10 ;ebsite
1K -nline &ervice 6rovider (-&6)
11 ;eb 6age
1/ &earch .ngine
5A ;eb )rowser
51 Hyperlin!
55 Home 6age
5? Mniform *esource +ocator(M*+)
5E download
5I Mpload
50 :omain name
5K Internet 6rotocol (I6) Address
51 +ogon ,ame
5/ Inbo%
?A Attachment
?1 Internet
?5 Godem
?? Firtual 6rivate ,etwor! (F6,)
?E bandwidth
?I modulation8demodulation
?0 Hyperte%t Transfer 6rotocol (HTT6)
?K Transfer "ontrol 6rotocol8Internet
6rotocol (T"68I6)
?1 protocols
?/ hotspots
5E
<yperte3t Mar5up 6anguage ,<TM6.
&et of special code called tags that format a file for use as a web page
"ile transfer protocol ,"T&.
"ile access and transfer ser*ices
These services enable you to locate and electronic files stored on computers across the internet 'ile
Transfer 6rotocol ('T6) is a set of rules for communicating over the internet It enables users to upload
and download data
Telnet
Teleconferencing
Telecommuting
;or! arrangement in which employees wor! away from a companyLs standard wor!place, and often
communicate with office using communication technology
0orld 0ide 0e- ,000.
This is a collection of all lin!ed documents, or pages on millions of computers and spread over the entire
internet Gany people believe that the internet and the web is the same, but this is not so The web is a
large subset (section) of the internet
;ideoconferencing
Geeting between two or more geographically separated people who use a networ! or the internet to
transmit audio and video data
Internet
This is the worldsL largest networ! It is a world wide collection of networ!s that lin!s together millions of
other smaller networ! via different communication media The internet is not owned by anyone however,
the rules and standards that govern the internet is set by the ,etwor! Information "enter (impose by the
M& national &cience 'oundation (,&')
The &tructure of the Internet
The basic components of the internet are>
E host D this is a 6" on I)G or mi% platforms or mainframe computers
I networ5s D when two or more host communicate it is called a networ!
0 routers D these are used to connect networ!
&ervices available on the internet
5I
There are four main services that are available on the internet> communication# file access and transfer
services# terminal emulation services# and the world wide web (www)
Internet $elay Chat ,I$C.
E3tensi-le Mar5up 6anguage ,>M6.
;eb development language that enables the web page developers to create and run web page application,
enabling web application created with any programming language or any operating system to
communicate and share data seamlessly
!ewsgroup
-nline area on the web where users conduct written discussion about a particular sub2ect It is also called
a discussion
Electronic mail
The electronic mail (e-mail) is the most popular and widely used service in the internet It enables users to
send and receive electronic messages A typical e-mail address begins with a userLs name, followed by the
S symbol and the providers name
Intranet
This is a type of networ! that belongs to an organi$ation and is accessible only by members of that
organi$ation It has similar features to an internet, the main difference is in who can access the data store
on it
Telemar5eting
Internet Ser*ice &ro*ider ,IS&.
0e-site
A website is a collection of screen display, which are related, and they are stored on the Internet ;ebsites
are created to share data and information with other users
#nline Ser*ice &ro*ider ,#S&.
)usiness that provides access to the internet as well as members-only features that offer a variety of
special content and services
0e- &age
.lectronic document on the web
Search Engine
&oftware program used to find web sites, web pages, and internet files
0e- Browser
6rogram used to access and view web pages on the internet It is also called a browser
50
<yperlin5
)uilt-in connection to another related web page or part of a web page It is called lin!
<ome &age
&tarting page for a browser, similar to a boo! cover or table of contents for a web site# provide
information about the siteLs purpose and content
=niform $esource 6ocator
Mni(ue address for a web page# consists of a protocol, domain, and sometimes the path to a specific
web page or location on a web page
'ownload
It is also defined as ta!ing data from a computer and placing in on secondary storage
=pload
6rocess of copying a file to a web server It is also defined as ta!ing data from a secondary storage and
placing in on the computer
'omain name
Te%t version of an I6 address
Internet &rotocol ,I&. %ddress
A number that uni(uely identifies each computer or device connected to the internet, consisting of
four groups of numbers, each separated by a period
6ogon !ame
In-o3
%ttachment
Internet
A worldwide networ! of computer networ!s It is an interconnection of large and small networ!s around
the globe The Internet began in 1/05 as a computer networ! for the M& military and over time has
grown into a global communication tool of many thousands of computer networ!s that share a common
addressing scheme Mnli!e online services, which are centrally controlled, the Internet is decentrali$ed by
design .ach Internet computer, called a host, is independent Its operators can choose which Internet
services to use and which local services to ma!e available to the global Internet community *emar!ably,
this anarchy by design wor!s e%ceedingly well There are a variety of ways to access the Internet Gost
users gain access through an Internet &ervice 6rovider (I&6)
Modem
;irtual &ri*ate !etwor5 ,;&!.
5K
6rivate networ! built atop a public networ! Hosts within the private networ! use encryption to
tal! to other hosts# the encryption e%cludes hosts from outside the private networ! even if they are on the
public networ!
A private networ! within a public networ!, usually on the Internet 6rivacy for the virtual networ!
is achieved through encryption and provides a less e%pensive option than using dedicated lines
A private networ! that is configured within a public networ! F6,s en2oy the security of a private
networ! via access control and encryption, while ta!ing advantage of the economies of scale and built-in
management facilities of large public networ!s
A virtual private networ! is what it says-a private networ! of computers that9s partially connected
over public phone lines .ncryption and secure protocols permit F6, users to transmit data secure in the
!nowledge that the data will be difficult, if not impossible, to intercept by unauthori$ed third parties This
technology allows F6, users to communicate with the assurance of total privacy and safety of data and
information while cutting the cost of traditional leased telephones lines by /A-/IT
Telecommunication related challenges
monopoly versus open mar!et
infrastructure
terrain and location of branches
cost and availability of telecommunication services
speed of transmission within each territory
policies-government
51
$emote information
To access remote information a software tool, for e%ample, a browser or email system
Emerging technology
5/
0hat is I!"#$M%TI#! &$#CESSI!G?
An organi$ed collection, storage, and presentation system of data and other !nowledge for
decision ma!ing, progress reporting, and for planning and evaluation of programs
Information processing is the set of activities, done in a particular se(uence by which data produce
information These activities are called processing activities These processing activities include
collecting, collating, analy$ing, presenting and disseminating of information These activities are
also !nown as the sub-processes of an information system Information system can be either
manual or computeri$ed, or a combination of both
Su--processes of information processing
Collecting D refers to the gathering of data
Collating D combining the data gathered
Input ,data capture or entry.
%naly8ing ,processing. D e%amine the details of the data gathered
Store
&resenting and dissemination ,output. D refers to putting the data gathered in a useful form in
order to gain meaningful output
Transmit and retrieve data and information
-ase 2
Jou were as!ed by your teacher to write an essay on a particular topic Thin! of the occasion when you
did the essay &elect from the following the activities which best describe what you did
a Fisited the library
b -rgani$ed the data that you gathered
c ;rote the essay
d Too! the bus home
e "ollected data on the topic
f 7ave the essay to the teacher
g Analysed the data
h Had supper
6ut the activities in the order that you did them
&o!ution
There are some activities that are not important to the process of producing and submitting your essay, for
e%ample (a), (d) and (h) The purpose of visiting a library or reading a boo! is to gather data If you had
the boo!s at home or could get the data from the internet, you would not have to visit the library
Therefore, the activities and the order in which they should be done are (e), (b), (g), (c) and (f) The set of
activities (co!!ecting, co!!ating, ana!y3ing, presenting and disseminating) is the system by which you
produce your essay
Manual Information System
Ganual information system is a system whereby humans are re(uired to perform all the tas!s In manual
information systems, no mechanical or electronic devices are used to perform any tas!, all are done
manually All tas!s can be bro!en down into three stages> input, process and output
?A
,he three stages of doing tasks
.%ample of a manual information system is a telephone directory &uppose you have a friend whose
phone number and surname you !now but whose address you need to find Msing the surname and phone
number you would have to search through the list of names corresponding with the friendLs surname and
try to match the phone number -nce the phone number has been found you can read off the address
The input data were surname and telephone number# the processing activities were search and locate# and
the output was address The telephone directory is a manual information system as it is the product of
collecting, collating and analy$ing of data, and the presenting and disseminating of information )y
performing a set of actions, you obtained the address of you friend
4uestions
1 ;hich of the following are e%amples of a manual information systemU
(i) A page from a well-!nown story boo!
(ii) A bus schedule
(iii) A payroll database management system
(iv)A catalogue
(v) .lectronic funds transfer system
(vi)An e%amination timetable
(vii) A dictionary
ME%'#0B$##( <IG< SC<##6
Information Technology - Grade 12
Module 1 Information Systems
%=T#M%TE' I!"#$M%TI#! &$#CESSI!G S@STEMS
An automated information processing system is a system that uses information technology tools and
facilities, such as a computer and a printer, to meet the ob2ectives of an individual, an organi$ation or
society The purpose of any automated information system is to transform raw data into information
"omputerised information systems are much more fle%ible than manual ones and a lot faster ;ith a
computerised system you could type in a phone number and, if the number was stored in the system, the
name and address could be provided immediately The ma2or tas!s are the same for both a manual and
computerised information system> data entry or capture (input), processing (process), presentation and
distribution (output)
I,6MT 6*-".&& -MT6MT
&urname
and
Telephone ,o
(I,6MT)
&earch
and
+ocate
(6*-".&&)
Address
(-MT6MT)
?1
,he ma5or task of an .nformation system
Components #f %n %utomated &rocessing System
An automated information system is made up of four ma2or components> hardware, software, networ!
(communications connectivity) and user
<ardware
Hardware is the term used for the parts of the computer that you can touch and handle The hardware is
the physical e(uipment of an automated information processing system Hardware is the collective name
given to all the devices that ma!e up a computer system The hardware component of the automated
information system has internal and e%ternal devices :evices that are typically outside the "6M are
!nown as peripheral de*ices &ome e%amples of hardware devices are> monitor, "6M, hard dis!,
!eyboard, floppy dis! drive, mouse, modem, spea!ers and ":-*-G drive
These devices can be categorised into>
Input devices - devices used to get data into the computer
"entral processing unit D referred to as the brain of the computer This is where all processing
activities ta!e place
6rimary storage devices D &tores data temporarily that are currently being used by the system, if
the computer switch off information stored in primary memory would be lost
&econdary storage devices - These consists of the dis! drives used to store data permanently, when
the power is switched off the information will not be lost
-utput devices - which include units as printers and F:Ms, which are used to provide output in
the form of printouts, screen displays, etc
"ommunication hardware devices D devices that facilitate the connection between computers, and
between computers and other devices such as printers and scanners
Measures to descri-e hardware components
These include>
"loc! speed Din order to synchroni$e the various steps carried out during the fetch-e%ecute
(machine) cycle, all processors have an internal cloc! which generate regular time pulses All
processor activity must begin on a cloc! pulse, although some activities may ta!e more than one
cloc! pulse to complete The cloc! pulse can be about a million cycles per second It is an
important factor in determining the speed at instructions are e%ecuted
&torage capabilities
:ata transmission capabilities ()us &i$e and word si$e)
Software
&oftware is the word used for the actual programs that allow the hardware to do a useful 2ob ;ithout
software, hardware, hardware is useless &oftware is made up of a series of instructions that tell the
computer what to do There are different types of software# systems software, application software and
communication software
&ystem software D &ystem software is a collection of programs that allow the computer to manage its
resources and run basic operations It will tell the computer where and how to store and retrieve data used
I,6MT 6*-".&& -MT6MT
?5
during processing .%amples of system software are ;indows 5AAA, :-&, M,IN, ,ovell ,etware, -&85,
Gacintosh &ystem and +inu% These software products are also called operating systems Mtilities and
device drivers are also e%amples of system software
App!ication software D Application software are designed to allow you to do specific tas!s using a
computer such as, to create reports, perform calculations, play a game and maintain an address boo!
;ord, .%cel, Access, 6ower6oint, &6&&, "amptonLs .ncyclopedia and &olitaire are e%amples of
application software
-ommunication software D A subset of application software, allows you to connect your computer to a
local networ! or to the internet, or manages the transmission of data between computers &mart "om,
"rosstal!, ;incom, "om ;or!s, Buic! +in!, 6ro"omm 6lus, .udora, Gs .%change and 6egasus Gail
are e%amples of data communication software ;indows :ial-up ,etwor!ing connects you computer to a
phone line so that you may access the Internet
!etwor5
A networ! is a group of two or more computers lin!ed together in order to facilitate the sharing of data
electronically or other resources such as printers, scanners or storage devices There are different types of
computer networ!s#
+ocal-area networ!s (+A,s)> The computers are geographically close together (that is, in the same
building)
;ide-area networ!s (;A,s)> The computers span a large geographical area and are connected by
telephone lines or radio waves The internet is an e%ample of this networ!
"ampus-area networ!s ("A,s)> The computers are within a limited geographic area, such as a
campus or military base
Getropolitan-area networ!s GA,s)> A data networ! designed for a town or city
Home-area networ!s (HA,s)> A networ! contained within a user9s home that connects a person9s
digital devices
The configuration or design of a networ! is called a topology There are three designs star, bus and ring
topology
$%amp!es
??
The above diagrams are e%amples of the layout of each networ! topology
+ocal area networ!s are made up of several components
;or!stations, or 6ersonal "omputers with networ! interface cards
"abling or connection system, which may be wired (wire or cable) ore wireless
,etwor! operating system, the software to manage the activities of the networ! .%amples of
networ! operating systems are ,ovellLs ,etware, &"-, M,IN, and I)G 6" +A, ;indows /I
and ;indows ,T are e%amples of peer-to-peer networ!ing software
-ther shared devices, for e%ample printers, scanners and storage devices
)ridges, routers, and gateways> to connect a +A, to other networ!s
Assignment: Define Bridges, Routers and Gateways and state their function in a network.
=ser
The user is the individual that operates the computer hardware, creates and uses the software, enters the
data and uses the information that the system generates They also follow instructions or certain
procedures when using the hardware and software, for e%ample, installing a new device or application
software ;ithout the user, there would be no computer system The user is the most important
component of any automated information processing system
Benefits ,$eason for the use. of Information System
.nhance speed D eg Information systems can perform calculations or process paperwor! much
faster than people
Increase accuracy D eg ;hen calculation is domne it can give one a more accurate figure than
human
It is more reliable- can get the same result using the same input all the time
It is more efficient- boo!s compare to hard drive
It is more fle%ible
.nhance presentation of information
Assist in a more ob2ective decision ma!ing
It enable storage and retrieval of large volumes of data
Allow for multitas!ing
Information systems can help companies learn more about the purchase patterns and preferences
of their customers
Information systems provide new efficiencies through services such as automated teller machines
(ATGs), telephone systems, or computer-controlled airplanes and air terminals
Information systems have made possible new medical advances in surgery, radiology and patient
monitoring
)etter communication - The internet distributes information instantly to millions of people across
the world
!egati*e ,&ro-lems. Impact of Information System
)y automating activities that were previously performed by people, information systems may
eliminate 2obs
?E
Information systems may allow organi$ations to collect personal details about people that violate
their privacy
Information systems are used in so many aspects of everyday life that systems outages can cause
shutdown of businesses or transportation services, paraly$ing communities
Heavy users of information systems may suffer repetitive stress in2ury, techno stress, and other
health problems
The internet can be used to distribute illegal copies of software, boo!s, articles, and other
intellectual property
"an be e%pensive to set information system
&ometimes there are issue with training personnel to use system
Information system rapidly changing therefore increase therefore there is problems with
obsolescence
There might be resistance to changes

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