Basic Electronics and Ews Lab Manual

Department of
Electronics & Communication Engineering

Manual and Observation Book
Electronic Workshop & Basic Circuits Lab
By
www.engglabs.blogspot.in
K.SRIDHAR RAJU
09346202006
K.SRIDHAR RAJU www.engglabs.blogspot.o!

Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
"let#oni $o#%s&op an' Basi (i#)its *ab
+a!e o, t&e st)'ent-
(lass B."-
Roll +o- Aa' .ea#-
IDE!
"l
o
ame of the E#periment Date
Conducted
Initials of staff
2

LI"$ O% E!&E'IME$"
/a#t 0 A
1. St)'y o, /assi2e o!ponents3 R.*.(.
2. St)'y o, ati2e o!ponents. 4esting o, 'io'es3 t#ansisto#s an' I(s.
3. 5eas)#e!ents o, R3*3( an' 6 )sing *(R 5ete#.
4. St)'y o, basi elet#oni test !eas)#ing inst#)!ents inl)'ing sol'e#less b#ea'boa#'s an' t&ei#
)se.
7. St)'y o, (.R.8. 9 :#ont panel ope#ation; Appliation o, (.R.8. in elet#oni !eas)#e!ents.
6. St)'y o, 'i,,e#ent types o, t#ans,o#!e#s3 'esign < ,ab#iation o, t#ans,o#!e#.
=. /(B 'esign3 layo)t p#epa#ation )sing t&e so,twa#e pa%age
>. Sol'e#ing p#atie an' i#)it t#aing )sing 'is#ete o!ponents.
/a#t 0 B
1. ?e#i,iation o, S)pe#position t&eo#e!.
2. ?e#i,iation o, 4&e2inin@s t&eo#e!.
3. ?e#i,iation o, 5aAi!)! /owe# 4#ans,e# t&eo#e!.
4. ?e#i,iation o, 4ellegen@s t&eo#e!.
7. Design an' ?e#i,iation o, Se#ies Resonane.
6. Design an' ?e#i,iation o, /a#allel Resonane.
3

() "$*D+ O% &,""I-E COM&OE$"
,IM.
4o st)'y t&e /assi2e o!ponents li%e Resisto#s3 (apaito#s3 an' In')to#s.
,&&,',$*".
S.+o. "B)ip!ent 6ty.
01.
02.
03.
5)lti!ete#
*(R
5ete#
Di,,e#ent types
o,
Resiste#s
(apaito#s
In')to#s
01
01
10
10
10
'E"I"$O'
4&e opposition3 w&i& li!its t&e a!o)nt o, )##ent t&at an be p#o')e' by t&e applie'
2oltage3 is alle' #esistane. In !any elet#oni i#)it appliations t&e #esistane ,o#! t&e basi
pa#t o, t&e i#)it. 4&e #eason ,o# inse#ting a #esistane is to #e')e t&e )##ent o# to p#o')e t&e
'esi#e' 2oltage '#op. 4&ese o!ponents w&i& o,,e# spei,i 2al)e o, #esistane C RD a#e %nown as
#esisto#s. Resisto#s !ay &a2e a ,iAe' 2al)e i.e. w&ose 2al)e annot be &ange' an' a#e %nown as
,iAe' #esisto#. 4&e #esisto#s w&ose 2al)es an be &ange' o# 2a#ie' a#e %nown as 2a#iable #esisto#s.
R"SIS48RS S.5B8*
4

4./"S 8: R"SIS48RS -
All #esisto#s &a2e two !ain &a#ate#istis. :i#st one is 2al)e CR@ in o&!s3 seon' one is
powe# #ating. Resiste#s i, 'i,,e#ent 2al)es an' #ating a#e a2ailable in t&e !a#%et. Resisto#s ,#o! 1
to !any 5ega a#e a2ailable. 4&e powe# #ating !ay be as &ig& as se2e#al &)n'#e' watts to as
low as 0.1watt.
4&e powe# #ating is 2e#y i!po#tant in t&e sense t&at t&e !aAi!)! )##ent 'ete#!ines t&at a
#esisto# an wit&stan' wit&o)t being 'est#oye'. /owe# 'issipation !eans t&at t&e powe# is waste'
as I
2
R loss3 sine t&e #es)ltant &eat is now )se' too !)& &eat an !a%e t&e #esisto# b)#n open.
4&e#e a#e two types o, #esisto#s a2ailable. 4&ey a#e
1. (a#bon #esisto#s
2. $i#e wo)n' #esisto#s.
(a#bon #esisto#s a#e )se' w&en t&e powe# 'issipation is less t&an 9$3 bea)se t&ey a#e s!alle#
an' ost less. $i#e wo)n' #esisto#s a#e )se' w&e#e t&e powe# 'issipation is abo)t 7$ to se2e#al
&)n'#e' watts.
In elet#oni eB)ip!ent a#bon #esisto#s a#e wi'ely )se' bea)se o, t&ei# s!all siEe. Us)ally
&ig&e# RF2al)es &a2e s!alle# wattage #atings bea)se t&ey &a2e less )##ent.
4&e a#bon an' wi#e wo)n' #esisto#s an be eit&e# ,iAe' o# 2a#iable. 4&e 2a#iable a#bon
#esisto#s a#e o!!only )se' as 2ol)!e ont#ol ,o# ont#ast ont#ol in 4?. 4&e 2a#iable wi#e wo)n'
#esisto# is )se' as a potential 'i2i'e# t&at is to 'i2i'e t&e 2oltage ,#o! so)#e.
(ARB8+ R"SIS48RS-
4&e a#bon #esisto#s a#e !a'e o, ,inely 'i2i'e' a#bon o# g#ap&ite !iAe' wit& a pow'e#e'
ins)lating !ate#ial in app#oAi!ate p#opo#tions nee'e' ,o# t&e ele!ent is )s)ally p#opo#tions nee'e'
,o# t&e e!ent is )s)ally enlose' in plasti> ase ,o# !e&anial st#engt& an' ins)lato#. 4&ei#
)s)al powe# #ating is 1G>3 1G431G231$.
5"4A* :I*5 R"SIS48RS-
DeHointing a ,il! o, !etalli alloys on to a glass o# e#a!i p#o')es t&ese ,il! #esisto#s.
4&e !etal ,il! #esisto#s a#e o, two types.
1. 4&in ,il!
2. (#a%e' a#bon #esisto#s.
5"4A* 8IID" :I*I5 R"SIS48RS-
4&ese #esisto#s onsist o, oAi'es o, tin an' anti!ony. 4&ese oAi'es a#e ,)se' on to a glass
o# e#a!i s)bst#ate.
7

$IR" $8U+D R"SIS48RS-
$i#e wo)n' #esisto#s a#e apable o, 'issipating app#eiable a!o)nt o, powe#. 4&ese
#esisto#s a#e a2ailable by powe# #anges as low as 1 $ to as &ig& as 1000$. 4&e #esistane wi#e is
!a'e )p o, ni&#o!e 9 >0J ni%el an' 20J &#o!i)!;. 4&e ni&#o!e wi#e o##espon'ing to t&e
#eB)i#e' 2al)e o, #esistane is wo)n' on a e#a!i t)be o# #o' apable o, wit&stan'ing t&e#!al
s&o%s.
4&e#e a#e ,o)# !ain types o, onst#)tion. 4&ey a#e
1. 8pen wo)n' 9 no p#otetion;
2. ?it#eo)s ena!ele'
3. (e!ent oate'
4. *aB)e#e'.
8/"+ $8U+D -
8pen wo)n' onsists o, solenoi' win'ing on a e#a!i t)be o# a #o'.
?I4R"8US "+A5"**"D -
4&ese #esisto#s &a2e a oating o, 2it#eo)s ena!el o2e# t&e #esistane wi#e. 4&is ena!el
oating gi2es t&e #esisto# p#otetion against !oist)#e an' ens)#es goo' !e&anial p#otetion to t&e
wi#e. 4&e #esisto#s a#e s)itable ,o# )se )n'e# a'2e#se on'ition o, te!pe#at)#e an' !oist)#e.
("5"+4 (8A4"D -
4&ese #esisto#s &a2e a !oist)#e pK#oo, laye# o, laB)e# o# o#gani 2a#nis&. 4&ese #esisto#s
an ope#ate only wit&in 170
0
(. 4&ese a#e a2ailable in t&e #anges 1 to 1K wit& 7J an' 10J
tole#ane.
:o# 4 ban's :o# 7 ban's
A L 1
st
'igit A L 1
st
'igit
B L 2
n'
'igit B L 2
n'
'igit
( L !)ltiplie# ( L 3
#'
'igit
DL tole#ane D L !)ltiplie#
6
$IR" $8U+D R"SIS48R

" L tole#ane
/8$"R RA4I+M 8: A R"SIS48R -
4&e !aAi!)! )##ent a##ying apability o, a #esisto# is alle' its powe# #ating.
/LI
2
R
So t&e powe# o, #esisto# 'epen's on t&e )##ent ,lowing t&#o)g& it. An' $attage 'epen's on t&e
type o, #esisto#s.
(a#bon #esisto#s - 1G> to 2 5$
$i#e wo)n' #esisto# - 7 to 70 $
$i#e wo)n' #esisto#s o, wattage !o#e t&an 70$ a#e !a'e ,o# in')st#ial )se.
S4ABI*I4.- 4&e powe# ability o, a #esisto# o, !aintaining a stable 2al)e )n'e# 2a#iable on'itions
o, te!pe#at)#e an' &)!i'ity is alle' stability. 4&e stability o, wi#e wo)n' #esisto# is bette# t&an
t&at o, a#bon #esisto#.
R"*IAB*I4.-
4&e ability o, a #esisto# o, !aintaining a stable 2al)e ,o# along pe#io' w&en in )se is alle'
#eliability. A wi#e wo)n' #esisto# is !)& !o#e stable t&an t&at o, a a#bon #esisto#.
'E"I"$O' COLO*' CODI/
Bea)se a#bon #esisto#s a#e s!all p&ysially3 t&ey a#e olo)#Fo'e' to in'iate t&ei#
#esistane 2al)e in o&!s. 4&e basis o, t&is syste! is t&e )se o, olo#s ,o# n)!e#ial 2al)es as liste'.
(olo)# ?al)e
=
Bla% F 0
III
BA+D
II
BA+D
I
BA+D
I?
BA+D
B#own F 1
Re' F 2
8#ange F 3
.ellow F 4
M#een F 7
Bl)e F 6
?oilet F =
M#ay F >
$&ite F 9

"Aa!ple ,o# olo)# o'e DRD 2al)e-
I Ban' B#own - Ist 'igit 1
II Ban' Bla% - IIn' 'igit 0 Resistane 2al)e L 1K
III Ban' Re' - 5)ltiplie# 10
2

?I Ban' Mol' - 4ole#ane 7J
4&is o'e is t&e !ost o!!on syste! )se' ,o# olo)# o'ing ins)late' a#bon #esisto#s
&a2ing aAial lea's. (olo)# ban's a#e p#inte' at one en' o, t&e ins)lating bo'y3 w&i& is )s)ally
#ea'ing ,#o! le,t to #ig&t3 t&e ,i#st olo)# ban' lose to t&e e'ge in'iates t&e ,i#st 'igit in t&e
n)!e#ial 2al)e o, #esistane. 4&e seon' ban' gi2es t&e seon' 'igit. 4&e t&i#' ban' is t&e
'ei!al !)ltiplie#3 gi2ing t&e n)!be# o, Ee#os a,te# t&e two 'igits. 4&e #es)lting n)!be# is t&e
#esistane in o&!s.
4&ese a#e 2a#iable #esistane eit&e# a#bon o# wi#e wo)n'3 )se' to ont#ol t&e 2oltage an'
)##ent in a i#)it. 4&e ont#ols an be )se' ,o# eit&e# D( o# A( appliations.
A #&eostat3 a 2a#iable R wit& two te#!inals onnete' in se#ies wit& two te#!inals onnete'
in se#ies wit& t&e loa' is )se' to a'H)st t&e )##ent in t&e i#)it. De#easing se#ies R in#eases
)##ent. 4&e powe# #ating !)st be eno)g& ,o# t&e &ig&est )##ent in t&e #&eostat.
C,&,CI$O'
A apaito# is anot&e# basi o!ponent o!!only )se' in elet#oni i#)its. It is a 'e2ie3
w&i& &as
1. 4&e ability to sto#e &a#ge.
2. 8pposes any &ange o, 2oltage in t&e i#)it in w&i& it is onnete'.
3. Blo%s t&e passage o, 'i#et )##ent t&#o)g& it.
"ssentially a apaito# onsists o, two on')ting plates sepa#ate' by an ins)lating !e'i)!
alle' 'ielet#i !e'i)! as s&own in ,ig)#e. 4&e 'ielet#i wo)l' be ai#3 !ia3 e#a!i3 pape#3
elet#olyte et.
(A/A(I4A+("-
4&e ability o, a apaito# to sto#e &a#ge is te#!e' as its apaitane. It !ay be 'e,ine' as
t&e a!o)nt o, &a#ge #eB)i#e' #eating a )nit potential 'i,,e#ene 9/.D.; between its plates.
4&e apaitane o, a apaito# 'epen's )pon t&e ,ollowing ,ato#s-
1. A#ea o, t&e plates- 4&e apaitane in#eases 'i#etly wit& in#ease in plate a#ea 9A;.
2. Distanes between plates- 4&e 'istanes between plates 'e#eases3 apaitane in#eases an'
2ieF2e#sa.
>

3. 4ype o, 'ielet#i- It 'epen's on t&e #elati2e pe#!iti2ity 9; o, t&e 'ielet#i !e'i)! )se'.
Hig&e# t&e 2al)e 3 t&e g#eate# t&e 2al)e o, apaitane.
4./"S 8: (A/A(I48RS -
All apaito#s o!!only )se' in elet#oni i#)its !ay be 'i2i'e' into two atego#ies.

1. :iAe' apaito#s
2. ?a#iable apaito#s
:iAe' apaito#s !ay be ,)#t&e# 'i2i'e' into two types
1. "let#olyti apaito#
9
5"4A* /*A4"S
DI"*"(4RI(
5A4"RIA*
(A/A(I48R < I4S S.5B8*
"*"(4R8*.4" (A/A(I48R < S.5B8*
+
+

2. +onFelet#olyti apaito#s
It inl)'es e#a!i3 !ia an' pape#. S)& apaito#s &a2e no pola#ity in eit&e# 'i#etion in a
i#)it.
(A/A(I48R (8*8UR (8D" -
:o# i'enti,ying t&e 2al)e o, a #esisto# t&e#e is only on )ni2e#sal !et&o'3 b)t ,o# ase o,
apaito# t&e#e a#e ,o)# !et&o's.
10
.004=:G100?

(01&
f
("RA5I( (A/A(I48R
DIS( 4./"
/8*.S4"R (A/A(I48R
/8*.S4"R (A/A(I48R 4UB*AR

1. 4&e t&#ee 'ot !et&o' o, "let#oni In')st#ial Assoiation-
4&is is )se' ,o# 5ia apaito#s 9!ol'e';
:i#st 'ot ,i#st n)!be#
Seon' 'ot seon' n)!be#
4&i#' 'ot 'ei!al !)ltiplie#
2. SiA 'ot !et&o'-
4&e ,i#st t&#ee 'ots a#e )se' to #ep#esent apaitane 2al)e an' neAt one@s a#e )se' ,i#
#ep#esent apaitane 2al)e an' neAt one@s a#e )se' ,o# #ep#esenting 2oltage3 tole#ane an'
!)ltiplie# #espeti2ely.
ID*C$O'"
In')tane is t&e ability o, a on')to# to p#o')e in'ee' 2oltage w&en )##ent 2a#ies.
(o!ponents3 w&i& a#e !an),at)#e' to &a2e a 'e,inite 2al)e o, in')tane3 a#e alle' in')to#s.
I+DU(4I8+ B. A*4"R+A4I+M (URR"+4-
In')e' 2oltage is #es)lt o, ,l)A )tting a on')to#. 4&is ation an be a&ie2e' w&en
eit&e# t&e !agneti ,iel' is in !otion o# t&at t&e on')to# is in !otion.
*ow ,#eB)eny )##ent #eB)i#es !o#e in')tane to p#o')e so!e a!o)nt o, in')e'
2oltage as a &ig&e# ,#eB)eny )##ent.
S"*: I+DU(4A+("-
4&e ability o, a on')to# to in')e 2oltage in itsel, w&en )##ent &anges is alle' sel,F
in')tane o# si!ply in')tane.
8ne Hen#y is t&e in')tane t&at allows one 2olt to be in')e' w&en )##ent &anges at t&e
#ate o, one a!pe#e pe# seon'.
11

5U4UA* I+DU(4A+(" -
I, t&e )##ent in an in')to# is &anging t&en t&e 2a#ying ,l)A an )t a#oss any ot&e#
in')to# nea# by p#o')ing in')e' 2oltage in bot& in')to#s. 4&is is alle' C5)t)al In')tane@.
I+DU(48R -
A on')ting wi#e w&en wo)n' on a ,o#!e# gi2es an in')to#.
6 0 :A(48R-
4&e B)ality o, o# #esistane o, a oil is !eas)#e' in te#!s o, its 6 0 2al)e gi2en by
6 L I*GR L 2 , *GR

$&e#e I* L In')tane #eatane
R L Resistane3 D.(
* L (oil In')tane
: L :#eB)eny o, A.(.
$ L Ang)la# :#eB)eny
6 0 oil is p#e,e##e' as it in#eases s&a#pness o, t)ning an' it a''itionally in#eases its
sensiti2ity.
Observations
12

'esult
13

2) "$*D+ O% ,C$I-E COM&OE$"
,IM . 4o i'enti,y ati2e o!ponents an' t&ei# lea's an' also to obse#2e t&e 'i,,e#ent pa%ages 48
33 48 1>3 M4 63 S84 30.
,&&,',$*" ,D M,$E'I,L" 'E3*I'ED
S.+o- 5ate#ialG"B)ip!ent 6ty.
1. Dio'es DSiD 'io'e B. 12=3 1+ 4001 1 +o.
2. DMeD 'io'e 8A=93 DR 27 1 +o.
3. Nene# 'io'e 4.=? 1G4$3 12? 1G2$ 1 +o.
4. 4#ansisto#s 483 /a% BU207 1 +o.
7. 48 1> < 48 7 /a% SK 100 1 +o.
6. S84 30 FB(74= 1 +o.
=. Digital !)l!ete# wit& pat& a#'s 1 +o.
&'OCED*'E.
4a%e a t#ansisto# i'enti,y t&e n)!be# an' pa%age type an' tab)late t&e in,o#!ation i, it is
Eene# 'io'e its 2oltage an' wattage.
DIODE
&4 5*C$IO DIODE
Dio'es a#e !a'e ,#o! se!ion')to# !ate#ials li%e Si3 Me3 I#3 MaFAs3 et. I, 'ono#
i!p)#ities a#e int#o')e' into one si'e an' aepto#s into t&e ot&e# si'e o, a single #ystal o, a
14
O
L
L
O
O
O
L
L
O
O
O
L
L
O
O
O
L
L
O
O
"*"(4R8+
H8*"
/F4./" +F4./"
A(("/4"R I8+
D8+AR I8+
A+8D" (A4H8D"
CI'C*I$ "+MBOL %O' DIODE

se!iFon')to# a pFn H)ntion is ,o#!e'. Initially t&e#e a#e no!inally only pFtype a##ie#s to t&e
le,t o, t&e H)ntion an' only nFtypes a##ie#s to t&e #ig&t. Bea)se t&e#e is a 'ensity g#a'ient a#oss
t&e H)ntion3 &oles will 'i,,)se to t&e #ig&t a#oss t&e H)ntion an' elet#ons to t&e le,t. As a #es)lt o,
t&e 'isplae!ent o, t&ese &a#ges3 an elet#i ,iel' will appea# a#oss t&e H)ntion. 4&e )nF
ne)t#aliEe' a#e #e,e##e' to as )no2e#e' &a#ges. Sine t&e #egion o, t&e H)ntion is 'eplete' o,
!obile &a#ges3 it is alle' t&e 'epletion laye#3 t&e spaeF&a#ge #egion o# t&e t#ansition #egion
4&e essential elet#ial &a#ate#isti o, a pFn H)ntion is t&at it onstit)tes a 'io'e w&i&
pe#!its t&e easy ,low o, elet#ons i.e. ,low o, )##ent in one 'i#etion b)t #est#ains t&e ,low in t&e
opposite in bot& ,o#wa#' an' #e2e#se' bias. 4&e o!!only )se' 'io'es a#e DsiD 'io'e3 DMeD 'io'e
an' Eene# 'io'e.
%O'W,'D BI," -
An eAte#nal 2oltage applie' wit& t&e pola#ity O2e te#i!inal to pFtype an' negati2e bias. In t&is bias
#elati2ely a la#ge )##ent will ,low. Resistane will be less.
'E-E'"E BI," .
An eAte#nal 2oltage applie' wit& t&e pola#ity F2e te#i!inal to nFtype an' negati2e te#!inal to pFtype
is alle' a #e2e#se' bias. A s!all a!o)nt o, )##ent ,lows ')e to !ino#ity &a#ge a##ie#s an' is
%nown as #e2e#se sat)#ation )##ent. 4&e #esistane a#oss t&e 'io'e will be 2e#y &ig&.
17

C*$I COL$,/E 6-r 7 . 4&e 2oltage below w&i& t&e )##ent #ises #api'ly is %nown as )tFin3
o,,set3 b#ea%F point o# t&#es&ol' 2oltage ?#.
8EE' DIODE - 4&e Eene# 'io'e is )s)ally ope#ate' in #e2e#se' bias. w&en t&e 'io'e is in
#e2e#se' bias3 a s!all )##ent alle' #e2e#se sat)#ation )##ent ,lows. 4&is )##ent #e!ains #elati2ely
onstant 'espite an in#ease in #e2e#se
Bias3 )ntil t&e Eene# b#ea%'own #egion in t&e 2iinity o, t&e Eene# 2oltage ?E is #ea&e'. In t&is
2iinity #e2e#se )##ent sta#ts #ising #api'ly bea)se o, a2alan&e e,,et. :inally Eene# b#ea%'own
9a s&a#p in#ease in )##ent; o)#s w&en t&e Eene# 2oltage ?E is #ea&e'.
Nene# 'io'es a#e )s)ally in'iate' by t&e se#ies BN.3 BN an' so on.
Us)ally b#ea%'own 2oltage is in'iate' on t&e 'io'e itsel,. 4&e b#ea%'own 2oltage is s)ppose 3.32
t&en t&e lette#ing on t&e 'io'e will be 323 in'iating 3.32. $e &a2e e#tain stan'a#' 2oltage
b#ea%'own 'io'es. 4&e ?E 2al)es a#e
2.123 2.=23 3.323 4.=23 7.12 an' so.
LI/9$ EMI$$I/ DIODE" 6LED:s7 . t&e lig&tFe!itting 'io'e 9*"D; is a soli'Fstate lig&t
so)#e *"DDs &a2e #eplae' inan'esent la!ps in !any appliations bea)se t&ey &a2e t&e
a'2antages o, low 2oltage3 *ongFli,e 9!o#e t&en 20 yea#s an' ,ast on o,, swit&ing 9nanoseon's;.
In *"DDs se!it#anspa#ent !ate#ials a#e )se' instea' o, silion3 in a ,o#wa#' biase' le'3 &eat an'
li>g&t again a#e #a'iate' w&en ,#ee elet#ons an' &oles #eo!bine at t&e H)ntion. Bea)se t&e
!ate#ial is se!it#anspa#ent3 so!e o, t&e lig&t esapes to t&e s)##o)n'ings. By )sing ele!ents li%e
galli)!3 a#seni an' p&osp&o#o)s a !an),at)#e an p#o')e *"DDs t&at #a'iate #e'3 g#een3 yellow3
a!be# o# in,#a#e' lig&t. *"DDs &a2e a typial 2oltage '#op ,#o! 1.7 to 2.7? ,o# )##ent between 10
< 70!A.
16
CI'C*I$ "+MBOL %O' 8EE' DIODE
A+8D"
(A4H8D"
(A4H8D"
A+8D"
A+8D" (A4H8D"
LI/9$ EMI$$I/ DIODE "+MBOL

&9O$O DIODE. 4&e p&oto'io'e is one eAa!ple o, a p&oto 'eteto#3 a 'e2ie t&at an on2e#t
ino!ing lig&t into an elet#ial B)antity. A p&oto'io'e is opti!iEe' ,o# its sensiti2ity to lig&t. In
t&is 'io'e3 a glass win'ow lets lig&t pass t&#o)g& t&e pa%age o, t&e H)ntion. 4&e ino!ing lig&t
p#o')es ,#ee elet#ons an' &oles. 4&e lig&t in#eases t&e n)!be# o, !ino#ity &a#ge a##ie#s.
-,',C$O' DIODE". 4&e ba##ie# apaitane is not a onstant b)t 2a#ies wit& applie' 2oltage.
4&e la#ge# t&e #e2e#se 2oltage3 t&e la#ge# is t&e spaeF&a#ge wi't& an' &ene s!alle# t&e
apaitane. So t&e 'io'es !a'e base' on t&e 2oltageF2a#iable apaitane a#e alle' 2a#ato#3
2a#yFaps o# 2oltFaps.
,&&LIC,$IO".
1. Nene# 'io'es a#e )se' as 2oltage #eg)lato#s an' as 2oltage #e,e#ene stan'a#'s.
2. *"DDs t&at p#o')e 2isible #a'iation a#e )se' in inst#)!ent 'isplays3 al)lato#s an' 'igital
lo%s.
3. 4&e in,#a#e' *"D ,in's appliation in b)#gla# ala#! syste!s an' ot&e# a#eas #eB)i#ing in2isible
#a'iation.
$',"I"$O'"
4#ansisto# is a t&#eeFele!ent 'e2ie3 w&i& is s!all an' lig&t3 pe#!itting !iniat)#iEation o,
elet#oni eB)ip!ent. It ope#ates wit& low s)pply 2oltages an' )ses little powe#. It 'oes not #eB)i#e
any wa#!F)p pe#io' an' ope#ates as soon as powe# is applie'. It &as ,ewe# i#)it onnetions.
Mene#ally t&e#e a#e two types o, t#ansisto#s 'epen'ing on t&ei# H)ntions. 4&ey a#e +/+ an'
/+/. 4&ese t#ansisto#s will o!e in 'i,,e#ent pa%ages 'epen'ing on t&ei# ,)ntion an' )ses. So!e
o, t&e pa%ages a#e to 23 to 22 an' to 10 pa%ages. 4&e t#ansisto#s &a2e t&#ee lea's3 t&ey a#e base3
e!itte#3 olleto#. 4&ese t&#ee &a2e to be i'enti,ie' ao#'ing to type o, t&e pa%age. 4&e pa%age
2al)es an' t&e t#ansisto# lea's in t&e t#ansisto# 'iag#a!s o, so!e o, t&e!3 w&i& a#e o,ten )se'3 a#e
s&own in 'iag#a!s.
1=
(A4H8D"
A+8D"
A+8D" (A4H8D"
&9O$O DIODE "+MBOL

8, t&e abo2e t#ansisto#s to3 t#ansisto#s a#e &ig& powe# t#ansisto#s an' t&ey gene#ate &eat.
4&is &eat !)st be 'issipate' )sing a &eat sin% !a'e o, al)!in)! plate. $it& bla% oating on
w&i& t&ese t#ansisto#s a#e !o)nte'. 4&is al)!in)! plate abso#bs &eat t&#o)g& a t&in !ia s&eet
,il! an' 'issipates t&e &eat wit& t&e ai# 2entilation. 5ia is )se' in between t&e t#ansisto# an' &eat
sin% bea)se !ia is a ba' on')to# o, elet#iity an' ats li%e a goo' on')to# ,o# &eat.
$&e#eas al)!in)! is a goo' on')to# ,o# bot& elet#i an' &eat. 4o a2oi' s&o#t between
t#ansisto# an' al)!in)!3 !ia is )se'. 4&is signi,iant o, lette#.
:i#st lette# 5ate#ial )se'
A Me#!ani)!
B Silion
( Malli)!FA#seni'e
D I#i'i)!
R (a'!i)! s)lp&ate
Seon' lette# :)ntional 'es#iption
A Detetion 'io'e
B ?a#iap 'io'e
( A)'ioF,#eB)eny3 nonFpowe# t#ansisto#
D A)'ioF,#eB)eny powe# t#ansisto#
: Ra'io ,#eB)eny nonFpowe#
t#ansisto#
4&e t&#ee po#tions o, a t#ansisto# a#e %nown as e!itte#3 base an' olleto#. 4&e a##ow on t&e
e!itte# lea' spei,ies t&e 'i#etion o, t&e )##ent ,low w&en t&e e!itte#Fbase H)ntion is biase' in
t&e ,o#wa#' 'i#etion. 4&e e!itte#3 base an' olleto# )##ents I"3 IB < I( #espeti2ely a#e ass)!e'
positi2e w&en t&e )##ents ,low into t&e t#ansisto#.
IDE$I%+I/ , DIODE ,D $',"I"$O'.
By )sing a !)lti!ete# we an i'enti,y t&e pFtype an' nFtype si'es o, a 'io'e. In !ost
o, t&e 'io'es a !a#%ing is !a'e. 4&e si'e &a2ing t&e !a#%ing is onsi'e#e' to be nFtype an' ot&e#
pFtype. 4o ,in' t&e! )sing a !)lti!ete#. 4wo o#'s one ,o#!s o!!on an' ot&e# ,#o! positi2e
te#!inals a#e ta%en. 4&ese two &o#'s a#e onnete' to two en's o, t&e 'io'e. I, t&e #esistane in
t&is bias is &ig& t&en t&e 'io'e is sai' to be #e2e#sing biase' an' so t&e en' onnete' to o!!on
te#!inal is pFtype an' t&e ot&e# nFtype < 2ieF2e#sa.
In ase o, a t#ansisto#3 in so!e o, t&e t#ansisto#s a not& will be in'iate'. 4&e
te#!inal at t&e not& is onsi'e#e' to be e!itte# t&en base t&en olleto#. It is teste' by ta%ing two
te#!inals an' in t&e sa!e !anne# as a 'io'e.
In bot& ases i, t&e 'io'e o# t#ansisto# s&ows &ig& 2al)e it is sai' to be 'a!age.
1>

19

1) ME,"*'EME$ O% ' L C -,L*E"
*"I/ LC' ME$E'
,IM. 4o get aB)atinte' wit& *(R !ete# ope#ation an' to !eas)#e R3 *3 ( 2al)es )sing *(R
!ete#.
,&&,',$*".
S.+o. "B)ip!ent 6ty.
01.
02.
03.
04.
07.
06.
Digital *(R
!ete#
9:*(R 20;
Analog
5)lti!ete#
Digital
5)lti!ete#
Resisto#s
(apaito#s
In')to#s
01
01
01
10
10
10

&'OCED*'E.
4&e :*(R 20 Digital *(R !ete# swit& 8+ so#t t&e two pai#s o, )##ent3 sense te#!inals
wit& ables. A'H)st t&e o,,set ont#ol ,o# Ee#oFo##etion
5"ASUR"5"+4 8: R"SIS4A+("-
Keep t&e !o'e seletion swit& in #esistane !o'e. 4a%e a #esisto# an' onnet t&e two
lea's to two lea's o, *(R !ete# inp)t. +ote t&e #ea'ing on 'igital 'isplay. :in' t&e 2al)es o,
#esistane )sing analog 5)lti!ete# a#e tab)late'.
20

S.+o. Resistane 2al)e
by olo)# o'e
Resistane 2al)e
by Analog !ete#
Resistane
2al)e by D55
Resistane
2al)e by *(R
!ete#
1.
2.
3.
4.
5"ASUR"5"+4 8: I+DU(4A+(" -
4a%e a 'ea'e in')tane boA set t&e 2al)e in Hen#y@s. Be,o#e onneting t&e in')tane3
ens)#e t&at t&e two points o, (URR"+4 an' S"+S" te#!inals a#e s&o#te'
Keep t&e !o'e swit& in in')tane3 %eep t&e #ange seletion swit& in !H. (onnet t&e
DIB te#!inals to t&e *(R an' note t&e #ea'ing o, In')tane on 'igital 'isplay o, *(R !ete#.
?a#y o, t&e in')tane o, DIB boA an' #epeat t&e p#oe')#e. 4&e !eas)#e!ents a#e
tab)late'.
S.+o. ?al)e o, in')tane ,#o! DIB
,#ont panel
*(R !ete#
#ea'ing
6L 1GD De2iation
5"ASUR"5"+4 8: (A/A(I4A+(" -
4a%e t&e 'igital *(R !ete#. 4&e two pai#s o, (URS"+(" te#!inals a#e bot& s&o#tF
i#)ite'. A'H)st t&e o,,set ,o# Ee#o 0 o##etion. Keep t&e o'e swit& in apaitane.
4a%e a 'i,,e#ent 2al)e apaito# obse#2e t&e 2al)es set t&e #ange in *(R !ete#3 onnet t&e
apaito# an' #ea' t&e 2al)e ,#o! 'isplay3 tab)late t&e 2al)es.
S.+o. ?al)e o,
apaitane by
obse#2ation
6F :ato#
?al)e o,
apaitane by
*(R
De2iation
1.
2.
21

3.
4.
R"SU*4 -
22

;) "$*D+ O% B,"IC ELEC$'OIC $E"$ ,D ME,"*'I/ I"$'*ME$"
ICL*DI/ B'E,D BO,'D" ,D $9EI' *"E
,IM . 4o st)'y t&e ope#ation an' get aB)atinte' wit& t&e basi !eas)#ing inst#)!ents.
,&&,',$*" .
S.+o. "B)ip!ent 6ty. Range
1. /anel 2olt!ete# 01 0F10!?
2. /anel A!!ete# 01
3. Analog 5)lti!ete# 01
4. Digital 5)lti!ete# 01
7. B#ea' boa#' 01
6. /owe# s)pply 01
&'OCED*'E .
?8*45"4"R -
4a%e a 0F10!? panel 9analog; 2olt!ete# an' 0F10? 2olt!ete#. I'enti,y t&e positi2e an'
negati2e te#!inals. Apply ,ew 2olts D.(. 2oltage ,#o! a powe# s)pply to t&e two te#!inals o, t&e
panel 2olt!ete#. +ote t&e #ea'ing ,#o! t&e panel 'e,letion. (&ange t&e 2oltage le2el an' again
note 'own t&e new #ea'ing. 4ab)late t&e obse#2ations.
5eas)#e t&e sa!e 2oltage )sing analog 5)lti!ete# an' 'igital 5)lti!ete#. Si!ila#ly ta%e a
#esisto# an' ,in' its 2al)e by olo)# o'e3 by AA55 an' D55 an' tab)late.
23

BR"AD B8ARD -
4a%e a b#ea'boa#'. 8bse#2e t&e s&o#t i#)it onnetions. 4est t&e s&o#t i#)its in ea&
2e#tial g#o)p o, points in t&e !i''le o, b#ea'boa#'s an' also in ea& &o#iEontal g#o)p on t&e e'ges
o, t&e b#ea'boa#'. 4wo s&o#t i#)it points an be i'enti,ie' by !eans o, C0@ 'e,letion o, 2oltage.
Also test t&e open i#)its between any two points in'i,,e#ent 2e#tial g#o)ps3 C0@ )##ent o#
in,inite #esistane ,#o! open i#)it.
A55"4"R -
A!!ete# !eas)#es t&e ,low o, )##ent an' is onnete' in se#ies between t&e powe# so)#e
an' t&e loa'. 4&ey s&o)l'3 t&e#e,o#e &a2e a 2e#y s!all #esistane an' t&is is o, pa#ti)la#
i!po#tane in &ig& )##ent3 lowF2oltage i#)its s)& as e!ploye' ,o# elet#oplating.
$&en t&e )##ent to be !eas)#e' is g#eate# t&an t&at an on2eniently be passe' t&#o)g& t&e
inst#)!ent3 a p#opo#tion is ta%en3 t&e #e!ain'e# being 'i2e#te' t&#o)g& a s&o#t on D.(. o# a )##ent
t#ans,e# on A.(.
4&e ,ollowing p#ea)tions s&o)l' be obse#2e' w&en )sing an a!!ete# in !eas)#e!ent
wo#%.
1. +e2e# onnet an a!!ete# a#oss a so)#e o, e!,. Bea)se o, its low #esistane it s&o)l' '#aw
'a!aging &ig& )##ents an' 'est#oy t&e 'eliate !o2e!ent. Always onnet an a!!ete# in
se#ies wit& a loa' apable o, li!iting )##ent.
2. 8bse#2e t&e )##ent pola#ity. Re2e#se pola#ity a)ses t&e !ete# to 'e,let against t&e
!e&anial stop an' t&is !ay 'a!age t&e pointe#.
3. $&en )sing a !)lti#ange !ete# H)st ,i#st )se t&e &ig&est )##ent #ange3 an' t&en 'e#ease t&e
)##ent #ange )ntil s)bstantial 'e,letion is obtaine'. 4o in#ease a)#ay o, obse#2ations )se
t&e #ange t&at will gi2e a #ea'ing as nea# to ,)ll sale as possible.
24

?8*45"4"R -
?olt!ete#s a#e e!ploye' to !eas)#e t&e potential 'i,,e#ene in a i#)it an' !)st be
onst#)te' to wit&stan' t&e p#ess)#e in t&e i#)it3 eAept in t&e ase o, "H4 syste!s3 w&e#e it is
)s)al to e!ploy an isolating step 'own t#ans,o#!e#3 so t&at t&e 2oltage applie' to t&e inst#)!ent is
s!all o, t&e o#'e# o, 100? an' t&e "H4 st#ess is a##ie' by t&e inte# win'ing isolation o, t&e
t#ans,o#!e#.
?olt!ete# !)st be !a'e to ope#ate wit& a s!all )##ent '#ain3 so t&at t&e powe# t&ey
ons)!e s&all be s!all. 4&is is o, i!po#tane in i#)it o, &ig& #esistane w&e#e t&e )##ent
#eB)i#e' by t&e 2olt!ete# ,lowing t&#o)g& t&e #esistane3 sets )p a 2olt '#op w&i& a)ses t&e
inst#)!ent to in'iate a lowe# 2oltage t&an at)ally t&e#e.
?olt!ete# is onseB)ently &ig& #esistane inst#)!ent. ?olt!ete#s 'e#i2e' ,#o! 5)lti!ete#
wit& a ,)llFsale 'e,letion o, 1!A a#e o!!on. I, s)& a !illia!!ete# is )se' in onH)ntion wit&
a o##etly al)lato# se#ies !)ltiplie# #esistane. 4&en t&e inst#)!ent is sai' to &a2e #esistane o,
1000 G?.
5U*4I5"4"R -
5)lti!ete# is 'e2ie3 w&i& is )se' to ,in' t&e 2oltage3 )##ent an' t&e #esistane. 4&e#e a#e
two types o, 5)lti!ete#s3 na!ely Analog an' Digital 5)lti!ete#. +owFaF'ays Digital 5)lti!ete#
is o,ten )se'.
Analog 5)lti!ete# #eB)i#es no powe# s)pply. 4&ey gi2e a bette# 2is)al in'iation o, &a#ge
an' s),,e# less ,#o! elet#i noise an' isolation p#oble!s. 4&ese !ete#s a#e si!ple an'
ineApensi2e.
Digital 5)lti!ete# on t&e ot&e# &an'3 o,,e#s &ig& a)#ay3 &as &ig& inp)t i!pe'ane an' is
s!alle# in siEe. 4&ey gi2e an )na!big)o)s #ea'ing at g#eate# 2iewing 'istanes. 4&e o)tp)t
a2ailable is elet#ial 9,o# inte#,aing wit& eAte#nal eB)ip!ent; in a''ition to 2is)al #ea'o)t.
All 'igital 5)lti!ete# e!ploys so!e %in' o, analog to 'igital AGD on2e#te# an' &as a
2isible #ea'o)t 'isplay at t&e on2e#te# o)tp)t. A basi 'igital 5)lti!ete# 9D55; is !a'e o,
se2e#al AGD on2e#te#s i#)iting ,o# o)nting an alte#nation i#)it.
27

4&e )##ent to be !eas)#e' is applie' to t&e s)!!ing H)ntion at t&e inp)t o, t&e opa!p.
Sine t&e )##ent at t&e inp)t o, t&e a!pli,ie# lose to Ee#o bea)se o, t&e 2e#y &ig& inp)t
i!pe'ane o, t&e a!pli,ie#3 t&e )##ent IR is 2e#y nea#ly eB)al to II. 4&e )##ent IR a)ses a 2oltage
'#op w&i& is p#opo#tional to t&e )##ent to be 'e2elope' a#oss t&e #esisto#. 4&is 2oltage is t&e
inp)t to t&e AGD on2e#te#3 t&e#eby p#o2i'ing a #ea'ing t&at is p#opo#tional to )n%nown )##ent.
Resistane is !eas)#e' by passing a %nown )##ent ,#o! a onstant )##ent so)#e3 t&o)g&
an )n%nown #esistane. 4&e 2oltage '#op a#oss t&e #esistane is applie' to t&e AGD on2e#te#.
4&e#eby p#o')ing an in'iation o, t&e 2al)e o, t&e )n%nown #esistane.
&OWE' "*&&L+
*8$ DIS48RA4I8+ SIM+A* M"+"RA48R
Front panel control - 4&e ,#ont panel g#o)ps a#e ,)ntionally g#o)pe' an' lea#ly 'esignate' ,o#
ea& ase o, ope#ation t&ei# ,)ntion a#e 'es#ibe' below.
1.:#eB)eny 'ial - 4&is is a o)#se ,#eB)eny ont#ol. 4&e o)tp)t ,#eB)eny is !)ltipliation o,
t&e #ea'ing on 'ial :R"6 an' 5U*4 seletion.
2.:#eB)eny !)ltiplie# swit&es - /)blis&ing one b)tton at a ti!e selets t&e 'esi#e' ,#eB)eny
#ange ,#o! t&e signal gene#ato#s3 in 'ea'es.
3.$a2e ,#o! seletion swit& - 4&e wa2e,o#! seletion swit& selets t&e 'esi#e' wa2e,o#! 9sine
wa2e ,#o! o# sB)a#e wa2e ,o#!;.
4.Attent)ato# - Selets t&e o)tp)t le2el o, signal.
7.:ine ont#ol - 4&e ,ine ont#ol p#o2i'es t&e ont#ol ,o# t&e o)tp)t signal le2el.
26

6.8)tp)t 4e#!inals - 4&e o)tp)t signal o, t&e gene#ato# is a2ailable a#oss t&e te#!inals !a#%e' HI
an' *8.
Rear panel controls -
1. /owe# 8+ G 8:: Swit& . $&e signal gene#ato# an be t)#ne' 8+ G8:: by t&is gea# panel
swit&
2. :)se . :o# so!e 230? ope#ation3 270!AG ,ast blow 97I20!!; ,)se.
3. 5ains in . 4&is is !ain inp)t to t&e signal gene#ato# !ains powe# inp)t #eB)i#e' is 230 O 10J
70 HE.
M"+"RA48R S"44I+MS - A,te# powe# )p p#ess RA+M" swit& to selet 'es#ibe' ,#eB)eny
#ange. Using ,#eB)eny 'ial an set t&e ,#eB)eny. 4&e wa2e,o#! seletion swit& selets t&e
'esi#e' wa2e,o#!. 4&e gene#ato# o)tp)t le2el is set by *"?"* ont#ol an' step atten)ate. 4&#eeF
step atten)ate along wit& le2el pot an 'ei'e t&e o)tp)t le2el o, gene#ato#. 4&e 2a#iable le2el
ont#ol &as a #ange o, app#oAi!ate 20'b.
2=

2>

<) "$*D+ O% C'O ,&&LIC,$IO"
,IM . 4o )se a (R8 9(at&o'e Ray 8sillosope; ,o# ,#eB)eny an'
p&ase !eas)#e!ent.
,&&,',$*" .

Sl.+o +a!e o, t&e 'e2ie Range G+o 6ty.
1.
General purpose CRO
75&E 01 +o
2.
A.F. generators
FFFF 02 +o
3.
RF signal generators
FFFF 01 +o
4.
High pass circuit
FFFF 01 +o
As sopes we &a2e ope#ate at 105&E an' so!e )p to 30 5HE we s&o)l' inl)'e
!eas)#e!ent o, ,#eB)enies o, t&e o#'e# o, 7 to 17 5HE also.9:o# A: only *issaHio)s ,ig)#e;.
CRO APPLICATIONS :
$9EO'+ .
By applying s)itable alte#nating 2oltage to t&e two sets o, 'e,letion plates3 2a#io)s
,ig)#es is t&e ,o#! o, st#aig&t line o# one o# !o#e lose' loops !ay be obtaine' on t&e s#een.
*et ?A an' ?y be t&e instantaneo)s 2al)es o, 2oltages applie' to t&e A an' y plates
UA L ?A sin $At
Uy L ?y sin 9$yt O ;
$&e#e ?A < ?y a#e t&e a!plit)'es o, t&e 2oltages3 $A < $y a#e t&e ang)la# ,#eB)enies o, t&e
2oltages an' is t&e p&ase angle o, 2oltage Uy.
(8+DI4I8+ 1. :o# $A L $yP L 0
Uy L ?y G UA P UA St#aig&t line
(8+DI4I8+S 2. $A L $y3 L G2 #a'ians
UA
2
G ?A
2
O Uy
2
G ?y
2
L 1
"llipse.
(8+DI4I8+ 3. $A L $yP L G2 #a'ians3 ?A L ?y L ?
UA2 O Uy2 L U2 i#le
29

(8+DI4I8+ 4. I, $A an' $y a#e #elate' by si!ple intege#s t&en
$e obtain lose' ,ig)#es wit& !)ltiple loops.
a; A L 2y2A L y
b; A L 3y
; 3A L y
In gene#al nA A L ny y gi2e lose' loop ,ig)#es w&e#e nA an' ny a#e intege#s.. nA an' ny a#e t&e
point o, tangenies o, t&e ,ig)#e wit& &o#iEontal an' 2e#tial aAis #espeti2ely '#awn at t&e e'ge
9eit&e# top o# botto!;
,A G ,y L points o, 4angeny to a 2e#tial line G points o, tangeny to a &o#iEontal line L A G y.
4o !eas)#e t&e ,#eB)eny o, an alte#nating 2oltage o, sin)soi'al wa2e s&ape3 it is applie' to one set
o, 'e,letion plates to t&e ot&e# set o, 'e,letion plates is applie' t&e sin)soi'al 2oltages ,#o! a
2a#iable ,#eB)eny stan'a#' osillato#. 4&e ,#eB)eny o, t&is osillato# is 2a#ie' )ntil. Single loop
stationa#y patte#n is obtaine'. In t&is3 t&e ,#eB)eny o, t&e sin)soi'al 2oltage is t&e sa!e as t&e
,#eB)eny o, t&e osillato# 2oltage. 8sillato# ,#eB)eny !ay be ,o)n' ,#o! t&e alib#ate' 'ial o,
t&e osillato#.
o#
A loope' *issaHo)s ,ig)#e !ay be )se' an' ,#eB)eny o, alte#nating 2oltage !ay be al)late'
)sing t&e #elation gi2en in abo2e eB)ation.
/HAS" 5"ASUR"5"+4- 4&e p&ase 'i,,e#ene between two sin)soi'al 2oltages o, t&e sa!e
,#eB)eny an be !eas)#e' )sing a (R8. 4&e two 2oltages a#e applie' to t&e two 'e,letion plates
o, t&e (R8 si!)ltaneo)sly. 4&e #es)lting *issaHio)s ,ig)#es is an ellipse as s&own in ,ig. 4&e
!aAi!)! 'isplae!ent is t&e . 'i#etion < t&e inte#ept o, t&e ellipse wit& t&e . 0 aAis a#e
!eas)#e'. I, t&e p&ase 'i,,e#ene between t&e two 2oltages is t&en it an be s&own t&at
Sin L bGa
4&e p&ase 'i,,e#ene an also be al)late' ,#o! t&e !aAi!)! &o#iEontal 'isplae!ent A1 an' t&e
inte#ept on t&e AFaAis A2. 4&)s
Sin L A2 G A1
/R8("DUR" :8R :R"6U"+(. 5"ASUR"5"+4 -
/AR4FA
1. 5a%e t&e onnetions as pe# t&e ,ig)#e. :ee' a 1 KHE signal ,#o! t&e A: gene#ato#. A'H)st
sensiti2ity swit& to on2enient position so t&at one yle an be !eas)#e' ,#o! t&e s#een.
:#eB)eny is gi2en by 1G4 92,;. Repeat ,o# anot&e# 7 to 6 2al)es3 t&e abo2e p#oe')#e. 4a%e 7 to
6 #ea'ings.
30

4ABU*AR (8*U5+ -
S.+o3 :#eB)eny 4i!e I +o.o,
Di2
4i!e
!se
:L 1Gti!e
KHE
De2iation
/R8("DUR" - /AR4FB
:R"6U"+(. 5"ASUR"5"+4 8: A+ U+K+8$+ SI+US8IDA* SIM+A* -
1. 4o one set o, 'e,letion plates 9say A; apply t&e %nown alte#nating signal. 9%nown in t&e sense
t&at its ,#eB)eny an be !eas)#e';.
2. 4o t&e ot&e# set o, 'e,letion plates 9y; apply t&e )n%nown alte#nating signal.
3. +ow a'H)st t&e ,#eB)eny o, t&e signal to s)& a 2al)e s)& t&at t&e ,ig)#e obse#2e' on t&e
s#een is a single loop.
4. +ow #ea' t&e ,#eB)eny o, t&e signal gi2en to t&e A plates ,#o! t&e osillation. 4&e ,#eB)eny o,
t&e )n%nown signal is eB)al to t&e %nown signal ,#eB)eny.
7. A loope' *issaHio)s ,ig)#e !ay be obtaine' w&en t&e ,#eB)eny o, t&e )n%nown signal bea#s
so!e #elation to t&e ,#eB)eny o, t&e %nown signal.
6. 4&e ,#eB)eny o, t&e )n%nown signal !ay be ,o)n' ,#o! t&e eB)ation gi2en below.
,AG,y L points o, tangenies to a 2e#tial line G points o,
tangenies to a &o#iEontal line.
i.e. nA ,A L ny ,y
=. :o# two ,ig)#es !eas)#e t&e ,#eB)eny o, t&e signal an' tab)late
t&e #ea'ing as pe# tab)la# ol)!ns.
/AR4 (- /R8("DUR" :8R 5"ASURI+M 4H" /HAS" 8: A MI?"+ SI+US8IDA* SIM+A*
1. Apply t&e sin)soi'al signal ,#o! A.: gene#ato# to t&e plates
9&annel 1; an' sin)soi'al signal wit& so!e p&ase s&i,t is ,eel to &annel 2 9I plates;.
2. 4&e neessa#y p&ase s&i,t is obtaine' )sing a &ig& pass 9R.(; i#)it.
3. +ow obse#2e an ellipse on t&e s#een.
4. 5eas)#e t&e !aAi!)! 'isplae!ent in t&e . 0 'i#etion an' te#! it as CA@. also !eas)#e t&e
'istane between t&e inte#epts o, t&e ellipse wit& t&e 2e#tial aAis. 4e#! t&is 'istane as CB@.
7. "2al)ate Sin
01
9BGA; L
6. ?e#i,y t&e 2al)e o, t&eo#etially. 94&e t&eo#etial < p#atial 2al)es s&o)l' tally;
31

L tan
01
I( G R I( L 1 G 2 ,
S.
+o
.
:#eB)eny ( R
L 4an
01
I( G R
I( L 1 G 2 ,
a b L Sin
01
bGa De2iation
'esult .
-I-, -OICE .
1. *ist t&e st#)t)#e' 'etails o, a (R8.
2. $&at is t&e ,)ntion o, aele#ating ano'e in a (R4Q
3. $&at is t&e a!o)nt o, potential to be applie' at t&e ,inal ano'e an' state t&e #easons ,o#
applying t&at 2oltageQ
4. $&at is t&e nat)#e o, t&e signal applie' to t&e &o#iEontal an' 2e#tial 'e,letion plates.
7. $&at a#e t&e 2a#io)s s#een olo)#s a2ailable. $&at is t&e &e!ial )se' ,o# ea& o, t&e olo)#.
6. *ist t&e 2a#io)s appliations o, a (R8.
=. $&at a#e *issaHio)s ,ig)#es. How a#e t&ey ,o#!e'Q
>. How an yo) obtain an ellipse on a (R8 s#eenQ
32

=) "$*D+ O% DI%%E'E$ $+&E" O% $',"%O'ME'"
$+&E" O% $',"%O'ME' -
(onst#)tional t#ans,o#!e#s a#e o, two types base' on t&e !anne# in w&i& t&e p#i!a#y an'
seon'a#y a#e plae' a#o)n' t&e la!inate' o#e.
1. (o#e type
2. S&ell type
In o#e type t#ans,o#!e#s3 t&e win'ings s)##o)n' a onsi'e#able pa#t o, t&e o#e w&e#e as in
s&ell t#ans,o#!e#. 4&e o#e s)##o)n's a onsi'e#able po#tion o, win'ing.
CO'E $+&E $',"%O'ME' -
4&e oils )se' a#e o, ,o#!Fwo)n' an' a#e o, ylin'#ial type. 4&e gene#al ,o#! o, t&ese
oils !ay be i#)la# o# o2al o# #etang)la#. In s!all siEe o#e type t#ans,o#!e#s3 a si!ple
#etang)la# o#e is )se' wit& ylin'#ial oils3 w&i& a#e eit&e# i#)la# o# #etang)la# in ,o#!. B)t
,o# la#ge siEe o#e type t#ans,o#!e#s3 #o)n' o# i#)la# ylin'#ial oils a#e )se' w&i& a#e so
wo)n' so as to ,it o2e# a )ni,o#! #ossFsetion. 4&ese i#)la# ylin'#ial oils a#e )se' ,o# t&ei#
!e&anial st#engt&. 4&ey a#e wo)n' in &elial laye#s3 ins)lating ea& laye# ,#o! ot&e# by pape#3
lot&3 et..
"9ELL $+&E $',"%O'ME'" -
4&e oils a#e ,o#! wo)n' b)t a#e !)ltiFlaye#s 'is type. Us)ally wo)n' in t&e ,o#! o,
pa%ages. 4&e 'i,,e#ent laye#s o, s)& !)ltiFlaye#s 'is a#e ins)late' ,#o! ea& ot&e# by pape#.
4&e o!plete win'ing onsists o, sta%e' 'iss wit& ins)late' ins)lation spaes between t&e oils
t&e spaes ,o#!ing &o#iEontal ooling an' ins)lting ')ts. 4&is type o, !ay &a2e a si!ple
#etang)la# ,o#! o# 'ist#ib)te' ,o#!. 4&e o#es o# oils o, t#ans,o#!e#s !)st be p#o2i'e' wit& #igi'
!e&anial b#aing in o#'e# to p#e2ent !o2e!ent an' possible ins)lation 'a!age. $oo' b#aing
#e')es 2ib#ation an' obHetionable F &)!!ing so)n' ')#ing ope#ations.
"&I',L CO'E $+&E $',"%O'ME'
O'
WO*D CO'E $+&E $',"%O'ME' .
4&e o#e in t&is type o, t#ans,o#!e# is asse!ble' in ontin)o)s st#ip o, #ibbon o, steel
t#ans,o#!e# steel wo)n' in ,o#! o, i#)la# o# elliptial ylin'e#. S)& onst#)tion allows t&e o#e
,l)A to ,ollow t&e g#ain o, i#on t&e a'2antages o, s)& onst#)tion a#e
1. Relati2ely !o#e #igi' o#e.
2. *esse# weig&t an' siEe.
3. *owe# i#on losses at &ig&e# te!pe#at)#e ope#ating ,l)A 'ensities.
4. *owe# ost o, !an),at)#e.
33

A t#ans,o#!e# wit& !o#e seon'a#y win'ing oil t&an p#i!a#y is step )p t#ans,o#!e#. I, it is
ot&e# way #o)n' it is step 'own t#ans,o#!e#. Depen'ing )pon !et&o' o, ooling a'opte'3 t&e
t#ans,o#!e#s a#e lassi,ie' as
1. 8il ,ille' sel,Foole'.
2. 8il ,ille' wate#Foole'.
3. Ai# type blast type.
:o# oilF,ille' sel,Foole' t#ans,o#!e#s3 win'ings an' o#es a#e !o)nte' in a wel'e' oil tig&t
steel tan% &a2ing a steel o2e#. A,te# p)tting t&e o#e in p#ope# plae3 t&e tan% is ,ille' wit& p)#i,ie'
ins)lating oil w&i& on2eys t&e &eat ,#o! o#e an' win'ings to t&e ase w&e#e it is #a'iate' to t&e
s)##o)n'ings. :o# s!all siEe3 tan%s a#e s!oot&3 ,o# la#ge siEe tan%s a#e o##)gate'.
In oilF,ille' wate# oole' type win'ings an' o#e a#e i!!e#se' in oil b)t t&e#e is !o)nte'
nea# t&e s)#,ae o, oil3 a ooling t&#o)g& w&i& wate# is %ept i#)lating. 4&e &eat is a##ie' by
wate#.
:o# 2oltages below 273000? t#ans,o#!e#s an be b)ilt ,o# ooling by !eans o, ai# blast. 4&e
t#ans,o#!e# is not i!!e#se' in oil3 b)t is &o)se' in a t&in s&eet o, !etal boA open at bot& en's
t&#o)g& w&i& ai# is blown ,#o! botto! to top by !eans o, ,an o# blowe#.
In ' i#)its ,o# la#ge )##ent !eas)#e!ent3 low #ange a!!ete#s wit& s&)nts a#e )se'. :o#
&ig& 2oltages3 low #ange 2olt!ete#s wit& &ig& #esistane in se#ies a#e )se'. B)t t&is !et&o' annot
be )se' ,o# a an' alte#nating 2oltage inst#)!ents. :o# t&is p)#pose a)#ateF #atio inst#)!ent
t#ans,o#!e#s a#e )se' ,o# in onH)ntion to low #ange a inst#)!ents. 4&ese inst#)!ents a#e o, two
%in's.
C*''E$ $',"%O'ME'" - In a''ition to ins)lating t&e inst#)!ent ,#o! &ig& 2oltage line3
t&ey stepF'own t&e )##ent is %nown as #atio. 4&e )##ent o, se#ies t#ans,o#!e# &as p#i!a#y oil o,
one o# !o#e t&i% wi#es3 seon'a#y wit& n)!be# o, t)#ns o, t&in wi#e.
&O$E$I,L $',"%O'ME' - 4&ese a#e eAt#e!ely a)#ate stepFsown t#ans,o#!e#s an' a#e
)se' in onH)ntion wit& stan'a#' low #ange 2olt!ete#s w&ose 'e,letion w&en 'i2i'e' by
t#ans,o#!e# #ation gi2es t&e t#)e 2oltage on &ig& 2oltage si'e. 4&e seon'a#y s&o)l' be o!pletely
ins)late' ,#o! t&e &ig& 2oltage p#i!a#y an' s&o)l' be g#o)n'e'.
4#ans,o#!e#s a#e gene#ally &o)se' in tig&tly ,itte' s&eetF!etal tan%s ,ille' wit& speial
ins)lating oil t&e oil &as been &ig&ly 'e2elope' an' its ,)ntion is two ,ol'. By i#)lation3 not
only %eeps t&e oils #easonably ool by also p#o 2i'es t&e t#ans,o#!e# wit& a''itional ins)lation not
obtainable w&en t&e t#ans,o#!e# is le,t in t&e ai#.
In ases w&e#e a s!oot& tan% s)#,ae 'oes not p#o2i'e s),,iient ooling a#ea3 t&e si'es o,
t&e tan% a#e o##)gate' o# p#o2i'e' wit& #a'iato#s !o)nte' on t&e si'es. Moo' t#ans,o#!e#s s&o)l'
be absol)tely ,#ee ,#o! al%alis3 s)l,)# an' pa#ti)la#ly ,#o! !oist)#e. 4&e p#esene o, e2en s!all
pe#entage ,#o! t&e ins)lation 2iewpoint bea)se it lowe#s 'ielet#i st#engt& o, t&e oil
onsi'e#ably. "2en >pp! o, wate# #e')e t&e ins)lating B)ality o, t&e oil to a 2al)e gene#ally
#eogniEe' as below stan'a#'s.
34

4&e !ain ,eat)#e to be !ost ta%en a#e o, t#ans,o#!e# is t&e ins)lating !ate#ial bea)se t&e
li,e o, t&e nit al!ost solely 'epen's on t&e B)ality3 ')#ability an' &an'ling o, ins)lating !ate#ials
a#e selete' on t&e basis o, t&ei# &ig& B)ality an' t&ei# ability to p#ese#2e t&is &ig& B)ality 'isp)te
e2en a,te# !any yea#s o, no#!al )se.
LO""E" I , $',"%O'ME'
In a stati t#ans,o#!e# t&e#e a#e no ,#ition o# win'ing losses. 4&e only losses o)##ing a#e
1. CO'E O' I'O LO"" - It inl)'es &yste#esis loss an' e''y )##ent loss. Bea)se t&e o#e
,l)A in t#ans,o#!e# p#atially #e!ains onstant ,o# all loa's3 t&e o#e loss is p#atially t&e
sa!e at all loa's. 4&ese loa's a#e !ini!iEe'3 by )sing steel o, &ig& silion ontent ,o# t&e o#e
an' by )sing 2e#y t&in la!inations. 4&e inp)t o, t&e t#ans,o#!e# w&en no loa' !eas)#es t&e
o#e loss.
2. CO&&E' LO"" - 4&e loss is ')e to o&! #esistane o, t&e t#ans,o#!e# win'ings. It is
p#opo#tional to sB)a#e o, t&e )##ent.
E%%ICIEC+ O% , $',"%O'ME' . 4&e e,,iieny o, a t#ans,o#!e# at a pa#ti)la# loa' an'
powe# ,ato# an be 'e,ine' as #atio o, o)tp)t to inp)t.
8)tp)t
",,iieny L
Inp)t
B)t t&e t#ans,o#!e# being a &ig&ly e,,iient piee o, eB)ip!ent3 piee o, eB)ip!ent3 &as a 2e#y
s!all loss3 &ene it is i!p#atial to t#y to !eas)#e t#ans,o#!e# e,,iieny by !eas)#ing inp)t an'
o)tp)t. 4&ese B)antities a#e nea#ly o, sa!e siEe. A bette# !et&o' is to 'ete#!ine losses an' t&en to
al)late e,,iieny ,#o!
8)tp)t
",,iieny L
8)tp)t O $ loss O I#on loss
Inp)t F losses
L
Inp)t
*osses
L 1F
Inp)t
4&e e,,iieny o, a t#ans,o#!e# at any 2olt a!pe#e loa'3 'epen's on powe# ,ato# being
!aAi!)! at a powe# ,ato# o, )nity. $&en oppe# loss is eB)al to i#on loss3 t&e e,,iieny will
be !aAi!)!.
37

36

>) &'I$ED CI'C*I$ BO,'D
&CB . /#inte' i#)it boa#'s a#e )s)ally te#!e' as /(B3 it is )se' to a2oi' all t&e 'isa'2antages o,
on2entional b#ea'boa#'s. It gi2es all t&e in,o#!ation an' lea# oneption an' 'etails o, t&e
i#)it be,o#e t&e at)al layo)t an 'o.
4&e only 'isa'2antage is t&at one t&e boa#' is p#epa#e'3 no !o#e &anges a#e possible.
4./"S B8ARDS
4&e two !ost pop)la# boa#'s a#e single si'e' an' 'o)bleFsi'e' boa#'s. 4&e single si'e'
boa#'s a#e wi'ely )se' ,o# gene#alFp)#pose appliation w&e#e ost is low an' layo)t is si!ple. 4o
H)!p o2e# a on')ting t#a% H)!pe#s wi#es a#e )se'. I, t&e wi#es a#e o#e t&an 'o)bleFsi'e' /(B is
p#e,e##e'.
*A5I+A4"S - A la!inate is a t&in s&eet obtaine' by p#essing laye#s o, ,ile#s i!p#egnate' wit&
#esin )n'e# &eat an' p#ess)#e.
/R8/"R4I"S - A goo' oppe# la' la!inate !)st &a2e goo' elet#ial an' p&ysial p#ope#ties.
(oppe# to ba#e la!inate an' st#engt&. 4&e !ost i!po#tant ,ato#s t&at a#e to be onsi'e#e' a#e
'ielet#i st#engt&3 'ielet#i onstant3 an' 'issipation ,ato# an' 2ol)!e s)#,ae #esistane. 4&e
elet#ial an' !e&anial p#ope#ties a#e e,,ete' by en2i#on!ental on'itions s)& as &)!i'ity3
te!pe#at)#e et. 4&)s t&e be&a2io# o, t&ese !ate#ials is st)'ie' )n'e# 'i,,e#ent en2i#on!ental
on'itions.
&9+"IC,L &'O&E'$IE"
1. :*"IURA* S4R"+M4H - 4&e is t&e ,o#e pe# )nit a#ea w&i& t&e la!inate an wit& stan'
wit&o)t getting #)pt)#e'.
2. /U+(HABI*I4. - A goo' oppe# la' la!inate s&o)l' be p)n& at #oo! te!pe#at)#e. 4&is
9p)n&ing; is t&e si!plest !et&o' o, p#o')ing o!pleA s&apes.
3. (leaning t&e boa#'s - 4&e p#inte' i#)it boa#'s &a2e to be leane' an' p#epa#e' ,o# t&e layo)t
o, t&e i#)it. 9in s),,iient leaning t&e /(B !ay lea' to 'i,,i)lties in ,inal p#epa#ation. 4&e
i#)it is t&en '#awn on t&e boa#' an' et&e'. :inally plating is 'one t&e ,inge#p#ints ,o#!e'
w&ile s#)bbing o# et&ing an #e!o2e &an'ling t&e /(Bs. "A- p#i!aies salt sol)tion
It is t&e ,i#st step in t&e p#epa#ation o, /(B. A pe#,et '#awing o2e#o!es p#oble!s li%e
ina)#ate #egist#ation3 b#o%en ann)la# #ings an' spaing. 4&e a2ailability o, sel,Fa'&esi2e steps
an' pa's. 4&e 'esign o, a#two#% &as beo!e si!ple an' !o#e e,,iient.
3=

4. /ADS - 4&e pa's a#e a2ailable in two 2a#ieties t&e sel,Fa'&esi2e an' t#ans,e# type. Sel,F
a'&esi2e pa's a#e s)pplie' by sti%ing on a bla% pape#. 4&ese a#e peale' ,#o! ba%ing pape#
an' positione' w&e#e #eB)i#e' an' slig&tly p#eise.
7. 4A/"S - 4&e sel,Fa'&esi2e tapes a#e a2ailable in wi'e #ange o, wi't&s. 4&ese a#e s)pplie' in
#olls an' )se 2e#y ,leAible3 nonFt#anspa#ent !ate#ial. It pe#!its a#two#% wit& ben's3 o#ne#s an'
#o)n's.
6. BAS" :8I* - So!e stan'a#' pa's ,o# t#ansisto#s a#e also a2ailable. 4&e base ,oils a#e !a'e o,
polyeste# ,il!3 w&i& p#o2i'es eAellent 'i!ensional stability.
=. "4(HI+M - "t&ing is a p#oess &e#e t&e ,inal oppe# patte#n is ,o#!e' an' t&e )nwante'
oppe# is #e!o2e'. 4&e et&ing is not ont#olle' it an lea' to )n'e# et&ing an' o2e# et&ing.
1. sp#ay et&ing
2. b)bble et&ing
:e##i &lo#i'e3 s)l,)#i &lo#i'e3 &#o!i ai' an' al%aline a!!onia a#e t&e o!!only
)se' et&ings.
>. /*A4I+M - /lating is 'one o2e# t&e oppe# oating in o#'e# to p#otet i, ,#o! being 'a!age'
on eApos)#e to at!osp&e#e. Di,,e#ent plating te&niB)es a#e3
1. I!!e#sion plating.
2. "let#oplating.
4&e enti#e p#epa#ation o, /(B is 'one in a 'a#% #oo! )n'e# t&e sa,e #e' o# o#ange lig&t. Holes
a#e '#ille' by &ig& sp#ea' &an' '#ill. So!e ti!es t&e /(Bs a#e p)n&e' to !a%e &oles.
3>

Machines include : ta%en ,#o!- &ttp-GGwww.#esentweb.o!Gin'eA.&t!l
PCB Artwork Film
maker
PCB Curing Machine
Photo Resist Dip
Coating Machine
U.V. Exposure Unit
Etching Machine
hearing Machine
PCB Drilling Machine
Roller tinning Machine
D!e"De#eloping Machine
Artwork $ Film %a&le
39

40

?) "OLDE'I/ &',C$ICE ,D CI'C*I$ $',CI/
,IM . 4o ,iAGlay t&e i#)it ele!ents on a /(B boa#' by p#ope# sol'e#ing app#op#iately.
,&&,',$*" .
S.+o. "B)ip!ent 6ty. Range
1. Sol'e#ing I#on 01
2. :l)A 01
3. lea' 01
4. /(B i#)it
ele!ents
01
&'OCED*'E .
1. :i#st lean t&e gi2en /(B wit& a wi#e b#)s& so t&at t&e oil g#eases3 ,inge# p#ints3 'i#ty3 et.3 a#e
#e!o2e'.
2. Re!o2e t&e to)g& stains by s#at&ing wit& a s&a#p tool 2iE. Bla'e.
3. 4a%e t&e i#)it ele!ents an' ben' t&e lea's app#oAi!ately t&at it gets pe#,etly installe' on t&e
/(B.
4. 4&e &oie o, i#)it ele!ents p#ope#ly in t&e &oles an' a'H)st in asen'ing o#'e# o, t&ei#
&eig&ts.
7. Heat t&e sol'e#ing #o' an' plae t&e sol'e#ing #o' nea# t&e en' o, t&e lea's an' let t&e lea' be
AAAAAAAAAAp)t in t&e 2isi'ity s)& t&at a b)bble so#t o, appea#ane ,o#!s by lea'.
6. ()t o,, t&e eAess lea's by !eans o, )tte#.
=. Repeat t&e p#oess ,o# ot&e# i#)it ele!ents.
&'EC,*$IO" .
1. 4&e sol'e#ing #o' s&o)l' be &an'le' wit& a#e.
2. 4&e sol'e#ing s&o)l' be 'one a#e,)lly t&at ,o#!ation o, '#y sol'e# is a2oi'e'.
3. App#op#iate ,l)A s&o)l' be a''e' at #eg)la# inte#2als.
4. 4&e ele!ents s&o)l' be !o)nte' wit& #espet to t&ei# &eig&ts in o#'e#.
'E"*L$ . 4&e sol'e#ing p#atie is o!plete' an' lean sol'e# is a&ie2e'.
41

42

43

44

47

46

$9E-EI@" $9EO',M
,IM . 4o 2e#i,y t&e 4&e2enin@s t&eo#e!.
,&&,',$*" .
")o) ,&&,',$*" ',/E 3*,$I$+
1. 4#aine# i#)it %it F 1
2. A!!ete# 0F105A 1
3. ?olt!ete# 0F10? 1
4. /at& a#'s F 10
$9EO'+ .
Any two te#!inal netwo#% onsisting o, linea# i!pe'anes an' gene#ato#s !ay be #eplae'
by an "5: ating in se#ies wit& an i!pe'ane. 4&e "5: is open i#)it 2oltage at t&e te#!inals an'
t&e i!pe'ane is t&e i!pe'ane 2iewe' at t&e te#!inals w&en all t&e gene#ato#s in t&e netwo#% &a2e
been #eplae' by i!pe'anes eB)al to t&ei# inte#nal i!pe'anes.
CI'C*I$ DI,/',M.
4&e2inin@s eB)i2alent (i#)it
4=

&'OCED*'E .
1. Swit& 8+ t&e t#aine# by onneting t&e powe# o#'s to t&e A( !ains.
2. Apply D( 2oltage o, 20? ,#o! 2oltage so)#e to t&e inp)t te#!inals o, t&e netwo#% an'
!eas)#e t&e o)tp)t 2oltage ?t&. ?t&.FFFF open i#)it 2oltage a#oss A<B.
3. (onnet t&e loa' R* at t&e o)tp)t o, t&e netwo#% an' !eas)#e t&e )##ent Il t&#o)g& loa'
an' tab)late.
4. +ow 'isonnet t&e 2oltage so)#e an' loa'. S&o#t t&e inp)t te#!inals o, t&e netwo#% an'
!eas)#e t&e 4&e2enin@s eB)i2alent i!pe'ane Nt& at t&e o)tp)t te#!inals. Rt&RIt is t&e
eB)i2alent i#)it #esistane loo%ing ,#o! t&e o)tp)t te#!inals.
7. +ow a'H)st t&e inp)t 2oltage o, t&e so)#e an' eB)al to ?t& an' apply it to t&e inp)t
te#!inals o, 4&e2enin@s eB)i2alent i#)it.
6. 5eas)#e t&e loa' )##ent ,o# t&e i#)its.
=. ?e#i,y t&e t&eo#e!.
'E"*L$ . 4&e 4&e2enin@s t&eo#e! &as been 2e#i,ie'.
4>

49

70

71

72

$ELLI/E@" $9EO',M
,IM . 4o 2e#i,y t&e 4elligen@s 4&eo#e!.
,&&,',$*" .
")O ,&&,',$*" 3*,$I$+
1. DRB >
2. D)al powe# s)pply 1
3. 5)lti!ete# 2
$9EO'+ .
4elligen@s t&eo#e! is one o, t&e !ost gene#al t&eo#e! w&i& is appliable ton any l)!pe'
netwo#%s. $it& linea# o# nonlinea# ti!e 2a#iant o# in2a#iant. 4&is t&eo#e! base' on two Ki#&o,,@s
laws an' is o!pletely in'epen'ent o, t&e ele!ents.
De,- Sonsi'e# a netwo#% wit& B b#an&es an' + no'es wit& ea& b#an& &a2ing a b#an& 2oltage
?K an' )##ent IK wit& an a#bit#a#ily assigne' assoiate' 'i,,e#ent 'i#etionsT.
*et all t&e 2oltages satis,ying K?* an' all t&e satis,ying K(*.
K
U ?KIK L 0
KL1
4&e algeb#ai s)! o, powe# 'eli2e#e' by all so)#e S is eB)al to t&e algeb#ai s)! o, powe#
obse#2e' by all ele!ents.
CI'C*I$ DI,/',M .
73

4H"8R"4I(A* (A*(U*A4I8+S -
I L ?GR L
/ L I
2
R L
/ L ?I L
/RA(4I(A* ?A*U"S -
74

&'OCED*'E .
1. (onnetions a#e !a'e as pe# t&e i#)it 'iag#a!.
2. (al)late t&e powe# at R13 R23 R3.
3. 4otal powe# is eB)al to s)! o, all powe#.
4. (onnet t&e i#)it as pe# gi2en ,ig)#e.
7. :in' t&ey )##ent an' tab)late t&e all 2al)es.
6. 4&is powe# is eB)al to t&e p#e2io)s powe#3 w&i& is we a#e al)late.
'E"*L$ . 4&e 4elligen@s t&eo#e! &as been 2e#i,ie'.
77

76

7=

7>

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