ME2304 - Notes on Lesson

Unit 1
Basic Concepts of
Measurements
Metrology s the name gven to the scence of pure
measurement. Engineering Metrology s restrcted
to measurements of ength & ange.

Need for Measurement
to ensure that the part to be measured
conforms to the estabshed standard.
to meet the nterchangeabty of
manufacture.
to provde customer satsfacton by ensurng
that no fauty product reaches the customers.
to coordnate the functons of quaty contro,
producton, procurement & other departments
of the organzaton.
to |udge the possbty of makng some of the
defectve parts acceptabe after mnor repars.
Precision & Accuracy of Measurement
Precision : It s the degree whch determnes how
we dentcay performed measurements agree wth
each other. It s the repeatabty of the
measurng process. It carres no meanng for ony
one measurement. It exsts ony when a set of
observatons s gathered for the same quantty
under dentca condtons. In such a set, the
observatons w scatter about a mean. The ess s
the scatterng, the more precse s the
measurement.
Accuracy : It s the degree of agreement between
the measured vaue and ts true vaue. The
dherence between the measured vaue & the true
vaue s known as Error of measurement. Accuracy
s the quaty of conformty.
To dstngush the Precson from Accuracy, the
foowng smpe exampe can be sad. A repared
neede-watch w gve Precson readngs (same
tme) a the tmes, but w gve Accurate readngs
(correct tme) ony 2 tmes n a day.
Of the two, Precson & Accuracy, ony the former s
requred though the atter s usuay sought for n a
measurng process. Achevng hgh precson s
easer & cheaper than achevng hgh accuracy. If
the measurng nstrument s of hgh precse & s
cabrated for ts error, then the true vaue can be
easy obtaned from the measured average vaue
after deductng the nstrument error. So, hgh
precson - nstrument s requred rather than the
hgh accurate - nstrument, consderng cost and
reabty of the measurng nstrument.
However, of the two, precson & accuracy, whch
one s more vta, depends on the stuaton. For
exampe, for a carpenter entrusted wth the |ob of
ttng a shef nto cupboard, precson s more
mportant. Ths can be acheved ony when he uses
the same scae to measure the cupboard & the
board for shef. It hardy matters whether hs scae s
accurate or not. If however, such a board s ordered
for purchase from a pre-cut board from outsde,
accuracy becomes more vta than precson. He
must measure the sze of the cupboard very
accuratey before pacng the order.
Interchangeabty s the ca of the day. Not ony a
nut from ts ot shoud t on any bot of ts ot, both
manufactured n the same pant by same men, but
aso, t shoud t on a bot from some other
manufacturer. The smpest way to mantan
compatbty of parts for nterchangeabe
manufacture s by adoptng accuracy n
measurement everywhere.
Factors aectin! t"e accuracy of measurin!
system
a) Factors ahectng the standard of measurement:
co-emcent of therma expanson
eastc propertes
stabty wth tme
geometrc compatbty
b) Factors ahectng the work pece to be measured:
co-emcent of therma expanson
eastc propertes
arrangement of supportng work pece
hdden geometry
surface defects such as scratches, wavness,
etc.
c) Factors ahectng the nherent characterstcs of
nstrument:
repeatabty & readabty
cabraton errors
ehect of frcton, backash, etc
nadequate ampcaton for accuracy
ob|ectve
deformaton n handng or use
d) Factors ahectng person:
mproper tranng / sk
nabty to seect proper standards /
nstruments
ess atttude towards persona accuracy
measurements
e) Factors ahectng envronment:
temperature, humdty, atmospherc
pressure, etc.
ceanness
adequate umnaton
heat radaton from ghts / heatng eements
#e$ia%i$ity of Measurement
If a measurng nstrument s not precse, t w gve
dherent vaues for same dmenson, when
measured agan and agan. Such an nstrument thus
s consdered non-trust worthy. The rst and
fundamenta requrement of any good measurng
nstrument to be ehectve s that t shoud have
adequate repeatabty or precson. The measurng
nstrument whch gves precse (same) vaues a the
tmes s far reabe than the nstrument whch gves
accurate (true) vaues rarey but not precse vaues
a the tmes. The precse vaue can be easy
converted nto accurate vaue by takng the
constant error of precson nstrument nto account.
If the precson measurng nstrument s hghy
cabrated for ts error of measurement & the
constant error of measurement s known n advance,
then the accurate (true) vaue can be obtaned as
foows ;
True vaue = Measured vaue Error
Hence, cabrated & precson measurng nstrument
s more reabe and hence s used n metroogca
aboratores.
Met"ods of Measurement
1) Method of drect measurement: The vaue of the
quantty to be measured s obtaned drecty wthout
the necessty of carryng out suppementary
cacuatons based on a functona dependence of
the quantty to be measured n reaton to the
quanttes actuay measured. Example : Weght of
a substance s measured drecty usng a physca
baance.
2) Method of ndrect measurement: The vaue of the
quantty s obtaned from measurements carred out
by drect method of measurement of other
quanttes, connected wth the quantty to be
measured by a known reatonshp. Example :
Weght of a substance s measured by measurng
the ength, breadth & heght of the substance
drecty and then by usng the reaton
Weght = Length x Breadth x Heght x Densty
3) Method of measurement wthout contact: The
sensor s not paced n contact wth the ob|ect whose
characterstcs are beng measured.
4) Method of combnaton measurement cosed
seres: The resuts of drect or ndrect measurement
or dherent combnatons of those vaues are made
use of & the correspondng system of equatons s
soved.
5) Method of fundamenta measurement: Based on
the measurements of base quanttes enterng nto
the denton of the quantty.
6) Method of measurement by comparson: Based
on the comparson of the vaue of a quantty to be
measured wth a known vaue of the same quantty
(drect comparson), or a known vaue of another
quantty whch s a functon of the quantty to be
measured (ndrect comparson).
7) Method of measurement by substtuton: The
vaue of a quantty to be measured s repaced by a
known vaue of the same quantty, so seected that
the ehects produced n the ndcatng devce by
these two vaues are the same (a type of drect
comparson).
8) Method of measurement by transposton : The
vaue of the quantty to be measured s n the
begnnng, baanced by a rst known vaue A of the
same quantty, then the vaue of the quantty to be
measured s put n pace of ths known vaue and s
agan baanced by another known vaue B. If the
poston of the eement ndcatng equbrum s the
same n both the cases, the vaue of the quantty
measured s equa to A & B.
9) Method of dherenta measurement: Based on the
comparson of the quantty to be measured wth a
quantty of the same knd, wth a vaue known to be
sghty dherence from that of the quantty to be
measured, and the measurement of the dherence
between the vaues of these two quanttes.
10) Method of measurement by compement: The
vaue of the quantty to be measured s
compemented by a known vaue of the same
quantty, seected n such a way that the sum of
these two vaues s equa to a certan vaue of
comparson xed n advance.
11) Method of measurement by nterpoaton : It
conssts of determnng vaue of the quantty
measured on the bass of the aw of correspondence
& known vaues of the same quantty, the vaue to
be determned yng between two known vaues.
12) Method of measurement by extrapoaton : It
conssts of determnng the vaue of the quantty
measured on the bass of the aw of correspondence
& known vaues of the same quantty, the vaue to
be determned yng outsde the known vaues.
&erms in Measurement
1) Constant of a measurng nstrument: The factor
by whch the ndcaton of the nstrument sha be
mutped to obtan the resut of measurement.
2) Nomna vaue of a physca measure: The vaue
of the quantty reproduced by the physca measure
and s ndcated on that measure.
3) Conventona true vaue of a physca measure:
The vaue of the quantty reproduced by the physca
measure, determned by a measurement carred out
wth the hep of measurng nstruments, whch show
a tota error whch s practcay neggbe.
4) Standard: It s the physca embodment of a
unt. For every knd of quantty to be measured,
there shoud be a unt to express the resut of the
measurement & a standard to enabe the
measurement.
5) Cabraton: It s the process of determnng the
vaues of the quantty beng measured
correspondng to a pre-estabshed arbtrary scae.
It s the measurement of measurng nstrument. The
quantty to be measured s the nput to the
measurng nstrument.
The nput ahects some parameter whch s the
output & s read out. The amount of output s
governed by that of nput. Before we can read any
nstrument, a scae must be framed for the output
by successve appcaton of some aready
standardsed (nputs) sgnas. Ths process s known
as cabraton.
6) Senstvty of nstrument: The abty of the
nstrument to detect sma varaton n the nput
sgna.
7) Readabty of nstrument: The susceptbty of a
measurng nstrument to havng ts ndcatons
converted to a meanngfu number. It mpes the
ease wth whch observatons can be made
accuratey.
'tandards of Measurement
a) FPS System: In ths system, the unts of ength,
mass, tme, temperature are Foot (or Yard), Pound
(or Sug), Second, Rankne (or Fahrenhet)
respectvey. It s common n Engsh speakng
countres and s deveoped by Brtan.
b) Metrc System: It s a decma system of weght &
measurement s based on the Metre as the unt of
ength. It was rst used n France. Its basc unt s
Metre.
CGS prescrbes Centmetre, Gram, Second for
ength, weght & tme respectvey.
MKS prescrbes Metre, Kogram, Second for ength,
weght & tme respectvey.
MKSA (Gorg) system added Ampere, the unt of
eectrca current to MKS system.
c) SI system: In 1960, Genera Conference on
Weghts & Measures (CGPM) formay gave the
MKSA, the tte Systems Internatona d untes
wth the abbrevaton SI (aso caed as
Internatona System of unts). In SI, the man
departure from the tradtona metrc system s the
use of Newton as the unt of Force. Inda by Act of
Parament No.89, 1956 swtched over to SI system.
Basic units in '( system
1) For Length : Metre (m) whch s equa to
1650763.73 waveengths n vacuum of the red-
orange radaton correspondng to the transton
between the eves 2p
10
& 5d
5
of the krypton-86
atom. (Denton by waveength standard)
By Lne standard, Metre s the dstance between the
axes of two nes engraved on a poshed surface of
the Patnum - Irdum bar M (90% patnum & 10%
rdum) kept at Bureau of Weghts & Measures
(BIPM) at Sevres near Pars at 0C, the bar kept
under norma atmospherc pressure, supported by
two roers of at east 1 cm dameter symmetrcay
stuated n the same horzonta pane at a dstance
of 588.9 mm (Ary ponts) so as to gve mnmum
deecton.
2) For Mass: Kogram (kg) whch s equa to the
mass of Internatona prototype of the kogram.
3) For Tme : Second (s) whch s equa to the
duraton of 9192631770 perods of the radaton
correspondng to the transton between the hyper
ne eves of the ground state of the Caesum 133
atom.
4) For Current : Ampere (A) s that constant current
whch, f mantaned n two straght parae
conductors of nnte ength of neggbe crcuar
cross secton & paced one metre apart n vacuum
woud produce between these conductors, a force
equa to 2 x 10
-7
Newton per unt ength.
5) For Temperature: Kevn (K) s the fracton 1/273
of thermodynamc temperature of the trpe pont of
water.
6) For Lumnous ntensty: Candea (cd) s the
umnous ntensty n the perpendcuar drecton of a
surface of 1/6,00,000 m
2
of a back body at the
temperature of freezng patnum under a pressure
of 101325 N/m
2
.
7) For amount of substance: Moe (mo) s the
amount of substance of a system whch contans as
many eementary enttes as there are atoms n
0.012 kg of Carbon-12.
Suppementary SI unts:
1) For Pane ange: Radan (rad)
2) For Sod ange: Steradan (sr)
Derved SI unts:
1) For Frequency: Hertz (1 Hz = 1 cyce per second)
2) For Force: Newton (1 N = 1 kg-m/s
2
)
3) For Energy: |oue (1 | = 1 N-m)
4) For Power: Watt (1 W = 1 |/s)
C$assi)cation of 'tandards
1) Lne & End Standards: In the Lne standard, the
ength s the dstance between the centres of
engraved nes whereas n End standard, t s the
dstance between the end faces of the standard.
Example : for Lne standard s Measurng Scae, for
End standard s Bock gauge.
2) Prmary, Secondary, Tertary & Workng
Standards:
Prmary standard: It s ony one matera standard
and s preserved under the most carefu condtons
and s used ony for comparson wth Secondary
standard.
Secondary standard: It s smar to Prmary
standard as neary as possbe and s dstrbuted to a
number of paces for safe custody and s used for
occasona comparson wth Tertary standards.
Tertary standard: It s used for reference purposes n
aboratores and workshops and s used for
comparson wth workng standard.
Workng standard: It s used day n aboratores and
workshops. Low grades of materas may be used.
Errors in Measurement
Error n measurement s the dherence between the
measured vaue and the true vaue of the measured
dmenson.
Error n measurement = Measured vaue - True
vaue
The error n measurement may be expressed as an
absoute error or as a reatve error.
1) Absoute error: It s the agebrac dherence
between the measured vaue and the true vaue of
the quantty measured. It s further cassed as;
a) True absoute error: It s the agebrac dherence
between the measured average vaue and the
conventona true vaue of the quantty measured.
b) Apparent absoute error: It s the agebrac
dherence between one of the measured vaues of
the seres of measurements and the arthmetc
mean of a measured vaues n that seres.
2) Reatve error: It s the quotent of the absoute
error and the vaue of comparson (whch may be
true vaue, conventona true vaue or arthmetc
mean vaue of a seres of measurements) used for
the cacuaton of that absoute error.
Example : If the actua (true) vaue s 5,000 and
estmated (measured) vaue s 4,500, nd absoute
and reatve errors.
Solution : Absoute error = True vaue - Measured
vaue
= 5,000 - 4,500
= 500 unts
Reatve error = Absoute error / Measured
vaue
= 500 / 4,500
= 0.11 (11%)
&ypes of Errors
A* Error of Measurement
1) Systematc error: It s the error whch durng
severa measurements, made under the same
condtons, of the same vaue of a certan quantty,
remans constant n absoute vaue and sgn or
vares n a predctabe way n accordance wth a
speced aw when the condtons change.
The causes of these errors may be known or
unknown. The errors may be constant or varabe.
Systematc errors are reguary repettve n nature.
2) Random error: Ths error vares n an
unpredctabe manner n absoute vaue & n
sgn when a arge number of measurements
of the same vaue of a quantty are made
under practcay dentca condtons.
Random errors are non-consstent. Random
errors are normay of mted tme duraton.

3) Parastc error: It s the error, often gross, whch
resuts from ncorrect executon of measurement.
B* (nstrumenta$ error
1) Error of a physca measure: It s the dherence
between the nomna vaue and the conventona
true vaue reproduced by the physca measure.
2) Error of a measurng mechansm: It s the
dherence between the vaue ndcated by the
measurng mechansm and the conventona true
vaue of the measured quantty.
3) Zero error: It s the ndcaton of a measurng
nstrument for the zero vaue of the quantty
measured.
4) Cabraton error of a physca measure: It s the
dherence between the conventona true vaue
reproduced by the physca measure and the
nomna vaue of that measure.
5) Compementary error of a measurng nstrument:
It s the error of a measurng nstrument arsng
from the fact that the vaues of the nuence
quanttes are dherent from those correspondng to
the reference condtons.
6) Error of ndcaton of a measurng nstrument: It
s the dherence between the measured vaues of a
quantty, when an nuence quantty takes
successvey two speced vaues, wthout changng
the quantty measured.
7) Error due to temperature: It s the error arsng
from the fact that the temperature of nstrument
does not mantan ts reference vaue.
8) Error due to frcton: It s the error due to the
frcton between the movng parts of the measurng
nstruments.
9) Error due to nerta: It s the error due to the
nerta (mechanca, therma or otherwse) of the
parts of the measurng nstrument.
C* Error of o%ser+ation
1) Readng error: It s the error of observaton
resutng from ncorrect readng of the ndcaton of a
measurng nstrument by the observer.
2) Paraax error: It s the readng error whch s
produced, when, wth the ndex at a certan dstance
from the surface of scae, the readng s not made n
the drecton of observaton provded for the
nstrument used.
3) Interpoaton error: It s the readng error
resutng from the nexact evauaton of the poston
of the ndex wth regard to two ad|acent graduaton
marks between whch the ndex s ocated.
,* Based on nature of errors
1) Systematc error: (aready dscussed)
2) Random error: (aready dscussed)
3) Iegtmate error: As the name mpes, t shoud
not exst. These ncude mstakes and bunders,
computatona errors and chaotc errors. Chaotc
errors are random errors but unke the atter, they
create chaos n the na resuts.
E* Based on contro$
1) Controabe errors: The sources of error are
known and t s possbe to have a contro on these
sources. These can be cabraton errors,
envronmenta errors and errors due to non-
smarty of condton whe cabratng and
measurng.
Cabraton errors: These are caused due to
varaton n the cabrated scae from ts norma
vaue. The actua ength of standards such as sp
gauges w vary from the nomna vaue by a sma
amount. Ths w cause an error of constant
magntude.
Envronmenta (Ambent /Atmospherc Condton)
Errors: Internatona agreement has been reached on
ambent condton whch s at 20C temperature, 760
mm of Hg pressure and 10 mm of Hg humdty.
Instruments are cabrated at these condtons. If
there s any varaton n the ambent condton,
errors may creep nto na resuts. Of the three,
temperature ehect s most consderabe.
Styus pressure errors: Though the pressure nvoved
durng measurement s generay sma, ths s
sumcent enough to cause apprecabe deformaton
of both the styus and the work pece. Ths w
cause an error n the measurement.
Avodabe errors: These errors may occur due to
paraax n the readng of measurng nstruments.
Ths occurs when the scae and ponter are
separated reatve to one another.
The two common practces to mnmse ths error
are:
) reduce the separaton between the scae and
ponter to mnmum.
) a mrror s paced behnd the ponter to ensure
norma readng of the scae n a the cases.
These avodabe errors occur aso due to non-
agnment of work pece centres, mproper ocaton
of measurng nstruments, etc.
2) Non-controabe errors: These are random errors
whch are not controabe.
Causes of Errors
1) Errors due to deecton (Errors of supports):
When ong bars are supported as beam, they get
deformed or deected. Ths eastc deformaton
occurs because ong bars, supported as to ends sags
under ther own weght. The amount of deecton
depends upon the postons of the supports. Ths
probem was consdered by Sr G.B. Ary, who
showed that the postons of the supports can be
arranged to gve a mnmum error. Sope and
deecton at any pont can be cacuated from the
theory of bendng.
Two condtons are consdered, as foows; For a bar
of ength L, supported equdstant from the centre
on supports by dstance apart, then for no sopes
at the ends, = 0.577 L (sutabe for ne
standards and end bars). For mnmum deecton of
the beam, = 0.544 L (sutabe for straght edges)
2) Errors due to msagnment: Abbes prncpe of
agnment shoud be foowed n measurements to
avod cosne errors, sne errors, etc. Accordng to
Abbes prncpe, "the axis or line of measurement of
the measured part should coincide with the line of
measuring scale or the axis of measurement of the
measuring instrument.
The combned Cosne and Sne error occurs f the
mcrometer axs s not truy perpendcuar to the
axs of the work pece as shown beow.
Smary, the same error occurs when measurng an
end gauge n the horzonta comparator. If the
gauge s not supported so that ts axs s parae to
the axs of measurng anvs, or f ts ends, though
parae to each other, are not square wth the axs.
Ths s shown beow.
The above combned Cosne & Sne errors can be
avoded by usng gauges wth spherca ends. If the
axs of the two spherca end gauges are not agned,
the error n ength w occur ths s equa to (a+b) as
shown beow.
From the above gure, t s known that
a = R
1
( 1 - Cos )
= R
1
( 1 -
2
sn 1 )
=

+

2
2 1
2
1
) R R (
h
1 1 R
=

+
+
2
2 1
2
1
) R R ( 2
h
1 1 R
=
2
2 1
2
1
) R R ( 2
h R
+
very neary
Smary, b =
2
2 1
2
2
) R R ( 2
h R
+
Therefore, (a+b) =
2
2 1
2
2 1
) R R ( 2
h ) R R (
+
+
=
) R R ( 2
h
2 1
2
+
3) Error due to contact pressure: The varatons n
the contact pressure between the anvs of the
nstrument and the work pece beng measured
produce consderabe dherence n readng. The
deformaton of the work pece and the anvs of
nstrument depend upon the contact pressure and
the shape of the contact surfaces.
Styus
Work pece
Styus deformaton
Workpece deformaton
4) Error due to vbratons: The errors due to
vbratons can be avoded by
a) ocatng the
aboratory away from the sources of vbraton
b) keepng sppng
cork, fet, rubber pads under the gauge
c) mountng the
gauge pedesta or oor sectons on tar mastc
d) puttng a gauge on
a surface pate restng n turn on a heavy pate.
5) Error due to drt: If the datum surface s not at
or f the foregn matter such as drt, chps, etc are
present between the datum and the work pece
surface, then error w be ntroduced n the readng
taken.
6) Error due to poor contact: To avod ths type of
error, the gauge wth esser area of contact shoud
be used whe measurng rreguar or curved surface
and correct pressure shoud be apped whe makng
the contact.
7) Error due to wear n gauges: Wear of measurng
surfaces of nstrument occurs due to repeated use.
Ths error can be avoded by hardenng the surfaces
or by usng chrome pated parts for contact
surfaces.
8) Error due to ooseness : Looseness can be tested
by settng the gauge contact on gauge anv and
zerong the meter; and then appyng nger pressure
or a ght tab to each ocaton, where ooseness
mght be expected and notng the readng agan.
9) Error due to ocaton: Fgure drawn beow shows
how mperfect ocaton of surface causes errors.
Readng = a + b = c tan + t sec
Error = a + b - t = c tan + t (sec - 1)
10) Error due to paraax ehect: Paraax error
occurs when;
) the ne of vson s not drecty n ne wth
the measurng scae.
) the scae and the ponter are separated from
each other.
In the gure shown beow, d = separaton of scae
and ponter
D = dstance between ponter and
observers eye
= ange whch the ne of sght makes
wth the norma to scae

Unit 2
Linear & An!u$ar
Measurements
Measurement of En!ineerin! Components
Gauges are used many to check the Engneerng
Components produced on mass scae, where the |ob
s usuay handed by sem-sked workers. Ths type
of measurement cannot be reed upon where
accuracy s more mportant. The dherent methods
and nstruments used for precson & accurate
(near & anguar) measurements are dscussed n
ths unt.
Comparator
It s a precson nstrument empoyed to compare the
dmenson of a gven component wth a workng
standard (generay sp gauges). It does not
measure the actua dmenson but ndcates how
much t dhers from the basc dmenson (workng
standard).
Uses of Comparator :
For cabratng the workng gauges
Used as workng gauges
Used as na nspecton gauges
Essential characteristics of a good Comparator :
Robust desgn and constructon
Lnear characterstcs of scae
Hgh magncaton
Ouck n resuts
Versatty
Mnmum wear of contact pont
Free from back ash
Ouck nserton of work pece
Provson for compensaton from temperature
ehects
Provson for means to prevent damage
durng use.
C$assi)cation of comparators
1) Mechanca comparator
a) Da ndcator
b) |ohansson Mkrokator comparator
c) Sgma comparator
d) Reed type mechanca comparator
2) Optca comparator
a) Zess Utra optmeter
b) Zess optotest comparator
3) Mechanca - Optca comparator
4) Eectrca comparator
5) Fud dspacement comparator
6) Pneumatc comparator
a) Back pressure comparator
b) Fow - veocty Pneumatc comparator
In addton, the comparators used n standards
room for cabraton of gauges are :
7) Brookes Leve comparator
8) Eden-Rot Month Comparator
Basic princip$e of operation of comparator

The comparator s rst ad|usted to zero on ts da or
recordng devce wth a gauge bock n poston. The
gauge bock (sp gauges) s of dmenson whch the
work pece shoud have. The work pece to be
checked s then paced n poston and the
comparator gves the dherence n dmenson n
reaton to the gauge bock. The dmenson of the
work pece may be ess than, equa to, or greater
than the standard dmenson. The dherence n the
dmenson w be shown n the da or n the
recordng devce of the comparator.
Mec"anica$ Comparators- Varous mechanca
comparators are dscussed next.
,ia$ indicator
It s the smpest type of mechanca comparator. It
conssts of a base wth a rgd coumn and an arm
carryng da gauge (da ndcator). The arm can be
ad|usted vertcay up and down aong the coumn.
The arm can be swveed and the da gauge aso
can be ocked n any poston aong ts arm. The
whoe set up s paced on the surface pace whch s
used as a datum surface.
.o"ansson /Mi0ro0ator1
A thn meta strp carres at the centre of ts ength a
very ght gass tube ponter. From the centre, the
strp s permanenty twsted to form rght and eft
hand heces. One end of the strp s xed to the
ad|ustabe cantever strp, the other beng
anchored to the sprng strp ebow, one arm of whch
s carred on the measurng punger. As the
measurng punger moves, ether upwards or down
wards, the ebow acts as a be crank ever and
causes the twsted strp to change ts ength and
thus further twst, or untwst. Hence, the ponter at
the centre of the twsted strp rotates an amount
proportona to the change n ength of the strp. It
can be shown that the rato
n W
1 . 9
on ampcat
d
d
2

= =

where
s the ength of twsted strp, measured aong ts
neutra axs.
W s the wdth of twsted strp
n s the number of turns
s the twst of md pont of strp wth respect to
end.
The setup s dagrammatcay shown beow
.o"ansson /Mi0ro0ator1
'i!ma comparator

The punger, mounted on a par of st daphragms to
gve a frctoness near movement, has mounted
upon t a knfe edge whch bears upon the face of
the movng member of a cross strp hnge. It
conssts of the movng component and a xed
member, connected by thn exbe strps aternatey
at rght anges to each other. It can be shown that f
an externa force s apped to the movng member,
t w pvot, as woud a hnge, about the ne of
ntersecton of the strps. Attached to the movng
member s an arm whch dvdes nto a Y form. If
the ehectve ength of ths arm s L and the dstance
form the hnge pvot to the knfe edge s x, then the
rst stage of the magncaton s L/x. To the
extremtes of the Y arm s attached a phosphor-
bronze strp whch s passed around a drum of radus
r attached to the ponter spnde. If the ponter s
of ength R then the second stage of magncaton
s R/r and the magncaton s LR/(xr).
'i!ma Mec"anica$ Comparator
The magncaton can be ad|usted by sackenng
one and tghtenng the other screw attachng the
knfe edge to the punger and thus ad|ustng
dstance x, whe a range of nstruments of dherng
magncatons can be produced by havng drums of
dherent rad r and sutabe strps.
The other nterestng features of ths nstrument are:
a) More safety
b) Dead beat readngs can be obtaned
c) Fne ad|ustment s possbe
d) Paraax error s avoded
1
50
Lght Source
Condensers
Pro|ecton Lens
Mrror
Pvot
Lever
Pvot
Punger
Screen & Scae
Fi!2 224 Princip$e of 3ptica$ Comparator
20 1
e) Constant measurng pressure by the use of
magnet punger.
Mec"anica$ 4 3ptica$ Comparator
In ths system, a sma dspacement of the
measurng punger s amped rst by a mechanca
system consstng of pvoted evers. The amped
mechanca movement s further amped by a
snge optca system nvovng the pro|ecton of an
mage. The setup s shown beow.
In such a system,
Mechanca ampcaton = 1 x 20 x 1 = 20 unts
Optca ampcaton = 50 x 2 = 100 unts
Tota ampcaton = 20 x 100 = 2000 unts
Pneumatic Comparator

In ths system, no physca contact s made ether
wth the settng gauge or the part beng measured,
and that nterna dmensons may be ready
measured, not ony wth respect to toerance
boundares, but aso geometrc form. Further, the
system ends tsef to the nspecton of a snge,
or a number of dmensons smutaneousy, ether
durng or mmedatey after the operatng cyce of a
machne too.
Pneumatic Comparator
Back-pressure (Pneumatc) comparator: It uses a
water manometer for the ndcaton of back
pressure. It conssts of a vertca meta cynder
ed wth water upto a certan eve and a dp tube
mmersed nto t upto a depth correspondng to the
ar pressure requred. A cabrated manometer tube
s connected between the cynder and contro
orce as shown n g. 2.5.
The ar from ts norma source of suppy s tered
and passes through a ow vave. Its pressure s
then reduced and mantaned at a constant vaue by
a dp tube nto a water chamber, the pressure vaue
beng determned by the head of the water dspace,
excess ar escapng to atmosphere. The ar at
reduced pressure then passes through the contro
orce, and escapes from the measurng orce. The
back pressure n the crcut s ndcated by the head
of water dspaced n the manometer tube. The tube
s graduated neary to show changes of pressure
resutng from changes n dmensond.
Ampcatons of up to 50000 are obtanabe wth
ths system.
'$ip !au!es

These gauges are other wse caed as Gauge bocks
or Bock gauges and are unversay accepted as end
standards of ength n ndustry. Sp gauges are
rectanguar bocks of hgh grade stee (or tungsten
carbde) wth ess co-emcent of therma expanson.
These bocks are hghy hardened (more than 800
HV) through out to ensure maxmum resstance to
wear and are then stabsed by heatng and coong
successvey n stages so that the hardenng
stresses are removed. After hardenng, they are
sub|ected to appng to a hgh degree of nsh,
atness and accuracy. The cross sectons of these
gauges are 9 x 30 mm for szes up to 10 mm and 9 x
35 mm for arger szes. The dmenson (heght) s
marked on one of the measurng faces of gauge
bocks.
Wrngng of Sp gauges:
The sp gauges are wrung together by hand through
a combned sdng and twstng moton. The ar gap
between the gauge faces s expeed out and the
adheson s caused party by moecuar attracton
and party by atmospherc pressure. The gap
between the two wrung sp gauges s ony of the
order of 0.00635 m whch s neggbe.
hen ta!ing the slip gauges apart" the gauges are
slid apart.
Procedure for wrngng:
) The sp gauges are rst ceaned usng a nt free
coth or chamos eather or a ceansng tssue.
) One sp gauge s then paced at 90 to other by
usng ght pressure and then t s rotated unt the
bocks are brought n one ne.
Indan Standards on Sp gauges:
Grade II : Workshop grade for rough checks.
Grade I : Used for settng up sne bars, checkng
gap gauges and settng da test ndcators to zero.
Grade 0 : Used n too room and nspecton
department.
Grade 00 : Kept n standard room and used for hgh
precson work such as checkng Grade I and Grade II
sp gauges.
Appcatons of Sp gauges:
Drect precse measurement
For cabraton of verner capers,
mcrometers, and other measurng nstruments.
For settng up a comparator to a specc
dmenson
For anguar measurement n con|uncton wth
sne bar
For checkng gap between parae ocatons
such as n gap gauges or between two matng
parts.
Seecton of Sp gauges for requred dmenson:
Aways start wth the ast decma pace and deduct
ths from the requred dmenson. Seect the next
smaest gure n the same way, nd the remander
and contnue ths unt the requred dmenson s
competed. Mnmum number of sp gauges shoud
be seected to bud up the gven dmenson.
#o$$er !au!es
Cyndrca roers wth ther engths equa to ther
dameters may be used as gauges, secondary to
bock gauges (sp gauges). These are produced to
ne toerances.
Limit !au!es
These are nspecton toos for rgd desgn, wthout a
scae, whch serve to check the dmensons of
manufactured parts. Gauges do not ndcate the
actua vaue of the nspected dmenson on the work.
They can ony be used for determnng as to whether
the nspecton parts are made wthn the speced
mts. These gauges are made up of sutabe wear
resstng stee and are normay hardened to not ess
than 750 HV and sutaby stabsed and ground and
apped.
The Go and No Go gauges may be n the form of
separate snge ended gauge, or may be combned
on one hande to form a doube ended gauge.
Progressve gauge s the snge ended gauge wth
one gaugng member havng two dameters to the
Go and No Go mts respectvey.
A typca mt pug gauge and mt snap gauge are
shown n the next page.
Limit P$u! 5au!e
Limit 'nap 5au!e
5au!e ,esi!n

Every gauge s a copy of the part whch mates wth
the part for whch the gauge s desgned. For
exampe, a bush s made whch s to mate wth a
shaft; n ths case, the shaft s the matng part. The
bush s check by a pug gauge whch n so far as the
form of ts surface and ts sze s concerned, s a
copy of the matng part (shaft).
Tayors prncpe: Accordng to Tayor, Go and No
Go gauges shoud be desgned to check maxmum
and mnmum matera mts whch are checked as
beow:
Go mt: Ths s apped to upper mt of a shaft
and ower mt of a hoe.
No Go mt: Ths s apped to ower mt of a shaft
and the upper mt of a hoe.
#aylors principle states that the $o gauges should
chec! all the possi%le elements of dimensions at a
time &roundness" si'e" location" etc.( and
the )o $o gauge should chec! only one element of
the dimension at a time.
Based on Tayors prncpe, Go gauge s desgned
for maxmum matera condton and No Go gauge
s desgned for mnmum matera condton.
Problem : Desgn a genera type GO and NO GO
gauge for components havng 20H
7
f
8
t. Gven :
() (mcron) = 0.45 (D)
1/3
+ 0.001 D
() fundamenta devaton of f shaft = -5.5 (D)
0.41
(D s n mm)
() 20mm fas n the dameter step of 18mm to 30
mm.
(v) IT
7
= 16
(v) IT
8
= 25
Solution : From the standard tabe, t s found that
20 es between 18& 30 Hence, D =
2 1
xD D
=
30 x 18
= 23.2379 mm
= 0.45 (D)
1/3
+ 0.001 D mcrons
= 0.45 (23.2379)
1/3
+ 0.001
(23.2379)
= 1.3074 mcrons
IT
7
= 16 mcrons
= 16 x 1.3074 mcrons
= 20.918 mcrons = 0.021 mm
IT
8
= 25 mcrons
= 25 x 1.3074 mcrons
= 33 mcrons = 0.033 mm
fundamenta devaton of shaft = - 5.5 D
0.41
mcrons
= - 5.5 x 23.2379
0.41
= - 20 mcrons = - 0.02
mm
Lower devaton of H - hoe = zero
Hence, Lmts for hoe 20 H
7
= 20
+ 0.021, + 0.000
mm
Lmts for shaft 20 f
8 :
Hgher Lmt of shaft = 20 + fundamenta
devaton
= 20 - 0.02 mm
Lower Lmt of shaft = 20 + funda devaton -
IT
8
= 20 - 0.02 - 0.033
= 20 - 0.053 mm
Hence, Lmts for shaft 20 f
8
= 20
- 0.02, -0.053 mm
Gauge toerance for pug gauge = 10% of work
toerance (hoe)
= 0.1 x 0.021 =
0.0021 mm
Wear aowance for pug gauge = 10% of gauge
toerance (hoe) = 0.1 x
0.0021 = 0.00021 mm
Gauge toerance for snap gauge = 10% of work
toerance (shaft) = 0.1
x 0.033 = 0.0033 mm
Wear aowance on snap gauge = 10% of gauge
toerance (shaft)
= 0.1 x 0.0033
= 0.00033 mm
*or +ole :
Upper mt of Go pug gauge = 20 +
0.0021 + 0.00021
= 20
+ 0.00231 mm
Lower mt of Go pug gauge = 20 +
0.00021 mm
= 20
+ 0.00021 mm
Now, upper mt of No-Go pug gauge = 20.021 +
0.0021 = 20.0231 mm
ower mt of No-Go pug gauge = 20.021
mm
*or Shaft :
Upper mt of Go snap gauge = 20.00 -
0.02 - 0.00033
= 20
- 0.02033 mm
Lower mt of Go snap gauge = 20.00 -
0.02 - 0.0033 - 0.00033
= 20.00
- 0.02363
mm
Now, upper mt of No-Go snap gauge = 19.947 =
19.947 mm
= 20
- 0.0530 mm
ower mt of No-Go snap gauge = 19.947 -
0.0033 mm
= 20
- 0.0563 mm
&ypes of Limit 5au!es
The varous types of mt gauges used for gaugng
nterna dameters of hoes are:
1) Fu form cyndrca pug gauge: The gaugng
surface s n the form of an externa cynder.
Generay a sma crcumferenta groove s cut near
the eadng end of the gauge and the remanng
Fi!2 226 Fu$$ form cy$indrica$ p$u! !au!e
short cyndrca surface s sghty reduced n order
to act as a pot.
2) Fu form spherca pug or dsc gauge: The
gaugng surface s n the form of a sphere from
whch two equa segments are cut oh by panes
norma to the axs of the hande.
3) Segmenta cyndrca bar gauge: The gaugng
surface s n one of the two forms: one form;
externa cyndrca form from whch two axa
segments are made by owerng down surface at
other paces. (Fg.2.10) the other form; externa
cyndrca form n whch segments are formed by
removng remanng matera. (Fg. 2.11).
Fi!2 2277 'e!menta$ cy$indrica$ %ar !au!e
Fi!2 2274 #od !ua!e 8it" sp"erica$ ends
4) Segmenta spherca pug gauge: It s smar to
fu form spherca pug gauge but has two equa
segments cut oh by panes parae to the axs of the
hande n addton to the segments cut oh by panes
norma to the axs of the hande.
5) Segmenta cyndrca bar gauge wth reduced
measurng faces: It s smar to the segmenta
cyndrca bar gauge but has reduced measurng
faces n a pane parae to the axs of the hande.
6) Rod gauge wth spherca ends: It has spherca
end surfaces whch form part of one snge sphere.
The varous types of mt gauges used for gaugng
externa dameters of shaft are:
1) Fu form cyndrca rng gauge: The gaugng
surface s n the form of an nterna cynder and
whose wa s thck enough to avod deformaton
under norma condtons of use.
2) Gap gauge: It has one at surface and one
cyndrca surface, the axs of the two surfaces
beng parae to the axs of the shaft beng checked.
The surfaces consttutng the workng sze may both
be at or both cyndrca aso.
The gauges (for nterna taper) are marked wth a
rng on the gauge panes another rng to ndcate the
mnmum depth of nterna taper. The dstance
between the two rng marks Z corresponds to the
permssbe devaton of the gauge pane for
partcuar taper. For testng the externa taper of the
tanged end shank, the rng gauge s nserted, as far
as t goes wth ght pressure. At the extreme
poston, no part of the tang under test shoud
extend beyond the surfaces A, B and C. The shank
surfaces may however, e ush wth these surfaces.
&"e Autoco$$imator
It s an optca nstrument used for the measurement
of sma anguar dherences. It s essentay an
nnty teescope and a comator combned nto
one nstrument.
Prncpe of Autocomator:
If a pont source of ght O s paced at the prncpa
focus of a comatng ens, t w be pro|ected as a
parae beam of ght as n g.2.17. If ths parae
beam now strkes a pane reector whch s norma
to the optca axs, t w be reected back aong ts
own path and refocused at the source O.
If the pane reector s now tted through some
sma ange , the reected parae beam w turn
through 2, and w be brought to a focus at O
1
, n
the foca pane, a dstance x from O. Ths ehect s
shown n g.2.18. If the ray passng through the
geometrc centre of the ens s consdered, as t s,
unahected by refracton, t can be seen that x = 2
f mm, where f s the foca ength of the ens.
Point source of $i!"t in foca$ p$ane of a
co$$imatin! $ens
The mportant ponts about ths comaton of a
beam of ght are:
a) The dstance between the reector and the ens
has no ehect on the separaton x between source
and mage.
b) For hgh senstvty, .e., a arge vaue of x for a
sma anguar devaton , a ong foca ength s
requred.
c) Athough the dstance of the reector does not
ahect the readng x, f, at gven vaue of , t s
moved too far back, a of the reected rays w mss
the ens competey, and no mage w be formed.
Thus, for a wde range of readngs, the mnmum
dstance between ens and reector s essenta.
Pro9ection of a point source %ein! re:ected
form an inc$ined re:ector
&"e Microptic Auto-Co$$imator
The concept of pro|ectng the mage of a pont
source of ght s not practca, so n ths nstrument
a par of target wres n the foca pane of the
comatng ens s umnated from behnd and ther
mages are pro|ected. Fg.2.19 shows the optca
arrangement of the nstrument, the pro|ected
mage strkng a pane reector and the reecton of
the mage beng brought to a focus n the pane of
the target wres.
The wres and ther mages are vewed
smutaneousy n an eyepece, whch aso contans a
par of ad|ustabe settng wres and a scae. The
settng wres are ad|usted by a mcrometer unt
they stradde the reected mage (not the
target wre). The scae s read to the nearest
mn, and the mcrometer drum whch moves the
wres mn per revouton, s dvded nto 60 equa
parts. Thus, 1 dvson of the mcrometer drum
represents an anguar deecton of the reector of
one sec of arc. Wth care, and gven a rgd
mountng for the nstrument, repeat readngs of 0.2
sec are possbe. The nstrument normay has a
range of readngs of 10 mn of arc up to a range of
10 m. It s nvauabe n machne too agnment
testng or for any arge scae measurement nvovng
sma anguar devatons.
&"e Microptic Auto-co$$imator
&"e An!$e ,e00or
In ths system, an umnated scae s set n the foca
pane of the comatng ens outsde the ed of vew
of a mcroscope eyepece. It s then pro|ected as a
parae beam and strkes a pane reector beow the
nstrument. It s reected, and refocused by the ens
so that ts mage s n the ed of vew of the
eyepece. The mage fas, not across a smpe
datum ne, but across a smar xed scae at rght
anges to the umnated mage. Thus, the readng
on the umnated scae measures anguar
devatons from one axs at 90 to the optca axs,
and the readng on the xed scae gves the
devaton about an axs mutuay at rght anges to
the other two. Ths feature enabes anguar errors n
two panes to be deat wth, or more mportant, to
ensure that the readng on a settng master and on
the work s the same n one pane, the error beng
read n the other. Thus, nduced compound ange
errors are avoded. The setup conssts of a apped
at and reectve base above whch the optca
detas are mounted n a tube on an ad|ustabe
bracket. The optca system and the vew n the
eyepece are shown n next page

In use, a master, ether a sne bar or a group of
combnaton ange gauges s set up on the base
pate and the nstrument s ad|usted unt a readng
on both sdes s obtaned. It s now repaced by the
work, a gauge bock to gve a good reectve surface
beng paced on the face to be checked. The gauge
bock can usefuy be hed n pace wth eastc
bands. The work s now sowy rotated unt the
umnated scae moves across the xed scae, and
s ad|usted unt the xed scae readng s the same
as on the settng gauge. The error n the work ange
s the dherence n the two readngs on the
umnated scae.
3ptica$ system of An!$e de00or
To check the squareness of the work pece, no
master s necessary. If gauge bocks are hed
aganst both faces and the ange dekkor ad|usted to
gve a readng, t w be found to consst of two
mrror mages (due to doube reecton) of the
umnated scae, supermposed on each other. The
msagnment of the readngs of these mages w be
doube the error n the rght ange. The type of vew
obtaned n the eyepece when the ange dekkor s
used n ths manner s shown beow. Intay, t s
dmcut to read, but wth practce, the method
provdes a quck and accurate means of testng
squareness. Athough ths nstrument s not so
senstve as the auto-comator, t s extremey
usefu for a wde range of anguar measurements at
short dstances. It s used n too room nspecton.
Readngs drect to 1 mn over a range of 50 mn may
be taken, and by estmaton, readngs down to about
0.2 mn are possbe.
;ie8 in An!$e de00or eye piece
Combnaton ange gauges:
These combnaton ange gauges are used as master
n ange-dekkor. They are smpy bocks, hardened
and apped to precse anges so that they can be
wrung together. Unke gauge bocks, t must be
reased that anguar bocks can be added or
subtracted as shown beow.

Addition & 'u%traction of com%ination an!$e
!au!es2
The vaues of the anges used are arranged n a
moded geometrc progresson wth a common rato
of 3 as shown beow n a tabe. These thrteen
gauges, aong wth a square bock, each of whose
anges are cabrated, enabe any ange between 0
and 90 to be reased n ncrements of 3 sec. The
gauges are used ether n combnaton wth each
other or may be subtracted from the square bock.
The gauges, whch are manufactured to the same
hgh standards as gauge bocks, are stabsed, have
wrngng characterstcs, and are cabrated to a
hgh degree of precson. The reectve propertes of
ther apped surfaces make them partcuary
sutabe for use wth comatng type of nstruments.
&a%$e- Nomina$ +a$ues of com%ination an!$e
!au!es2
Degrees Mnutes Decma
mnutes
1
3
9
27
41
1
3
9
27
0.05
0.1
0.3
0.5
&"e A$i!nment &e$escope
It conssts of two unts, a comatng unt and a
focusng teescope, the body of each of whch s
ground truy cyndrca and to a precse outsde
dameter. Further, the optca axs and the
mechanca axs are concdent. Thus, each unt may
be t drecty or by precson bushng nto two
bearngs, a consderabe dstance apart, and
sghtngs taken from the teescope unt to the
comatng unt.
The comatng unt contans a ght source and
condensers, n front of whch s paced an anguar
gratcue n the foca pane of the comatng ens.
Ths gratcue scae s thus pro|ected as a parae
beam of ght. If the teescope s focussed at
nnty, t w brng to a focus the parae rays and
the anguar scae s seen aganst the datum nes n
the teescope. Thus, anguar msagnment n both
panes s determned. The comatng unt aso
contans, n front of the comatng ens, a
second gratcue aso havng two scaes at rght
anges to each other. If the focus of the teescope
s now shortened, ths gratcue s seen aganst the
datum nes of the teescope and near
dspacements are measured drecty. In ths case,
the comatng ens s smpy provdng even
umnaton for the dspacement gratcue, and the
anguar msagnment gratcue cannot be seen
because t s so far out of focus. A ne dagram of
the comatng unt and the vew n the teescope
eyepece at both condtons of focus s shown n g.
2.23.
&"e A$i!nment &e$escope
It shoud be noted that dstance has no ehect on the
anguar msagnment readngs, as these are taken
usng the comatng prncpe. However, ths s not
so wth the near dspacement scae. The teescope
Workpece

Surface Pate
Da Gauge
Sp Gauges
h
Fi!2 2224 'ine %ar
ony magnes the apparent sze of the scae as
seen by the eye. Thus, as the dstance s ncreased,
the sze of the dspacement scae s reduced and ts
readabty s aso reduced. Thus, the accuracy of
ths readng dmnshes wth dstance.
'ine %ar
It s a precson measurng nstrument and s an
exceent exampe of combnaton of near
measurement and anguar measurement when used
n con|uncton wth gauge bocks (sp gauges). It
conssts of a bar carryng a sutabe par of roers
set a known centre dstance. It s made of hgh
carbon, hgh chromum corroson resstant stee,
sutaby hardened, precson ground and stabsed.
Reef hoes are provded for easy handng of sne
bar and for reducng the weght of the sne bar. It
shoud be used on a grade A surface pate.

If s the near dstance between the axes of the
roers and h s the heght of the sp gauges, then
sn = h/
The desgn requrements of a sne bar are as foows,
and uness these are carefuy mantaned the order
of accuracy of anguar measurement w fa:
) The roers must be of equa dameter and true
geometrc cynders.
) The dstance between the roer axes must be
precse and known, and these axes must be
mutuay parae.
) The upper surface of the beam must be at and
parae wth the roer axes, and equdstant from
each.
<or0in! princip$e of 'ine %ar-
The sne bar s rst kept on the surface pate. The
work pece s then paced on the sne bar such that
the surface whose taper ange s to be measured s
facng upwards. Pace the set of sp gauges under
one end of the roer of sne bar such that the upper
surface of the work pece s approxmatey parae
wth the tabe surface. Pace the punger of the da
gauge on the upper surface of the work pece. Take
readngs wth the da gauge at both ends and note
ther dherence, notng whch end of the work s ow.
Assumng that the end nearest the hgh end of the
sne bar s ow, then the sp gauges heght must be
ncreased by an amount equa to the dherence n
the da gauge readngs mutped by the proporton
of sne bar ength to work ength. For exampe,
assumng that the end of a workpece was 0.01mm
ow, the sne bar beng 250 mm ong and the work
100 mm ong, then the requred ncrease n heght of
sp gauge set w be 0.01 x 250/100 = 0.025 mm.
Ths w not gve an mmedatey correct settng
from a rst approxmaton, but t s much qucker
than a tra and error method.
)ote :
a) No sne bar shoud be used to set oh anges
greater than 45, as beyond ths ange, the errors
due to the centre dstance of roers, and sp
gauges, beng n error are much magned.
b) Sp gauges shoud be kept beneath the settng
roer attached to the end whch s wth taper shape
but not beneath the hnge roer. Ths s to enabe
the sp gauges not to ht the bottom surface of sne
bar.
c) If the work pece s of arge sze, then the
sne bar s kept upsde down on the surface
of the work pece as shown beow.
d)
The heght over the roers can be measured by a
verner heght gauge; usng a da test gauge
mounted on the anv of heght gauge to ensure
constant measurng pressure.
'ine Centre
It s the Sne bar carryng centres to hod conca
work pece. A typca Sne centre set up s shown
n next page.
The prncpe of settng s the same as n the sne
bar, athough a hazard to be avoded s of the work
and centres not beng co-axa. To over come ths,
the work pece shoud be rotated on the centres unt
the maxmum da gauge readng s at the top. The
ange s cacuated from the sp gauges set n ths
condton, and then the work pece turned through
180 and the process s repeated. The mean of the
two anges determned w be the sem-ange of the
work pece, athough t must be ponted out that any
work whch runs out to a measurabe extent woud
probaby be consdered as sub-standard n quaty
and be re|ected on ths account.
'ine ta%$e

It s the most convenent and accurate desgn for
heavy work pece. The equpment conssts of a
sef contaned sne bar hnged at one roer and
mounted on ts datum surface. The tabe s qute
rgd one and the weght of unt and work pece s
gven fuer and safer support. The sne bar may be
safey swung to any ange from 0 to 90 by pvotng
t about ts hnged end.
Be+e$ Protractor
It s the smpest ange measurng nstrument. A
smpe verner beve protractor wth ts varous
eements s shown n g.2.27.
;ernier Be+e$ Protractor
The body of the beve protractor s desgned n such
a way that ts back s at and there are no
pro|ectons beyond ts back. The base pate s
attached to the man body and an ad|ustabe bade
s attached to a crcuar pate contanng verner
scae. The man body carres a man scae
graduated n degrees. The ad|ustabe bade whch s
capabe of rotatng freey about the centre of the
man scae engraved on the body of the nstrument
can be ocked n any poston. An acute ange
attachment s provded at the top. The base of the
base pate s made at so that t coud be ad at
upon the work pece. The bade can be moved aong
throughout ts ength and can aso be reversed. The
acute ange attachment can be ready t nto the
body and camped n any poston.
Unversa Beve protractor: The protractor da s
sotted to hod a bade whch can be rotated wth the
da to the requred ange. It can aso be ad|usted
ndependenty to any desred ength. The bade can
be ocked n any poston. Ths nstrument s capabe
of readngs precsey wthn 5 mnutes.
Optca Beve protractor: Ths nstrument s capabe
of takng readngs wthn 2 mnutes of an arc. The
nterva crcuar scae s graduated n dvsons of 10
mnutes of arc. Readngs are taken wth the hep of
optca magnfyng system whch s an ntegra part
of the nstrument.
Uses of Beve protractor:
The beve protractors can be used to test the
atness, squareness, paraesm, straghtness,
anguar measurements, etc.
Types of beve protractors:
As per IS practce, there are two beve protractors,
namey;
1) Mechanca Beve protractor
a) wth verner and acute ange attachment
b) wthout verner and acute ange attachment
2) Optca Beve protractor