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LECTURE 2:

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS FOR GROWTH AND DISTRIBUTION OF LIVING
ORGANISMS

There are a wide range of factors known to affect the growth, development and
distribution of plants. These can all be broadly categorized or placed under four artificial
groupings atmospheric, edaphic, topographic and biotic factors. The special role
played by man in influencing plant growth and distribution, though falls under biotic
factors, is often isolated and studied under the heading anthropogenic factors. It should
be noted that, in nature, these factors do not operate independently but rather
synergistically, to influence the general character and distribution of vegetation. For
purposes of detailed study, however, these factors are isolated and discussed.

1: Atmospheric (Climatic) factors
The gaseous composition of the atmosphere is remarkably uniform and constant so that
while oxygen and carbon dioxide are essentials, their proportions do not vary significantly
enough to make marked differences in plants growth or distribution. On the other hand,
the actual or average physical state of the atmosphere the weather or climatic conditions
varies considerably in time and space. Since different species of plants vary in their
minimum requirements for, or in their tolerance of, particular climatic conditions, these
conditions play the major role in determining where a particular plant can or cannot exist.
The factors of greatest importance in this respect are those of light, temperature and
humidity (precipitation/moisture), all of which are essential and all of which vary in amount
or intensity from one part of the biosphere to another. All these factors, however, interact
with one another and operate in combination to produce those atmospheric conditions
which will either permit the presence of certain plants in or exclude them from a particular
habitat. The condition of any one of these factors will obviously have a direct effect on that
of the others; light intensity and duration will influence temperature conditions, the
temperature and humidity conditions of the atmosphere are interrelated, humidity
conditions affect light intensity, and so on. It should again be noted that these climatic
factors may be modified by the edaphic and biotic factors of any habitat. For this reason, it
is difficult, if not impossible and unrealistic, to try to isolate the independent effect of one
particular climatic factor on plant growth or function. It is done here for purposes of
elucidation.

a. Light:
Light is necessary for photosynthesis, the process which provides the primary energy for
all organisms. The importance of light to plant development is in respect of its quality,
intensity and duration.
Light quality: Solar spectrum is made up of white, infra-red and ultra-violet lights. It
is the visible white portion of solar radiation that is absorbed by chlorophyll in plants
for photosynthesis. Infra-red and ultra-violet lights are not utilised in photosynthesis,
and their effect on plant life is still obscure. In general, however, the quality of white
light is not so variable from one part of the biosphere to another as to be an
important ecological factor.

Light intensity: Of much greater importance is variation in light intensity. For most
plants, the rate of photosynthesis is proportional to light intensity.

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Light intensity varies from habitat to habitat. Even within a particular habitat, the
interception of light by plants growing there gives rise to local variations of light
intensity within a collection of plants or even within one individual.

For each plant species, there is a minimum and optimum light intensity essential for
growth. The minimum and optimum light intensity requirements vary from one
species to another. There are those which can only grow and attain full
development in low light intensity, others which require bright light. On basis of light
intensity requirements, plants can be divided into two broad categories the sun-
loving plants (called heliophytes) and shade-loving plants (called sciophytes). Most
trees, all cereal crops, many grasses and herbaceous weeds are heliophytic. Most
lower plants like the fungi are sciophytic.

Light duration: All plants life are subject to alternating periods of light and darkness.
For most plants, this is a factor of little significance. There are others, however, for
which a particular length of day (or night) - a photoperiod is an essential
requirement for initiation of flowering and seed formation. The response of plants to
duration of daylight is called photoperiodism. On basis of photoperiodism, plants fall
into three groupings - there are short-day plants, long-day plants and day-neutral.
Short-day plants (e.g. sugar-cane, some species of tobacco) are those that will not
flower until the day-length or photoperiod is less than a critical threshold, usually
between 12 and 14 hours. Long-day species (e.g. lettuce, wheat, potato) are those
that will not blossom until a critical threshold is exceeded, often between 12 and 14
hours daylight. Day-neutral plants are those that do not have any particular
requirements for day-length to initiate flowering (e.g. tomato).

b. Water (Precipitation/Moisture):
Water is essential for plant growth and development in many respects. The cells of most
organisms, especially plants, are composed of very high percentage of water (70% or
more). Water constitutes the medium by which mineral nutrients enter and are
translocated through plants. It is also necessary for maintenance of leaf turgidity, without
which photosynthesis cannot operate efficiently.

Most land plants obtain water by way of the root systems from the soil. Of the water taken
up by a plant, only a minute fraction is actually used for its metabolic activities. About 90%
is lost through transpiration into the atmosphere.

The tolerance limits of plants to soil water vary and reflect in the kind of plants that can
occupy a given habitat. Some plants grow permanently in freshwater environments (called
hydrophytes), others in saline environments, such as salt mashes (called halophytes),
others adapted to arid conditions (called xerophytes). Those plants that are tolerant to
moderate conditions between environmental extremes are called mesophytes. Most land
plants are mesophytic.

Water in the soil on which land plants draw is replenished by condensation and
precipitation from the atmosphere. The pattern of distribution of precipitation is one strong
factor determining vegetation distribution, especially in the tropics.

c. Temperature:
Temperature acts as an environmental factor both directly and indirectly. It has a direct
effect on nearly every plant function by controlling plant metabolism. Within limits, the
speed of chemical reactions doubles with every 10C rise in temperature and this is
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applicable also to plant metabolic activities. It acts indirectly by influencing water supply to
plants. Temperature determines the rate of evaporation and hence not only the
effectiveness of rainfall but also the rate of evapo-transpiration.

Most life in the biosphere functions within a temperature range of between 0C and 50C.
Within this range, individual species have minimum, maximum and optimum temperature
requirements for their metabolic activities. These are called cardinal temperatures. The
minimum (the threshold or base) temperature is that below which a function cannot
operate. The ranges of tolerance to temperature in plants vary greatly. For example,
tropical crops such as melons, sorghum and date palms cannot tolerate temperatures
below 15C-18C for growth, whereas temperate cereals cannot tolerate temperatures
below 2C-5C. In contrast, evergreen conifers can tolerate temperatures as low as
3C.

d. Wind:
Wind, though not essential for plant growth, is another climatic factor that can exert
considerable influence on the form (general appearance) of a plant. The effects could be
direct or indirect.
Directly, strong winds may cause:
1. mechanical damage to whole plants or their parts.
2. windthrow in trees that are insecurely rooted. This is common during tropical
hurricanes.
3. mal-formation of plant structure. This is seen most often in exposed places like
cliffs, mountain ridges and open plains.
Indirectly, increased wind speed
1. enhances evapo-transpiration in plants and therefore affects the amount of water
available for plant metabolism; thus retarding the vertical growth of plants.
2. causes asymmetrical growth in structure of plants growing along slopes, producing
wind-shear. This is because transpiration rate is higher at the windward side of the
plant than the leeward side. Growth is therefore faster at the leeward side than at
the windward side of the plant.

2: Edaphic factors
Those soil properties which affect plant growth and distribution are referred to as edaphic
factors. Plants require four basic provisions from the soil on which they grow. These are:
a. Anchorage for roots to withstand wind rock;
b. Supply of water. This occurs mainly through their root systems. The soil
must provide adequate but not excessive amounts of water.
c. Supply of nutrients. Both organic and inorganic nutrients present in soils and
necessary for plants growth and development should be made available.
d. Supply of air: Soils must be aerated sufficiently to allow the respiration of
plant roots and decomposer organisms.

Variations in supply of these requirements to plants could lead to restrictions in functioning
and distribution of plants and therefore influence the structure of whole ecosystems. The
edaphic essentials for plant growth are dependent on both the physical and chemical
characteristics of soils.

The physical soil factors include texture (determined by the proportions of the different soil
fractions present), porosity (defined by the soil pore spaces) and structure. The soil
chemical properties of importance include pH, organic (humus) and inorganic nutrients
status of the soil.
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3: Topographic factors
The effects of topography on plants growth and development can be seen in two respects
the aspect (slope orientation) and steepness of slope (slope angle).

a. Aspect: This is important in determining the amount of solar energy received at the
surface. Slopes facing the sun will be warmer and can support more plants than those in
perpetual shade. On a local scale, there are marked differences in species distributions
between slopes of contrasting aspect. Generally, the warmer side of slopes support a
more diverse flora. On a large scale, variations in slope aspect modify the altitudinal
zonation of vegetation types, called catena.

b. Angle of slope:
The steepness of slope affects drainage and the stability of the surface. Generally, the
steeper slopes support plant communities that are more tolerant of dry conditions than
those of gentle gradients. Steep slopes are often associated with unstable soil deposits.
The frequent downslope movements of the surface soils through erosion, prevent the
development of closed communities; thus keeping the ecosystem at an early seral stage.


4: Biotic factors
The environment of any plant is partly physical and partly biological. The biological or
biotic factors which influence plant growth and distribution are those which result directly
or indirectly from the actions of the living organisms.

For a particular type of plant to exist in an area, the physical environment of soil and
climate must at least satisfy its minimum requirements for growth and reproduction. But
whether or not it will be able to occupy a potentially favourable physical habitat will depend
on the effect of other plants and animals which also live in that habitat. The actual
presence, abundance and vigour of a species in a given area depend on its ability to
obtain its essential requirements and maintain itself successfully in company with other
organisms.

Between all the plants and animals that occupy a particular habitat, there exists a
complexly interwoven web of mutual interdependence and interactions. Some of these
interactions are beneficial to or even essential for the existence of others; others are
detrimental and may inhibit the co-existence of others. Also, some interactions may have a
direct effect as a result of the actual physical contact between organisms; others may be
indirect because they operate by changing the physical environment, to which all
organisms must adapt. Some of these biotic activities and interaction shaping plants
growth and distribution and coming from plants themselves include competition,
parasitism, mutualism and epiphytism. Animal interactions with plants that determine the
level of development and distribution of the latter are direct (involves coming in physical
contact with the plants) and include grazing, cross-pollination, fruit and seed dispersal.
Some of these interactions are necessary for, others antagonistic to, the successful
growth of plants.

Competition: By far, this is the most common biotic interaction that influences plant
growth and distribution in a given habitat. Plants growing in the company of others
compete for space, light, water, and nutrients. Those more aggressive and successful in
obtaining adequately their essential needs increase in vigour, multiply through
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reproduction and are dispersed widely. On the other hand those that are weak competitors
are ultimately eliminated from the community.

Parasitism: Some plant parasites use others as host species and exploit them partly or
solely for their nutrition. They more than not kill their host and therefore eliminate them
from the habitat. Some of such plant parasites are the yellow dodder, Striga and the
mistltoe.

Mutualism: To the benefit of both partners, some organisms live together with shared
responsibilities one cannot survive without the other. A common example is the
nitrogen-fixing bacteria which exist in the nodules of leguminous plants. Another is the
close association formed between fungi and roots of some plants, forming what is called
mycorrhiza.

Epiphytism: Some plants rely on other larger plants for support, though not for food.
Examples are the climbers, orchids. This is often to increase their chances of getting light.

Biotic factors also include grazing, cross-pollination, fruit and seed dispersal by animals.
Of these, grazing is the most conspicuous plant-animal direct and antagonistic interaction.
The other two are both beneficial to plants in terms of distribution. Grazing may at times
become intensive that it injures or prevents the successful growth and reproduction of
some plants, especially the most palatable.

5: Anthropogenic factors
The dominant and probably the most powerful and influential agents affecting plant growth
and distribution in the environment is man. Mans action is both indirect and direct.
Indirectly, he has modified the physical environment in such a way as to encourage or
discourage the presence of certain plants in particular areas. He again has accidentally or
deliberately introduced plants to areas where formerly they did not exist. By clearing and
cultivation, he has given preference and protection to some plants at the expense of
others. Aside cultivation, grazing and burning by man has reduced in number, the plants
that used to grow wildly in most habitats.