Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION TO BOILERS
A boiler is an enclosed vessel that provides a means for combustion heat to be transferred into
water until it becomes heated water or a gas (steam). The steam
or hot water under pressure is then usable for transferring the heat
to a process. Water is a useful and cheap medium for transferring
heat to a process. When water is boiled into steam its volume
increases about 1,600 times, producing a force that is almost as
eplosive as gunpowder. This causes the boiler to be an
etremel! dangerous item that must be treated with utmost
respect.
"oilers were used in crude fashions for several centuries but
development was slow because construction techni#ues were
crude and the operation was etremel! dangerous. "ut b! the
industrial revolution of the mid 1$00 %s boilers had become the
main source of energ! to power industrial operations and
transportation. The use of water as a heat transfer medium has
man! advantages. Water is relativel! cheap, it can be easil!
controlled, the gas in invisible, odorless, and etremel! high purit!.
The process of heating a li#uid until it reaches it&s gaseous state is called evaporation. 'eat is
transferred from one bod! to another b! means of (1) radiation, which is the transfer of heat
from a hot bod! to a cold bod! through a conve!ing medium without ph!sical contact, (()
convection, the transfer of heat b! a conve!ing medium, such as air or water and ())
conduction, transfer of heat b! actual ph!sical contact, molecule to molecule. The heating
surace is an! part of the boiler metal that has hot gases of combustion on one side and water
on the other. An! part of the boiler metal that actuall! contributes to ma*ing steam is heating
surface. The amount of heating surface a boiler has is epressed in s#uare feet. The larger the
amount of heating surface a boiler has the more efficient it becomes. The measurement of the
steam produced is generall! in pounds of water evaporated to steam per hour.
+allons of water evaporated ! $.) pounds,gallon water " -ounds of steam
.n firetube boilers the term boiler horsepower is often used. A boiler horsepo#er is )/.0
pounds of steam. This term was coined b! 1ames Watt a 2cottish inventor. The measurement
of heat is in "ritish Thermal 3nits ("tu%s). A Btu is the amount of heat re#uired to raise the
temperature of one pound of water one degree 4ahrenheit. When water is at )(
o
4 it is
assumed that its heat value is 5ero.
Sensible $eat
The heat re#uired to change the temperature of a substance is
called its sensible heat. .n the teapot illustration to the left the
60
o
4 water contains )$ "tu%s and b! adding 1/( "tu%s the water
is brought to boiling point.
.n the illustration to the left, to
change the li#uid (water) to its
gaseous state (steam) an
additional 760 "tu%s would be
re#uired. This #uantit! of heat
re#uired to change a chemical
from the li#uid to the gaseous
state is called latent heat.
The saturation te%perature or boiling point is a function of
pressure and rises when pressure increases. When water
under pressure is heated its saturation temperature rises
above (1(
o
4. This occurs in the boiler. .n the eample below
the boiler is operating at a pressure of 100 psig which gives a
steam temperature of ))$
o
4 or 11$0 "tu%s.
When heat is added to saturated steam out of contact
with li#uid, its temperature is said to be superheated. The
Latent $eat
temperature of superheated steam, epressed as degrees above saturation, is referred to as
the degrees of superheat.
B OI LE R T& 'E S(
There are virtuall! infinite numbers of boiler designs but generall!
the! fit into one of two categories8 (1) )iretube or as an eas! wa!
to remember 9fire in tube9 boilers, contain long steel tubes through
which the hot gasses from a furnace pass and around which the
water to be changed to steam circulates, and (() *atertube or
9water in tube9 boilers in which the conditions are reversed with the
water passing through the tubes and the furnace for the hot gasses
is made up of the water tubes. .n a firetube boiler the heat (gasses)
from the combustion of the fuel passes through tubes and is
transferred to the water which is in a large c!lindrical storage
area. :ommon t!pes of firetube boilers are scotch marine, firebo,
';T or hori5ontal return tube. 4iretube boilers t!picall! have a
lower initial cost, are more fuel efficient and easier to operate but
)iretube Scotch +arine
Boiler
the! are limited generall! to capacities of 00,000pph and pressures of (00 psig. The more
common t!pes of watertube boilers are 9<9 t!pe, 9A9 t!pe, 9=9 t!pe, bent tube, and cast>iron
sectional. All firetube boilers and most watertube boilers are pac,aged boilers in that the! can
be transported b! truc*, rail or barge. ?arge watertube boilers used in industries with large
steam demands and in utilities must be completel! assembled and constructed in the field and
are called ield erected boilers.
*atertube Boiler D-T.pe
*atertube Boiler /0 T.pe/
*atertube Boiler /O
T.pe/
+iura *atertube
Boiler
)ield Erected Boiler *ith Superheater B. B1$ES at Tho%aston2 30
@ertical tubeless boilers are used for small loads but reall! do not fit into either categor! as
the! do not have tubes.
"oilers and pressure vessels are built under re#uirements of the American 2ociet! of
Aechanical Bngineers or 0S+E referred to as the 90S+E Code.9 $igh pressure boilers are
fired vessels for an operation greater than 10 psig and 160
o
4 and are built in accordance with
2ection . of the A2AB :ode with the A2AB 2 stamp. @essels with design pressures below 10
psig steam and 1$0
o
4 hot water are low pressure and are built to :ode 2ection .@. All unfired
vessels are built in accordance with :ode 2ection @..., <ivision . and with the A2AB 3 stamp
attached. ;epairs to all boilers and pressure vessels are governed b! the state boiler
Curisdictions which for the 32 and :anada have universall! adopted the Dational "oard of "oiler
E -ressure @essel .nspectors (National Board Code) and affied with the national board ;
stamp.
S TE 0 + B OI L E R S & S T E + S (
The eed#ater s.ste% provides water to the boiler and regulates it automaticall! to meet
the
demand for steam. @alves provide access for maintenance and repair. The stea% s.ste%
collects and controls the steam produced in the boiler. 2team is directed through piping to the
point of use. Throughout the s!stem steam pressure is regulated using valves and chec*ed with
steam pressure gauges. The steam and feedwater s!stems share some components. The
uel s.ste% includes all e#uipment used to provide fuel to generate the necessar! heat. The
e#uipment re#uired in the fuel s!stem depends on the t!pe of fuel used in the s!stem. All fuels
are combustible and dangerous if necessar! safet! standards are not followed. 4uels
commonl! used are nuclear fusion, electricit!, the wastes of certain processes and fossil fuels.
The approimate heat value of certain fossil fuels8
Datural +as 1,000 "tu,:ubic foot
F( =il 1/(,000btu,gallon
F/ oil 1/$,000btu,gallon
F0 oil 1/7,000btu,gallon
F6 oil 10(,000btu,gallon
:oal 1(,000btu,ton
Wood (<r!) $,000btu,ton
Wood (Wet) /,000btu,ton
.n a fuel oil fired boiler plant, fuel oil leaves the tan* through a suction line and duple strainer
traveling then to the fuel oil pump. The fuel oil is then forced through the pump and then
through the discharge line. 4rom the discharge line some fuel oil is burned and some returned
to the tan* through a regulating valve.
.n a natural gas fired plant gas is supplied at a set pressure which varies depending on the gas
source. +as s!stems are low pressure or high pressure. .n a low pressure gas s!stem cit! gas
pressure is reduced from pounds to inches of pressure b! passing through a gas
regulator. Through the regulator gas is drawn into the burner and mied with air supplied b! a
blower. This miture is directed to the burner where it is ignited with the pilot light. .n a high gas
pressure s!stem, gas passes through the regulator and gas is reduced to the proper pressure
for the burner. 2ome boilers have combination burners which can burn gas or fuel oil or a
combination of both gas and fuel oil.
:oal fired boilers use mechanical feeders or sto*ers to feed fuel to the burner at a consistent
rate. 4or eample, in a chain grate sto*er coal is fed through the hopper and regulated before
passing under the ignition arch. The coal continues on a conve!or which carries the ignited
coal slowl! under the heating surface. Ash, slag and unburned parts or clin*ers are discharged
at the other side of the conve!or.
The drat s.ste% regulates the flow of air to and from the burner. 4or fuel to burn efficientl! the
right amount of o!gen must be provided. Air must also be provided to direct the flow of air
through the furnace to direct the gases of combustion out of the furnace to the breaching. A
orced drat s!stem uses a fan to force (or push) air through the furnace. An induced drat
s!stem uses a fan to draw (or pull) air through the furnace. A combination or balanced drat
s!stem uses forced and induced draft fans. +ases of combustion enter the stac* from the
breaching and are released to the atmosphere.
C O+ B U S T IO N(
.s the method of combining the fuel and air s!stems in a source of heat at sufficient temperature
to produce steam. Co%bustion ma! be defined as the rapid chemical combination of o!gen
with the combustible elements of a fuel. =nl! three combustible, chemical elements are of an!
significance8 carbon, h!drogen and sulfur. The boiler co%bustion urnace in which the fuel
burns provides a chamber in which the combustion reaction can be isolated and confined so that
it can be controlled. .n a scotch marine boiler it is referred to as a Aorrison tube or in other
boilers the firebo area. The convection suraces are the areas to which the heat travels that
is not transferred in the combustion furnace. 'ere additional heat is removed. The burner is
the principal device for the firing of oil and,or gas. "urners are normall! located in the vertical
walls of the furnace. "urners along with the furnaces in which the! are installed, are designed to
burn the fuel properl!.
S TE 0 + T O * 0 T ER C & C L E(
.n a steam heating s!stem steam leaves the main steam line and enters the main steam
header. 4rom the main header piping directs the steam to branch lines. "ranch lines feed
steam through a riser to the steam heating e#uipment. At the heating e#uipment heat is
transferred to the building space. As the steam releases heat to the building space and is cools
it turns bac* to water or condensate. The condensate is separated from the steam b! a steam
trap. The stea% trap allows condensate to pass but not the steam. The condensate passes
through the condensate return line and is collected and directed bac* to the boiler to repeat the
steam to water process.
;eferring bac* to the teapot eample, after repeated use it began to ac#uire a 9buildup9 of solids
from the water. The same separation of solids in the water occurs in the boiler but since it is
operating continuousl! and at higher temperatures this 9buildup9 can occur ver! rapidl!. When
this occurs the heat transfer can not be achieved as readil! which re#uires more fuel to produce
the steam. .f continued unchec*ed damage to the metals in the boiler shell and tubes will result.
-retreatment e#uipment such as softeners, de>minerali5es, etc. are used to remove as much of
the dissolved solids as possible before the! get to the boiler. To remove the solids that continue
to the boiler chemicals are added to react with the solids creating a sludge. This sludge is then
periodicall! removed b! opening valves from the bottom of the boiler and relieving it to the
drain. This process is called blo#do#n4
Waterside problems can also shorten boiler life from corrosion brought on b! the o!gen
content in the feedwater. -retreatment for the removal of o!gen is performed in a deaerator
but here again the removal is not complete and chemical additions are made to aid in improving
the o!gen removal process.
The water supplied to the boiler that is converted into steam is called eed#ater. The two
sources of feedwater are8 (1) Condensate4 or condensed steam returned from the processes
and (() +a,eup #ater (usuall! cit! water) which must come from outside the boiler room and
plant processes. 4or higher boiler efficiencies the feedwater can be heated, usuall! b!
economi5ers.
Chapter 5
+06EU' *0TER
0 4 * 0 TE R S O ) T E NE R S(
Water as it passes over the ground, through caves and springs pic*s up some of the elements
from the limestone and other elements of nature which dissolved and remain. These elements
collectivel! are called hardness. +randma&s tea *ettle, used as an eample in :hapter =ne,
alwa!s seemed to have a 9build up9 in the bottom which she removed periodicall! usuall! with
vinegar. This 9build up9 is called hardness. .n a heav! use industrial steam boiler the water is
could be completel! replaced as often as once each hour. =bviousl! at higher turnover,
temperatures and pressures than the tea *ettle the boiler would #uic*l! have scale from this
hardness that would reduce and ultimatel! prevent water circulation and heat transfer which will
destro! the boiler. The higher the operating pressure of the boiler the more critical the removal
of foreign items from the feedwater becomes. ?arge utilit! boilers operating at ),000 psig G ma!
actuall! use distilled water for ultimate purit!.
The purpose of a water softener is primaril! for the removal of hardness from the boiler ma*eup
water. +a,eup #ater is the water supplied from the municipal water s!stem, well water, or
other source for the addition of new water to the boiler s!stem necessar! to replace the water
evaporated. 2ome filtering of the water ma! occur in the water softener but that is not the
purpose of its design and too much of other pollutants in the water could actuall! foul the water
softener affecting its operation. $ardness is composed primaril! of calcium (:a) and
magnesium (Ag) but also to lesser amounts sodium (Da), potassium (-), and several other
metals. 'ardness is measured in grains with one grain of hardness in the water being 16.1
ppm of these elements. The purpose of using hardness as the unit of measure is that tests to
measure in parts per million (ppm) are much more difficult and epensive to use. 'ardness
varies from area to area. 3suall! near salt water the hardness is ver! low as the limestone is
virtuall! non eistent and in mountainous areas where limestone is ever!where hardness is
usuall! ver! high.
All softeners soften or remove the hardness from the water. The primar! minerals in the water
that ma*e 9hard9 water are :alcium (:aGG) and Aagnesium (AgGG). The! form a curd with
soap and scale in piping, water heaters and whatever the hard water contacts. 'ardness is
removed from the water b! a process *nown as positive ion e!change. This process could
also be *nown as 9ion substitution9, for substitution is what occurs. 2odium (DaG) ions, which
are 9soft9 are substituted or echanged for the :alcium and Aagnesium as the water passes
through the softener tan*.
The softening media is commonl! called resin or Heolite. The proper name for it is pol!st!rene
resin. The resin has the abilit! to attract positive charges to itself. The reason it does so is
because in its manufacture it inherits a negative charge. .t is a law of nature that opposite
charges attract, i.e., a negative will attract a positive and vice versa. A softener tan* contains
hundreds of thousands of Heolite beads. Bach bead is a negative in nature and can be charged
or regenerated with positive ions. .n a softener, the Heolite is charged with positive, 9soft9
sodium ions.
As 9hard9 water passes through the Heolite, the :alcium and Aagnesium ions are strongl!
attracted to the beads. As the 9hard9 ions attach to the Heolite bead, the! displace the 9soft9
2odium ions that are alread! attached to the bead. .n effect, the 2odium is 9echanged9 for the
:alcium and Aagnesium in the water suppl! with the :alcium and Aagnesium remaining on the
Heolite beads and the 2odium ions ta*ing their place in the water flowing through the softener
tan*. The result of this 9echange9 process is soft water flowing out of the tan*.
.t can now be readil! understood that a softener will continue to produce 9soft9 water onl! as
long as there are 2odium ions remaining on the Heolite beads to 9echange9 with the :alcium
and Aagnesium ions in the 9hard9 water. When the suppl! of 2odium ions has been depleted,
the Heolite beads must be 9regenerated9 with a new suppl! of 2odium ions. The regeneration of
the Heolite beads is accomplished b! a three step process.
S O ) T E N ER D ES I3N(
Water softeners come as single mineral tan* units (simple), double mineral tan* units (duple)
and multiple mineral tan* units. 2ince regeneration c!cles can ta*e approimatel! one hour
simple units are used onl! when this interruption can be tolerated. To avoid interruption duple
units are used so that the regeneration of one unit can be accomplished while the second unit is
on line. Triple or other multiple units usuall! are the result of need for increased capacit! and
units can be added to *eep soft water available. The reliabilit! of new electronic
metering,controls for regeneration have allowed users to depend on smaller units with more
fre#uent regeneration.
Simplex Softener Duplex Softener Triplex Softener
RE 3 EN E R 0 T IO N ' R OC E SS
B 0C 6 * 0S $(
The flow of water through the mineral bed is reversed. The mineral bed is loosened and
accumulated sediment is washed to the drain b! the upward flow of the water. An automatic
bac*wash flow controller maintains the proper flow rate to prevent the loss of resin.
BR IN E DR 0 * 0 N D S L O * R I N SE(
=rdinar! salt has the capabilit! to restore the echange capacit! of the mineral. A given amount
of salt>brine is rinsed slowl! through the mineral bed. After the salt>brine is drawn, the unit will
continue to rinse slowl! with water to remove all of the salt>brine from the media bed.
) 0 S T R IN S E(
A high down flow of water repac*s the mineral bed. An! trace of brine not removed in slow
rinse is flushed to the drain.
The unit is then returned to 2B;@.:B the brine ma*er is refilled with fresh water to form salt
brine for the net regeneration. The total regeneration time is approimatel! 60>70 minutes.
S O ) T E N ER S I 7 I N 3 ) O R + U L 0(
C " + 8 T 8 $ 9R
C I :apacit! of softener in cubic feet of resin
+ I Aa*eup water volume per hour in gallonsJ the volume needed to be softened ($.)/
pounds per gallon)
T I Time in hours desired between regeneration c!cles
$ I 'ardness of water in grains (16.1 ppm per grain hardness)
R I ;esin :apacit! per cubic foot (this is virtuall! alwa!s )0,000 grains)
Chapter :
BOILER )EED*0TER
0 4 D E 0E R 0 T ION(
All natural waters contain dissolved gases in solution. :ertain gases, such as carbon dioide
and o!gen, greatl! increase corrosivit!. When heated in boiler s!stems, :arbon dioide (:=
(
)
and o!gen (=
(
) are released as gases and combine with water ('
(
=) to form carbonic
acid, ('
(
:=
)
).
CO
5
; O
5
; $
5
O < $
5
CO
:
;emoval of o!gen, carbon dioide and other non>condensable gases from boiler feedwater is
vital to boiler e#uipment longevit! as well as safet! of operation. :arbonic acid corrodes metal
reducing the life of e#uipment and piping. .t also dissolves iron (4e) which when returned to the
boiler precipitates and causes scaling on the boiler and tubes. This scale not onl! contributes to
reducing the life of the e#uipment but also increases the amount of energ! needed to achieve
heat transfer. This is discussed in more detail in :hapter 0
The term given to the mechanical removal of dissolved gases is deaeration. Aechanical
deaeration for the removal of these dissolved gases is t!picall! utili5ed prior to the addition of
chemical o!gen scavengers. Aechanical deaeration is based on :harles& and 'enr!&s laws of
ph!sics. 2implified, these laws state that removal of o!gen and carbon dioide can be
accomplished b! heating the boiler feedwater which reduces the concentration of o!gen and
carbon dioide in the atmosphere surrounding the feedwater.
The easiest wa! to deaerate is to force steam into the feedwater, this action is called
scrubbing. 2crubbing raises the water temperature causing the release of =
(
and :=
(
gases that are then vented from the s!stem. .n boiler s!stems, steam is used to 9scrub9 the
feedwater as =1> steam is essentiall! devoid of =
(
and :=
(
, =5> steam is readil! available and
=:> steam adds the heat re#uired to complete the reaction. 4or efficient operation, deaerating
e#uipment must satisf! the following re#uirements8 =1> 'eating of the feedwater8 The
operating temperature in the unit should be the boiling point of water at the measured pressure.
The pressure,temperature relationship is important since boiling must ta*e place rapidl! for
#uic* and efficient removal of gases. .f this temperature and pressure cannot be economicall!
achieved then it is important to get as close to it as possible. =5> Agitation decreases the time
and heat energ! necessar! to remove dissolved gases from the water. =:> Aaimi5ation of
surface area b! finel! dispersing the water to epose maimum surface area to the steam.
This enables the water to be heated to saturation temperature #uic*er and reduces the
distance the gases have to travel to be liberated. =?> The liberated gases must be vented to
allow their escape from the s!stem as the! are released.
While the most efficient mechanical deaerators reduce o!gen to ver! low levels (.000cc,l or 0
ppb), even trace amounts of o!gen ma! cause corrosion damage to a s!stem. :onse#uentl!,
good operating practice re#uires removal of that trace o!gen with a chemical o!gen
scavenger such as sodium sulfite or h!dra5ine. 4ree carbon dioide can be removed b!
deaeration, but this process releases onl! small amounts of combined carbon dioide. The
maCorit! of the combined carbon dioide is removed with the steam of the boiler, subse#uentl!
dissolving in the
condensate, fre#uentl! causing corrosion problems. These problems can be controlled through
the use of volatile neutrali5ing amines or filming amines.
T& 'ES O ) + EC $ 0N I C 0 L D E 0E R 0 T O R S(
14 Tra. T.pe Deaerators are composed of a deaerating section and
a feedwater storage section. .ncoming water is spra!ed through a
perforated distribution pipe into a steam atmosphere where it is
atomi5ed. There it is heated to within a few degrees of the saturation
temperature of the steam. Aost of the non>condensable gases are
released to the steam as the water enters the unit. The water then
cascades through the tra! section, brea*ing into fine droplets, which
immediatel! contact incoming steam. The steam heats the water to
the saturation temperature of the steam and removes all but a trace
of o!gen. <eaerated water falls to the feedwater storage section
below and is protected from recontamination b! a blan*et of
steam. As the non>condensable gases are liberated, the! as well as
a small amount of steam are vented to atmosphere. .t is essential
that sufficient venting is provided at all times or deaeration will be
incomplete.
54 Spra. T.pe Deaerators wor* on the same general principle as the tra! t!pes. The spra!>
t!pe deaerators do not use tra!s for dispersion of the water. .n this case, spring loaded no55les
located in the top of the unit spra! water into a steam atmosphere which is heated to within a
few degrees of the saturation temperature of the steam. Aost of the non>condensable gases
are released to the steam, and the heated water falls to a water seal and drains to the lowest
section of the steam scrubber.
The water is scrubbed b! large #uantities of steam and heated to the saturation temperature
prevailing at this point. The intimate steam to water contact achieved in the scrubber efficientl!
strips the water of dissolved gases. As the steam>water miture rises in the scrubber, a slight
pressure loss causes the deaerated water temperature to remain a few degrees below the inlet
steam saturation temperature. The deaerated water overflows from the steam scrubber to the
storage section below.
The steam, after flowing through the scrubber, passes up into the spra! heater section to heat
the incoming water. Aost of the steam condenses in the spra! section to become part of the
deaerated water. A small portion of the steam, vented to atmosphere, removes non>
condensable gases from the s!stem.
:4 Spra.9Tra. T.pe Deaerators are a combination of the above with a steam spra!
no55le sending the water over the tra!s.
?4 )eed#ater Tan,s are another form of mechanical deaerators
normall! found in small firetube and watertube boiler s!stems due
to cost considerations. These less epensive s!stems are limited
b! design as the! are operated at atmospheric pressure with
feedwater temperatures ranging from 1$0
0
4 > (1(
0
4J
while
deaerators operate under pressure allowing for higher
temperatures and more efficient o!gen removal.
?i*e deaerators, feedwater tan*s operate b! forcing steam into the feedwater which scrubs
o!gen and carbon dioide gases that are then vented to atmosphere.
2team enters the bottom of the tan* agitating the feedwater as it rises to the top of the tan*, and
finall! is vented along with the liberated gases. The temperature is normall! controlled as high
as possible without causing pump problems which occurs when the Net 'ositive Suction
$ead (N'S$) is too low. 2team bubbles form and fill the pump cavit! causing vibration, a
condition *now as cavitation. This condition ma! cause serious damage to the feedwater pump
and Ceopardi5e steam production. The most practical potential solution for cavitation is
the installation of a slipstream, which allows a portion of the high pressure feedwater to
recirculate to the suction side of the pump where it lowers the temperature and eliminates the
boiling and cavitation. The slipstream will not alwa!s wor* leaving the choices of increasing the
D-2' b! increasing the distance between the tan* and the pump, or si5ing a new pump
properl!.
-racticall! spea*ing, most feedwater tan*s are controlled between 1$0
0
4 > (00
0
4 and rel!
more on the assistance of a chemical o!gen scavenger for complete o!gen removal.
-ressuri5ed
deaerators must have the A2AB 3 stamp attached and be built under the regulations of The
American 2ociet! of Aechanical Bngineers 2ection @..., <ivision ..
B 4 EC O N O+I 7 E R (
An econo%i@er removes additional "tu%s from the stac*
gasses b! circulating the deaerated boiler feedwater
through a series of bent tubes in the stac*. This translates
into a 9free9 source of energ! from the boiler
operation. 4inned tube economi5ers are less costl! and
more efficient as the 9fins9 are a source of heat transfer as
well as the tubes. Bconomi5ers in watertube boilers
t!picall! increase the efficienc! of the boiler />10K which is
usuall! less than a one !ear pa!bac*. <ue to the higher
efficiencies of firetube boilers the pa!bac* is usuall! longer
and therefore economi5ers are not used as fre#uentl! on them. An economi5er can also be
a
useful means of increasing the steam capacit! of a boiler.
The use of high sulfur oils, particularl! F6 oil, is ver! corrosive on the economi5er tubes. This
can be improved b! increasing the temperature of the feedwater to the economi5er and the use
of soot blowers but the life of an economi5er in that environment is limited to about (>) !ears. A
bare tube economi5er is easier to *eep free of the corrosive sulfur but re#uires more tubes to
achieve the same efficienc! as a finned tube economi5er. 2ince the economi5er is directl! part
of the boiler and has contact from the gases of combustion it must also be built under the
regulations of The American 2ociet! of Aechanical Bngineers :ode 2ection . and have the
A2AB 2 stamp attached.
Chapter ?
BOILER *0TER C$E+ISTR&
-roducing #ualit! steam on demand is the purpose of operating industrial boiler
s!stems. Achieving that goal depends on properl! managed water treatment to control steam
purit!, deposits and corrosion. A boiler is the sump of the boiler s!stem. .t ultimatel! receives
all of the pre>boiler contaminants. "oiler performance, efficienc!, and service life are direct
products of selecting and controlling the chemistr! used in the boiler.
Boiler Operation Costs
The boiler water must be sufficientl! free of deposit forming solids to allow rapid and efficient
heat transfer and it must not be corrosive to the boiler metal. <eposits and corrosion result in
efficienc! losses and ma! cause boiler tube failures and inabilit! to produce steam. The
predominant cost factor for producing steam is fuel costs, as shown below.
D E ' O S I T C O N T R O L(
<eposits in boilers ma! result from hardness contamination of feedwater, and corrosion
products from the condensate and feedwater s!stem. 'ardness contamination of the
feedwater ma! result from either deficient softener s!stems or raw water in
lea*age of the condensate. <eposits act as insulators and slow heat transfer. The
insulating effect of deposits cause the boiler metal temperature to rise and ma! lead to tube>
failure b! overheating. ?arge amounts of deposits throughout the boiler could reduce the heat
transfer enough to reduce the boiler efficienc!. The graph demonstrates that different t!pes of
deposits will effect boiler efficienc! differentl!. This is wh! it is important to have an anal!sis of
deposit characteristics.
When feedwater enters the boiler, the elevated temperatures and pressures cause the
components of water to ta*e on dramatic changes. Aost of the components in the feedwater are
solubleJ the! are dissolved in the water. 'owever, under heat and pressure most of the soluble
components come>out of solution as particulate solids, sometimes in cr!stalli5ed forms and
other times as amorphous particles. The coming>out of solution is referred to as
retrograde solubilit., and means that as temperature increases, abilit! to sta! in
solution decreases. When solubilit! of a specific component in water is eceeded, scale or
deposits develop.
.nternal chemical treatment for deposit control is achieved either b! adding a treatment to
prevent the contaminants from depositing or b! adding a treatment chemical that will allow for
eas! removal b! blowdown. 'ardness can be *ept from depositing in boiler water b! treatment
with chelating agents. When phosphate treatment is preferred over chelant treatment, the boiler
water is conditioned to form a fluid sludge which can be removed b! bottom
blowdown. 4ormation of this sludge re#uires that al*alinit! from caustic be present in the boiler
water. .f sufficient al*alinit! is not maintained in the boiler water, a stic*! precipitate will form
and reduce heat transfer.
Bven when the precipitates formed in the boiler water are in the form most desired, the! are
often difficult to remove completel! b! blowdown. This is especiall! true when the precipitates
also contain iron and copper corrosion products from the preboiler s!stem and organic
contaminants from condensate returns. 2ludge conditioners enhance the removal of
precipitates from industrial boilers. 2ludge conditioners are organic pol!mers which combine
with the precipitates to permit the particles to be dispersed. This ma*es removal b! blowdown
easier.
C O N AE N T ION 0 L ' $ O S '$ 0 T E T R E 0 T + EN T(
:onventional phosphate control involves maintaining a phosphate residual and a h!droide
al*alinit! residual in the boiler water. -hosphate residuals are t!picall! maintained in the range
of (0>/0 ppm -=
/
. '!droide al*alinit!, if controllable without ecess blowdown, are
maintained in the range of )00 >000 ppm ='. This treatment provides the ideal conditions for
formation of calcium and magnesium precipitates in the preferred states. .t also provides a
residual of al*alinit! to neutrali5e an! acid contamination, such as organic acids. .t ma!,
however, promote foaming, especiall! if organic contaminants enter the boiler.
C $ E L 0N T T R E 0 T + E N T(
A chelant is a compound which is capable of 9grabbing onto9 calcium, magnesium and
iron. :helant treatment of boiler water is attractive because the chelates of calcium and
magnesium are soluble.
The undesirable scales of calcium carbonate and calcium sulfate are successfull! eliminated b!
chelant treatment.
While the chelates of the hardness and iron contaminants are soluble, some chemistr!
precautions need to be mentioned. -hosphate will compete with the chelant for calcium, and if
present in significant amounts, will result in undesirable calcium>phosphate deposits.
-hosphate can enter the boiler water where cit! water ma*eup supplies phosphate.
"oth h!droide al*alinit! and silica compete with the chelant for magnesium. <epending on the
concentration of all the boiler water chemistr!, magnesium silicate deposits ma! result.
:helants should be fed to the feedwater downstream of an! copper allo!s, after the deaerator
and before the boiler drum. The preferred feed location is down>stream of the boiler feedwater
pump. A stainless steel inCection #uill is re#uired.
4eed to the deaerator storage is not recommended since copper allo!s in the boiler feed pump
ma! be attac*ed. -roper feed of chelant will result in a chelant residual in the boiler water. The
photo below shows the preferred feed locations for chelant feed and other re#uirements for
ade#uate assurance of chelant control.
InBection Cuill
1. 4eed chelant products continuousl! to
boiler feedwater line, preferabl! after the
economi5er.
(. 3se a )0/ 22 inCection #uill.
). 3se a )16 22 chemical feed line. (.f not
possible, ensure that )16 22 is used at
least three feet prior to the inCection #uill).
/. 4eed chelant onl! downstream from
copper or copper allo!s.
0. 4eed catal!5ed sulfite or a suitable
o!gen scavenger to the storage section
of the deaerating heater.
6. Assure that the feedwater mies with
boiler water before entering downcomer
tubes.
6. Aaintain feedwater p' L$.0
A chelant residual in the boiler water, however, is not in itself proof of ade#uate feed control. A
chelant residual should be maintained in the feedwater at all times. :helant treatment is not a
solution for highl! variable and ecessive concentrations of hardness in the ma*eup and
condensate returns.
Chapter D
CONDENS0TE RETURN S&STE+
When steam has performed its wor* in manufacturing processes, turbines, building heat, etc. it
transfers heat and reverts bac* to a li#uid phase called steam condensate. 'owever, not all the
energ! used in producing steam is lost when condensate is formed. As most condensate return
is still relativel! hot (1)0
=
4 to ((0
=
4) , it is ver! valuable as a source of feedwater. There is a
significant fuel savings related to the heat re#uired to raise the temperature of ma*eup water at
(00
=
4 to 60
=
4) to e#ual that of the return condensate, not to mention the additional cost in
pretreating (softening) the ma*eup, as well as basic water cost itself.
When pure water '
(
= is used to produce steam, then its condensate is also pure '
(
=
however, as we have learned the water we use to produce steam is not pure containing man!
dissolved minerals and gases. The heat and pressure of the boiler brea* down the al*alinit! in
the boiler water to form carbon dioide gas :=
(
. ?eaving the boiler with the steam it travels
throughout the plant suppl! s!stem. When the steam condenses, the carbon dioide dissolves
in it to form carbonic acid. This reaction is chemicall! epressed as8
$
5
O ; CO
5
" $
5
CO
:
This acid depresses the condensates p' and causes corrosion to ta*e place. This corrosion
appears as grooving or gouging in the bottom of steam headers or condensate return
lines. Aost often it wea*ens pipe walls at threaded Coints and the resultant metal loss can lead
to large amounts of copper and,or iron being returned to the boiler to cause troublesome
deposits. =!gen, as in the boiler s!stem, can cause locali5ed attac* in the form of pitting when
present in the condensate s!stem. This t!pe of corrosion can generall! cause e#uipment to fail
more #uic*l! than the generali5ed corrosion caused b! carbonic acid attac* due to it
concentrating in a small area. =!gen can infiltrate the s!stem from open condensate receivers,
poor deaeration or lea*! siphons.
There are three main chemical programs to control corrosion in the condensate s!stem, being
neutrali5ing amines, filming amines and contamination neutrali5ing and filming amines.
NEUTR0LI7IN3 0+INES are high p' materials which neutrali5e the carbonic acid formed in
condensate s!stems. "! raising and controlling p' level in condensate from 6.0 to 7.0,
neutrali5ing amines retard acid attac* and greatl! reduce the amount of corrosion products
entering the boiler.
The three primar! neutrali5ing amines in use toda!
are8
1. Aorpholine > a low distribution ratio product.
2. <ieth!leminoethanal (<BAB) > a medium distribution ratio product.
3. :!clohe!lamine > a high distribution ratio product.
The distribution ratio is used to predict the amine concentration in the steam and condensate
phases and impacts significantl! regarding proper amine selection.
<istribution ;atio I Amine in 2team -hase , Amine in :ondensate -hase
Deutrali5ing amines have low flashpoints and therefore can be fed directl! to the feedwater or
boiler water, or the! can be fed directl! into the steam header. The feed rate is based on the
amount of al*alinit! present in the feedwater. Deutrali5ing amines offer ecellent protection
against carbonic acid attac*, but little protection against o!gen attac*.
)IL+IN3 0+INES are various chemicals that la! down a var! thin protective barrier on the
condensate piping protecting it against both o!gen and carbonic acid attac*. The protective film
barrier is not unli*e the protection afforded an automobile b! an application of car wa.
The protective film barrier is continuousl! being removed (a little at a time), re#uiring continuous
feeding of the filming amine based on steam flow rather than feedwater al*alinit!. :are must be
ta*en to start this program slowl! with an initial feedrate of one fifth that of the final feedrate to
prevent the removal of old corrosion products from the s!stem and their subse#uent return to
the boiler. Additionall!, the filming amine should be fed using an inCection #uill to the steam
header to insure proper vapori5ation and distribution throughout the steam s!stem.
The formation of gun* balls (+un*ing) can occur due to overfeed, contaminants in the
condensate or wide p' swings causing deposits to form in low flow areas li*e steam traps.
CO+BIN0TION NEUTR0LI7IN3 0ND )IL+IN3 0+INES are the combination of neutrali5ing
and filming amines and are a successful alternative to protect against both carbonic acid attac*
and o!gen attac*. As its name implies, it combines the elevated p' approach to neutrali5e
carbonic acid in conCunction with the protective barrier film approach. are the combination of
neutrali5ing and filming amines and are a successful alternative to protect against both carbonic
acid attac* and o!gen attac*. As its name implies, it combines the elevated p' approach to
neutrali5e carbonic acid in conCunction with the protective barrier film approach. The
neutrali5ing amines, although the! will elevate p', main purpose is to provide better distribution
of the filming amine throughout the condensate s!stem which in turn helps to prevent gun*ing.
As with filming amines the! should be fed directl! to the steam header utili5ing an inCection #uill.
SU++0R&4 :learl! each program or approach has certain features and benefits as well as
limitations. Bach different set of operating conditions will tend to dictate the appropriate
treatment that is re#uired. The epected steam pressure, temperature, s!stem metallurg! and
the plants s!stems p' level all pla! an important role in determining the most effective treatment
program. :learl! each program or approach has certain features and benefits as well as
limitations. Bach different set of operating conditions will tend to dictate the appropriate
treatment that is re#uired. The epected steam pressure, temperature, s!stem metallurg! and
the plant s!stems p' level all pla! an important role in determining the most effective treatment
program.
Chapter E
CO+BUSTION 1 CONTROLS
Co%bustion is the rapid chemical combination of o!gen (=
(
) with the combustible elements
of a fuel that results in the release of heat. Air is the source of o!gen for boilers. 4ossil fuels
such as natural gas, oil and coal, biomass and electricit! are primar! t!pes of boiler fuel. The
primar! elements in the fuel, significant to combustion, are carbon (:), h!drogen ('), nitrogen
(D) and sulfur (2)J these are called h.drocarbons.
1F 0ir =O
5
> ; 1 3as " CO
5
; 5$
5
O ; GN5 ; $eat
The obCective of good combustion is to release all of the heat in the fuel. This is accomplished
b! controlling the 9three THs9 of combustion which are (1) te%perature high enough to ignite
and maintain ignition of the fuel, (() turbulence or miing of the fuel and o!gen, and ()) ti%e
sufficient for complete combustion. Dot all of the "tu&s in the fuel are converted to heat and
absorbed b! the steam generation e#uipment. 3suall! all of the h!drogen in the fuel is burned
and most boiler fuels, allowable with toda!&s air pollution standards, contain little or no sulfur. 2o
the main challenge in combustion efficienc! is directed toward unburned carbon (in the ash or
incompletel! burned gas) which forms := instead of :=
(.
The burner is the principal device for the firing of the fuel. "urners are normall! located in the
vertical walls of the furnace. "urners, along with the furnaces in which the! are installed, are
designed to burn the fuel properl! b! ma*ing the proper combination of the 9three
T&s.9 :ombustion controls assist the burner in regulation of fuel suppl!, air suppl!, ( uel to air
ratio), and removal of gases of combustion to achieve optimum boiler efficienc!. The amount of
fuel supplied to the burner must be in proportion to the steam pressure and the #uantit! of steam
re#uired. The combustion controls are also necessar! as safet! devices insuring the boiler not
onl! operates but operates safel!.
A drop in steam pressure necessitates an increase in the fuel supplied to the
burner. :onversel!, an increase in steam pressure necessitates a decrease in the fuel
supplied. An! change in the amount of fuel supplied re#uires a corresponding change in the air
for combustion supplied to the burner.
To maintain high combustion efficienc!, the air to fuel ratio must be balanced from the lowest
firing rate to the highest firing rate. .f there is an imbalance in the air to fuel ratio, smo*ing,
flame failure, wasted fuel and in etreme cases an eplosion could result.
:ombustion controls also regulate the removal of gases of combustion b! maintaining a
consistent furnace pressure throughout different firing rates. "! maintaining a consistent firing
rate, combustion controls improve regulation of feedwater and superheat temperature. A
consistent firing rate reduces fluctuation of the boiler water level and increases the life of the
boiler drum and tubes.
The progra%%er is the mastermind that controls the starting se#uence and
firing c!cle of a burner. The programmer controls the operation se#uence of the
blower, burner motor, ignition s!stem, fuel valve, and all other components of the
=D,=44 control s!stem. The programmer also provides a suitable purge period
before ignition and after burner shutdown when eplosive combustibles are
removed. The programmer is designed to deenergi5e all fuel valves within / seconds after loss
of the flame signal. .n addition, the programmer automaticall! restarts a new c!cle each time
the pressure control closes or after a power failure, but loc*s out and must be reset manuall!
after an! flame failure. A burner must alwa!s start in low fire and shut down in low fire which
prevents wasting fuel and reduces the possibilit! of a flarebac* when ecess fuel accumulates
in the furnace.
The pressure control (pictured right) regulates the operating range of the boiler b! modulating
the burner on boiler steam pressure demand. The pressure control is
installed using a siphon to protect the bellows
from the high temperature of steam. The
pressure control sends signals to the
modulating motors. +odulating %otors
(pictured left) use conventional mechanical
lin*age or electric valves to regulate the
primar! air, secondar! air, and fuel supplied to
the burner. The modulating pressure control
is installed using a siphon to protect the
bellows from the high temperature of steam.
The boiler #ater level control is a safet! feature which
will shut the boiler off if the water level drops to an unacceptable level. "oilers
have two water level controllers as a safet! feature in case one fails. The two
level controllers are also set at different levels with the controller at the higher
level sounding an alarm and the controller at the lower level actuall! shutting
down the boiler. The boiler governing codes re#uire the reset of the boiler to be
done manuall! b! an operator for safet! and not automaticall!. "oiler level
controls ma! be a float t!pe as pictured at right or a probe t!pe which operates
b! testing for conductivit! to determine if the water level is ade#uate.
The Control iring seIuence occurs at cold startup or when the steam pressure drops, the
pressure control completes an electric circuit, which starts a timer motor cam turning in the
programmer. The first contact on the timer motor cam closes and starts the burner motor that
rotates the primar! air fan. The primar! air fan blows air into the furnace to purge an! unburned
fuel present in a gaseous condition. This process in called prepurging the furnace. "!
prepurging the furnace before pilot ignition, the danger of a furnace eplosion is
reduced. <epending upon the si5e of the furnace the purge c!cle ta*es approimatel! )0
seconds but ma! ta*e as long as 60 seconds. The programmer is still operating and when the
second contact closes, the circuit of the ignition transformer is completed. This causes a spar*
in front of the gas pilot tube. At the same time, a solenoid valve is opened in the gas pilot line,
allowing gas to flow through the gas pilot tube and be ignited b! the spar*. The scanner is
located on the front of the boiler and is used to sight the pilot. 2ighting the pilot through the
scanner will verif! that the pilot is lit. This process is referred to as proving pilot4 The net
step is to close the contact which completes the circuit to the main fuel valve, which opens onl!
after the scanner has proved pilot. With the main fuel valve open the fuel enters the furnace and
is ignited b! the pilot. The scanner is then used to prove the main flame. The programmer
continues to operate for a few more seconds, securing circuits to the ignition transformer and the
gas pilot. After the circuits are secured, the programmer stops. The burner is now regulated b!
the pressure control and the modulating pressure control. .f the scanner senses a flame failure,
the s!stem is purged and secured. The programmer is then manuall! reset to the start c!cle.
Chapter EB
MONTHLY BOILER MECHANICAL SAFETY
CHECKS
The monthl! safet! chec* on combustion and mechanics is Cust as important an important a
part of the overall boiler program as the water treatment service. "oiler users have long seen
the value of proper water treatment as vital to the success of an effective boiler maintenance
program. 4or a long time the mechanical needs of boilers have onl! been addressed when there
was a problem or when a shutdown occurred.
The seven advantages of this preventative maintenance program8 =1> reducing uel cost b.
i%proving eicienc.2 =5> o%itting the increasing capital costs o %aBor boiler repairs or
replace%ent2 =:> reduced do#nti%e due to une!pected brea,do#ns2 =?> i%proved saet.2
=D> operator training 2 =E> third part. audit2 and =J> insurance assurance .
=1> Reducing uel costs was not important for man! !ears. .t was not a significant part of
overall manufacturing, operating costs. 'owever, the Arab oil embargo in the 1760&s forever
changed that view. 2ome industries found that energ! was their second highest cost falling
close to their number one cost of labor. At present we have an increase in competition resulting
from the deregulation of natural gas. "usinesses are ver! conscious about energ!
efficienc!. Bnerg! efficienc! is vital in an industr! to remain competitive. And the long range
planning of the American industr! is to preserve energ! supplies for the future.
A boiler with a (0,000--' load and seven da! wee* operation will use M1,000,000 of natural
gas per !ear. At toda!&s price of M0.00 per mcf of natural gas fuel savings alone
will pa! for the monthl! maintenance service. With onl! a 1K improvement
in
efficienc! the annual savings add up to M10.000. 2everal boiler companies are
selling visual inspections as a low cost alternative but visual inspections alone
accomplish little or nothing and have no cost benefit. A combustion anal!5er
with stac* probe and printout is recommended. To obtain a computer
analysis of your boiler fuel efficiency and operating data contact your
B&HES technical representative.
=5> Capital costs associated with the purchase of new boilers have risen dramaticall! in the
past decade. "ut this has been for the good. 2afet! re#uirements of :2<1 (:ontrol 2afet!
<evice) and D4-A (Dational 4ire -rotection Agenc!) have now been adopted b! virtuall! all the
states and will contribute greatl! to the safet! of boilers in the future. :ontrol s!stems are now
more sophisticated for better load management and <:2 (distributive control s!stems)
allow for connecting to computer controllers. The *nowledge of our #ualified service
technicians toda! is much greater than five !ears ago. =ther boiler companies have failed to
*eep up with the rapid change in technolog!. -roper mechanical service will reduce repair and
capital costs.
=:> Do#nti%e is one of the most epensive items associated with improper maintenance of
mechanical e#uipment. =utages can cost from thousands of dollars per hour in a small plant to
hundreds of thousands of dollars in a large plant. Aonthl! mechanical testing often results in
earl! detection of improper functioning controls. .f possible we replace them at that
time. "E'B2 service vehicles t!picall! carr! over M 10,000 in inventories. .n the least case
replacement can be made at the customer&s net scheduled down time. .n a t!pical boiler room
situation, the service program pa!s for itself when it prevents Cust one shutdown per !ear.
=?> Saet. The lac* of safet! can easil! become the most epensive cost of the boiler
operation. A rare waterside eplosion occurred in :hattanooga several !ears ago on Dew
Nears night with temperatures at 0
o
4. A twent! ton boiler, sheared from all its pipe and
connections
was blown over twent! feet into a bloc* wall. 4ortunatel! the boiler room was in a remote
building and unattended at the time. Do one was inCured. Although it too* "E'B2 less than (/
hours to install a temporar! boiler an epensive loss had occurred. The boiler operator had
rewired the auiliar! low water cutoff for automatic reset because the fre#uent shutdowns had
troubled him. The primar! low water cutoff continued to control the water level in the boiler
under normal water level changes. 'owever a slow drain down of the boiler did not allow the
mechanical control to function properl!. With monthl! safet! chec*s we would have detected
the problem before this disaster happened. This accident was t!pical. All the boiler eplosions
we at "E'B2 have seen are traced bac* to boiler operator error.
=D> Training of !our boiler operations personnel is another benefit of our monthl! mechanical
service. As our technician performs tests and ma*es adCustments the boiler operator receives
eplanations of each step that is being ta*en. .nformal training li*e this ma! have prevented the
accident referred to earlier. :ertainl! all operators are well>intended people and would never
intentionall! do an!thing to Ceopardi5e their companies or themselves.
=E> Third 'art. 0udit of the compan!&s boiler maintenance program is another benefit of the
monthl! boiler mechanical,safet! chec*. Would an!bod! operate a business without an audit of
their accounting recordsO The boiler room deserves the same care.
=J> Insurance 're%iu% Reduction is !et another benefit from a monthl! boiler
mechanical,service contract. .nsurance companies reali5e that in the event of a negligence
claim, documented third part! evidence shows that due care has been ta*en. This evidence can
lead to little or no liabilit! settlements.
.t ta*es about four hours to perform this combustion and safet! service. An! less is not enough
to assure proper efficienc! and safet! in !our boiler room.
Kob scope or the boiler audit should include the ollo#ing
ite%s( + ON T $ L & SE R A IC E(
1. Test combustion for five points on the base fuel on which the boiler is operating. "ac*up fuel
ma! be the base fuel for at least two of the twelve monthl! tests. Decessar! adCustments to
improve fuel air ratios should be made, with readings to record efficienc! and other data
both before and after the adCustments are made.
(. Test flame failure control.
). Test low water control cutoff and auiliar! using the slow drain method.
/. Test high pressure cutoff to be done b! customer&s operator.
0. Test gas pressure switches at high pressure cutoff and at low pressure cutoff.
6. Test combustion air proving switch.
6. Test auiliar! contacts on motor starter.
$. Test atomi5ing medium proving switch.
7. Test high and low fire proving switches.
10. Test high and low oil temperature.
11. Test low oil pressure switch.
1(. ;emove pilot assembl!, clean and adCust.
1). :omplete service report with recommendations.
0NNU 0L S ERA ICE(
1. =pen and washout boiler water>side.
(. "rush tubes and,or clean fireside surfaces.
). ;eplace all gas*ets on water>side and fireside.
/. ;epac* feed water pumps.
0. :lean strainers.
6. ;eplace gauge glass of <A or ma*eup tan*.
6. Test float switches on ma*e>up tan*.
$. 2hop rebuilt and testing of safet! relief valves.
Chapter EC
Solid-State Controls Revolutioni@e Boiler +aintenance
When the staff of Washington 'ospital in Washington, -enns!lvania refer to 9life support,9
included along with the respirators and heart monitors is the boiler s!stem. :ontrol of ambient
humidit! and temperature are a vital part of a hospital&s maintenance s!stem.
Washington 'ospital is in the fore front of building s!stem controls. ?ast !ear, a single compact
s!stem was installed to integrate the air handling and monitoring, water, fire protection,
electrical, and pneumatic controls. 2ophisticated controllers li*e this one are being seen in a
growing number of installations, and promise to transform the controls industr!.
The 1770s have ta*en the historicall! stable industr! of mechanical switches and gauges into
the age of solid>state. .n fact, controls that until onl! recentl! were *nown as the most advanced
technolog!, are being passed b!. 4or boiler maintenance personnel trained to monitor controls
b! noting when circuits ma*e or brea* and troubleshooting visuall!, mastering new electronic
s!stems poses challenges and man! opportunities.
Blectronic controls offer several distinct advantages over mechanical switches. 4oremost is the
safet! benefit. 2olid>state controls, unli*e mechanical controls, cannot be b!passed. .f pressure
or other conditions eceed preset ranges, the control s!stem will simpl! not allow operation.
A second advantage of the new controllers is constant monitoring of boiler conditions through
flame safe guard (42+) controls, also *nown as the programmer or primar!. 42+ controls *eep
the building engineer informed as to precisel! where the burner is in its c!cle. The! assist the
operator in preventing problems and troubleshooting those problems that arise, with an
indication of what specific part of the s!stem failed. This is a great improvement over older
s!stems that indicated onl! a number, which corresponded to an entire area of the s!stem.
.n addition, these s!stems provide a thorough boiler and burner histor! through data trending.
This record of such activities as the purge c!cle, trial for ignition time, the number of hours in
service, and number of burner c!cles, greatl! assists in the boiler&s long>term maintenance.
4urthermore, such monitoring immediatel! aids in fuel and energ! conservation and efficienc!.
4inall!, electronic controls allow more features, and increasingl! allow integration of all building
maintenance s!stems. As in the Washington 'ospital, a central control s!stem can be relied
upon to monitor numerous maintenance activities, which allows the operator to be more
effective in his or her man! responsibilities.
4or building maintenance personnel, such s!stems allow ease of use through touch>screen
control on a personal computerJ single>point access to all of the building&s controls and
monitorsJ video tutorialsJ and optional remote video cameras for monitoring of e#uipment in
distant locations. Bven operators unfamiliar with computers find the newest control s!stems
eas! to use, because 9virtual control panels9 displa!ed on the computer screen loo* and feel
li*e actual ph!sical control panels.
The transformation in the controls industr! began in 1771. A microprocessor>based integrated
control s!stem when used with gas, oil, or combination burners, provided enhanced safet! when
compared to mechanical switches and allowed constant monitoring of boiler conditions. .t
replaced the following components on a t!pical steam boiler8 the eisting programmer, steam
and modulating pressure controls, gas and oil pressure switches, oil temperature switches, and
the standard modulating motor.
2ome controls have a communication interface and software, which will allow multiple
s!stems to communicate with a personal computer. 3sing real time burner status, the s!stem
is able to send boiler shutdown notification to an! desired site through a local personal
computer or to one miles awa! through a modem. .n the event of a shutdown, the s!stem can
be programmed to automaticall! dial a telephone number and displa! a message on the
receiving personal computer.
This is an eciting time for those involved in boiler maintenance and control. Toda!&s operators
have the uni#ue opportunit! to gain epertise with the new controls as the! become more
advanced and comple. At the same time, personnel are capable of more effective boiler
operation with greater efficienc! and safet!.
"oiler controls technolog! will not li*el! come to a halt, either. The more comple, but user>
friendl! technolog! continues to advance at a rapid pace. As future development becomes
available, progress will be seen in the following applications8
S.ste%s Integration As control manufacturers provide devices which have the abilit! to
communicate, the separate s!stems will be able to networ* into one large integral pac*age. This
capabilit! will allow the facilit! manager to comprehensivel! monitor and control their facilit!.
S.ste%s Diagnostics :ontrol capabilit! has assisted the service of burner,boiler controls in
man! wa!s. :urrent technolog! will help build future controls and further reduce the compleit!
and wasted time associated with an inoperable s!stem. Advancements in controls will allow for
troubleshooting and help correct problems #uic*l!.
Enhanced Saet. With current and developing technolog! controls, additional safet! chec*s
can
be added to enhance overall plant and e#uipment safet!.
Bven though this advanced boiler,burner control technolog! provides man! operational, safet!
and maintenance benefits, it cannot eliminate the human factor. B#uipment operators are still
needed in order for these s!stems to function properl!. 4urthermore, e#uipment inspections are
still a vital part of the inspectors& role. Pnowledge of this new technolog! through training is in
order for all maintenance technicians, supervisors and inspectors. The education the! receive
will ultimatel! affect the maintenance of these new controls and the process b! which the
controls are tested.
Chapter J
BOILER O'ER0TION
A boiler operates using the feedwater s!stem, the steam s!stem, the fuel s!stem and the draft
s!stem. The feedwater s!stem supplies water to the boiler. The steam s!stem controls and
directs the steam produced in the boiler. The fuel s!stem supplies fuel and controls combustion
to produce heat. The draft s!stem regulates the movement of air for combustion and evacuates
gases of combustion. Water, steam fittings and accessories are re#uired to suppl! and control
water and steam in the boiler. "oiler fittings or trim are components such as valves directl!
attached to the boiler. Accessories are pieces of e#uipment not necessaril! attached to the
boiler, but re#uired for the operation of the boiler.
Saet. Aalves are the most important fittings on the boiler. The! should open to release
pressure when pressure inside the boiler eceeds the maimum allowable wor*ing pressure or
AAW-. 2afet! valves are installed at the highest part of the steam side of the boiler. Do other
valve shall be installed between the boiler and the safet! valve. 2afet! valve capacit! is
measured in the amount of the steam that can be discharged per hour. The safet! valve will
remain open until sufficient steam is released and there is a specific amount of drop in
pressure. This drop in pressure is the blowdown of the safet! valve. 2afet! valve capacit! and
blowdown is listed on the data plate on the safet! valve. 2pring loaded safet! valves are the
most common safet! valves. A spring eerts pressure on the valve against the valve seat to
*eep the valve closed. When pressure inside the boiler eceeds the set popping pressure, the
pressure forces the valve open to release. The A2AB :ode specifies the design, materials and
construction of safet! valves. The number of safet! valves re#uired and the fre#uenc! and
procedures for testing safet! valves is also specified b! the A2AB :ode. AdCustment or repairs
to safet! valves must be performed b! the manufacturer or an assembler authori5ed b! the
manufacturer.
Water fittings and accessories control the amount, pressure and temperature of water supplied
to and from the boiler. Water in the boiler must be maintained at the normal operating water
level or D=W?. ?ow water conditions can damage the boiler and could cause a boiler
eplosion. 'igh water conditions can cause carr!over. :arr!over occurs when small water
droplets are carried in steam lines. :arr!over can result in water hammer. Water hammer is a
banging condition caused b! h!draulic pressure that can damage e#uipment.
)eed#ater Aalves control the flow of feedwater from the feedwater pump to the
boiler. 4eedwater stop valves are globe valves located on the feedwater line. The! isolate the
boiler from feedwater accessories. The feedwater stop valve is positioned closest to the boiler to
stop the flow of water out of the boiler for maintenance, or if the chec* valve malfunctions. The
feedwater chec* valve is located net to the feedwater stop valve and prevents feedwater from
flowing from the boiler bac* to the feedwater pump. The feedwater chec* valve opens and
closes automaticall! with a swinging disc. When water is fed to the boiler it opens. .f water
flows bac* from the boiler the valve closes.
*ater Colu%n minimi5es the water turbulence in the gage glass to provide accurate water level
reading. Water columns are located at the D=W?, with the lowest part of the water column
positioned at least )9 above the heating s!stem. Water columns for high pressure boilers
consist of the main column and three tricoc*s. 'igh and low water alarms or whistles ma! be
attached to the top and bottom tricoc*s.
The 3age 3lass is used to visuall! monitor the water level in the boiler. .solation valves
located
at the top and bottom permit the changing of gage glasses.
A Blo#do#n Aalve at the bottom of the gage glass is used to remove sludge and
sediment. Tubular gage glasses are used for pressure up to /00 psig. All boilers must have
two methods of determining the boiler water level. The gage glass serves as the primar!
method of determining boiler water level. .f the water cannot be seen in the gage glass, the
tricoc*s are used as a secondar! method of determining boiler water level. The middle tricoc*
is located at the D=W?. .f water comes out of the middle tricoc*, the gage glass is not
functioning properl!. .f water comes out of the top tricoc*, there is a high water condition in the
boiler. .f water comes out of the bottom tricoc*, water ma! be safel! added to the boiler. .f
steam comes out of the bottom tricoc*, water must not be added to the boiler. 2ecure
the fuel immediatel!. Adding water could cause a boiler eplosion.
+a,eup *ater replaces boiler water lost from lea*s or from the lac* of condensate returned in
the boiler. Aa*eup water is fed manuall! or automaticall!. "oilers can have both manual and
automatic s!stems. .f the boiler has both, the manual alwa!s b!passes the automatic s!stem.
"oiler operators must *now how to suppl! ma*eup water #uic*l! to the boiler in the event of a
low water condition. Aanual s!stems feed cit! water with a hand operated valve. Automatic
s!stems feed cit! water with a float control valve mounted slightl! below the D=W?. .f the float
drops from a low water level, the valve in the cit! water line is open. As the water level rises, the
float rises to close the valve.
The Lo# *ater )uel Cut O shuts off fuel to the burner in the event of a low water condition in
the boiler. The low water fuel cut off is located (9 to 69 below the D=W?. ?ow water fuel cut
offs are available with or without an integral water column. ?ow water fuel cut offs must be
tested monthl! or more often depending on plant procedures and re#uirements. ?ow water fuel
cut offs operate using an electric probe or a float sensor. The float senses a drop in
water level. 2witches in the low water fuel cut off are wired to the burner control to shut off fuel
to the burner when the water level drops in the chamber.
The )eed#ater Regulator maintains the D=W? in the boiler b! controlling the amount of
condensate return pumped to the boiler from the condensate return tan*. The correct water
level is maintained with a feedwater regulator, but boiler water level must still be chec*ed
periodicall! b! the boiler operator.
)eed#ater 'u%ps are used with feedwater regulators to pump feedwater to the
boiler. -ressure must be sufficient to overcome boiler water pressure to maintain the D=W? in
the boiler. 4or maimum safet!, plants having one steam driven feedwater pump must have a
bac* up feedwater pump driven b! electricit!. 4eedwater pumps ma! be reciprocating,
centrifugal or turbine. Reciprocating eed#ater pu%ps are steam driven and use a piston to
discharge water to the feedwater line. The! are limited in capacit! and are used on small
boilers. Centriugal eed#ater pu%ps are electric motor or steam driven. The! are the most
common feedwater pump. :entrifugal force moves water to the outside edge of the rotating
impeller. The casing directs water from the impeller to the discharge piping. <ischarge
pressure is dependent on impeller speed. Turbine eed#ater pu%ps are steam driven and
operate similarl! to centrifugal feedwater pumps.
)eed#ater $eaters heat water before it enters the boiler drum to remove o!gen and other
gases which ma! cause corrosion. 4eedwater heaters are either open or closed. =pen
feedwater heaters allow steam and water to mi as the! enter an enclosed steel
chamber. The! are located above the feedwater pump to produce a positive pressure on the
suction side of the pump. :losed feedwater heaters have a large number of tubes inside an
enclosed steel vessel. 2team and water do not come in contact, but feedwater goes through the
tubes and steam is allowed in the vessel to preheat the feedwater. The! are located on the
discharge side of the feedwater pump.
Botto% Blo#do#n Aalves release water from the boiler to reduce water level, remove sludge
and sediment, reduce chemical concentrations or drain the boiler. Two valves are commonl!
used, a #uic* opening and screw valve. <uring blowdown the #uic* opening valve is opened
first, the screw valve is opened net and ta*es the wear and tear from blowdown. Water is
discharged to the blowdown tan*. A blowdown tan* collects water to protect the sewer from the
hot boiler water. After blowdown, the screw valve is closed first and the #uic* opening valve is
closed last.
Stea% )ittings 1 0ccessories remove air, control steam flow, and maintain the re#uired
steam pressure in the boiler. 2team fittings are also used to direct steam to various locations
for heating and process.
Stea% 'ressure 3ages and vacuum gages monitor pressure inside the boiler. The range of
these gages should be 1>1,( to ( times the AAW- of the boiler. 4or eample8 on a low
pressure boiler, a maimum steam pressure on the pressure gage reads )0 psig as the AAW-
is 10 psig.
Stea% Aalves commonl! used include a gate valve used for the main steam stop valve and the
globe valve. The main steam stop valve cuts the boiler in online allowing steam to flow from
the boiler or ta*es it off line. This is an outside stem and !o*e or =2EN valve. The position of
the stem indicates whether the valve is open or closed. The valve is opened with the stem out
and closed with the stem in. This provides #uic* information to the boiler operator.
The globe valve controls the flow of steam passing under the valve seat through the valve. This
change in direction causes a decrease in steam pressure. A globe valve decreases steam flow
and can be used to var! the amount of steam flow. This should never be used as a main steam
stop valve.
Stea% Traps remove condensate from steam in lines from the boiler. 2team traps wor*
automaticall! and increase boiler plant efficienc!. The! also prevent water hammer b! epelling
air and condensate from the steam lines without loss of steam. 2team traps are located after
the main steam header throughout the s!stem. 2team traps commonl! used include the
inverted buc*et, the thermostatic and the float thermostatic. .n the inverted buc*et steam trap
steam enters the bottom flowing into the inverted buc*et. The steam holds the buc*et up. As
condensate fills the steam trap the buc*et loses buo!anc! and sin*s to open the discharge
valve. The thermostatic steam trap has a bellows filled with a fluid that boils at steam
temperature. As the fluid boils vapors epand the bellows to push the valve closed. When the
temperature drops below steam temperature, the bellows contract to open the valve and
discharge condensate.
A variation of the thermostatic steam trap is the float thermostatic steam trap. A float opens and
closes depending on the amount of condensate in the trap bowl. :ondensate is drawn out b!
return vacuum.
Stea% Strainers remove scale or dirt from the steam and are located in the piping prior to
steam trap inlet. 2cale or dirt can clog discharge orifices in the steam trap. 2team strainers
must be cleaned regularl!.
SU++0R&
The safet! valve is the most important fitting on the boiler. The gage glass is used to visuall!
monitor the water level in the boiler. Tricoc*s are used as a secondar! device for determining
water level in the boiler. Aa*eup water replaces water lost from lea*s or lac* of condensate
return to the boiler. The low water fuel cut off shuts off fuel to the burner in the event of a low
water condition. 2team pressure gages and vacuum gages are used to indicate the pressure
inside the boiler.
Chapter GB
ELECTRONIC VALVE TESTIN
The safet! relief valve, sometimes referred to as the 9silent
sentential,9 has an etremel! important role in the operation of the
boiler or pressure vessel. The perfecting of the safet! relief valve
(2;@) made a big difference in bringing the boiler industr! from the
9dar* ages9 of dangerous eplosions to a predictabl! safe operation.
2;@%s are manufactured under the control of American 2ociet! of
Aechanical Bngineers (A2AB). Approved assemblers and repair
facilities, such as The @alve 2hop, are authori5ed and approved b!
the A2AB to ma*e adCustments and stamp boiler safet! valves with
the 9@9 s!mbol and for safet! valves on unfired vessels the 93@9
s!mbol. ;epairs of 2;@%s are performed b! The @alve 2hop under the control of the Dational
"oard of "oiler E -ressure @essel .nspections (Dational "oard) and bears the 9@;9 s!mbol.
The maCor short coming of the 2;@%s is the lac* of an effective method
to determine the valve%s operating status. .ncreasing the pressure of
the boiler until the valve relieves would be one method but could
possibl! lead to over pressuring of the boiler controls or the plant
process e#uipment. ;aising the lifting lever is another method to see if
the valve is relieving properl! but that approach does not allow for an!
information on the point of relief. Deither of these methods is ver!
effective because an!time the valve relieves it is ver! li*el! that
particles in the steam will collect or the steam will cut the disc or seat
allowing the steam to lea* through the valve. The onl! valid alternative
has been to periodicall! send the valves to a #ualified 9@;9 valve shop
for rebuilding, testing and resetting the pressure. The results are sure
but the shortcomings are (1) how often is this needed and (() it is ver! epensive.
Dow there is a new alternative brought about b! the use of computers. The automated valve
electronic test unit combines the computer with a h!draulic lifting device. The valve stem will be
lifted b! the h!draulic lifting device until the computer with its predetermined data on the valve
will stop the lift Cust short of the point of blowing and in doing so determine the set pressure of
the valve. The advantages of this approach are enormous. 4irst, the 2;@ is tested with the
electronic valve tester when at operating pressure which means that the boiler does not have to
be ta*en off line unless the 2;@ fails the test. 2econd, the cost of testing si to eight valves in
the field is about the same as the cost of rebuilding one valve in the shop. Third, since the
electronic valve tester does not lift the valve from its seat reseating problems are not an issue.
The electronic valve tester is ama5ingl! accurate and is now recogni5ed b! most insurers as an
acceptable alternative to sending the valve to the 9@;9 shop for testing. The Dational "oard
recogni5es it as part of the #ualit! control manual of the valve repair shop. The customer is
provided with a printout (eample) including a graph (eample) of each valve tested. This can
provide a valuable record for documentation in the customer boiler #ualit!,safet! compliance
program and to establish guidelines for future repair scheduling for the repair of 2;@ %s.
"Wh! don%t all repair shops own this t!pe e#uipmentO9 Quite possibl! because of the high
purchase cost, which eceeds M00,000, and also it reduces the number of valves available for
repair. "ut the effectiveness of this service means that the valve repair companies must offer it
and will maintain their repair volume b! increasing their customer base.
Chapter LB
BOILER STOR03E 'ROCEDURES
Aan! facilities have ecess boiler capacit! in the form of standb! units. :hoosing the best wa!
to properl! protect the e#uipment from o!gen pitting and,or general corrosion can be #uite a
challenge. The most commonl! *nown and utili5ed methods are =1> #et storage and =5> dr.
storage. There is also a third less *nown method available =:> hot9#et storage. "efore
discussing the different alternatives, the status of the standb! e#uipment must be classified b!
the need for future operation8
B#uipment which will not be re#uired to operate at a moments notice. An eample of this
ma! be a facilit! that has an etra /Standb./ unit not re#uired for its operation and a
facilit! that ma! be closed and it&s boiler(s) idled for an indefinite period of time.
B#uipment that ma! be needed at a moments notice. 4or instance, the operating unit has
a flame failure and after several unsuccessful attempts to restart the boiler it becomes
clear !ou have a maCor problem. As the s!stem steam pressure continues to drop the
need for /E%ergenc. Standb./ occurs.
Dow that we have classified the e#uipment it is time to discuss the different options
available8
DR& S T OR 0 3 E ( This method is preferred whenever a boiler is in standb! allowing time
to prepare the unit for operation. "e sure the unit is co m p l ete l ! drained and dr!. .f
possible, heaters should be used to maintain the temperature of all surfaces above the
dew point. Then a desiccant should be applied to either watertight wood or corrosion
resistant tra!s as follows8
1. Quic* ?ime>at si pounds per 100 cubic ft. volume =;
(. 2ilica +elRat eight pounds per 100 cubic feet of volume
With another boiler operating in the boiler room, to assure low humidit! in the air, the tra!s
should be placed in each drum of a watertube boiler or on the top tubes of a firetube boiler. The
feedwater inlet and steam outlet should be chec*ed to ensure no dampness occurs in the boiler
from these points. All manhole and hand>hole covers should remain opened to allow dr! air to
enter the unit. "e sure to inspect the boiler internals ever! month to ensure against an!
moisture. When the desiccant becomes hard due to absorbing moisture, be sure to promptl!
replace it.
* E T S T OR 0 3 E ( This method is most commonl! used whenever a boiler is in 9
Standb.9, allowing time to prepare the unit for operation. The boiler should be filled to its
normal level using deaerated feedwater whenever possible. Add three pounds of
caustic soda and one and one half pounds of sodium sulfite per 1000 gallons of water
capacit!. Then open boiler vents, appl! heat for one to two hours, and allow the unit to
cool for an hour after firing. Then completel! fill the unit with deaerated feedwater. All
boiler vents and drains should now be closed and the drain between the non>return and
the main steam stop valve should be left full! opened. The boiler water should be tested
periodicall! and additional chemical added as needed to maintain sulfite at a minimum of
100 ppm and p> al*alinit! at a minimum of /00 ppm.
$OT * E T S T OR 0 3 E ( This method uses hot treated blowdown from an operating boiler
to *eep an /E%ergenc. Standb./ unit protected and read! to operate at a moments
notice. .t is accomplished b! connecting the continuous blowdown line from the operating
unit to a bottom blowdown location of the standb! unit. With all vents closed on the
standb! unit and the continuous blowdown line opened, the hot treated water from the
operating boiler continuous blowdown will pass into the bottom of the standb! unit and
out the continuous blowdown line to the blowdown flash tan*.