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10.9 OTHER HAZARDS
There are a number of hazards for gas turbines that are not associated with a particular system
or component. Many of these are generic issues offshore and not specific to gas turbines.
These include:
x Access to enclosures
x Risk of fire or explosion from gas or fuel leakage
x Risk of projectile damage
x Risk of fire from lubricant leakage
x Risk of injury from touching hot components, particularly exhaust and
combustion systems
x Build up of harmful gases or explosive mixtures in enclosures
80
11 MAINTENANCE AND INSPECTION
Gas turbines have to withstand harsh conditions including high flow, temperature and pressure.
All materials are subject to degradation by mechanisms including fatigue, creep, erosion and
oxidation.
Some failure modes can be catastrophic with a risk of projectile damage to nearby personnel,
pipework or systems. Such damage is often extensive. There is documentary evidence of
projectile parts following turbine failures cutting the turbines in half. The packaging and the
enclosures seeks to contain any possible failure.
It is very important to comply with manufacturers inspection guidance. Inspection intervals are
typically based on elapsed time or number of starts or incursions, if the latter can be monitored.
The control system may monitor the number of starts or incursions using a cycle counter or just
the number of starts. A sequence Start > Operation > Stop up and down would count as one
cycle. Incursions may lead to shut down of turbine. Modern control systems include software to
monitor incursions and operation.
11.1 OVERVIEW
Maintenance costs and availability of plant are two of the most important concerns to equipment
owners. For maintenance programmes to be fully effective, equipment owners have developed a
general understanding of the relationship between their operating plans and priorities for the
plant, the skill level of operating and maintenance personnel, and the manufacturer's
recommendations regarding the number and types of inspections, spare parts planning, and
other major factors affecting component life and proper operation of the equipment.
The primary factors, which affect the maintenance planning process, are shown below in Figure
44.
Figure 44 key factors affecting maintenance planning. Courtesy GE.
81
Parts unique to the gas turbine requiring the most careful attention are those associated with the
combustion process together with those exposed to high temperatures from the hot gases
discharged from the combustion system. They are called the hot-gas-path parts and include:
x Combustion liners,
x End caps,
x Fuel nozzle assemblies,
x Crossfire tubes,
x Transition pieces,
x Turbine nozzles,
x Turbine stationary shrouds
x Turbine buckets.
The basic design philosophy and recommended maintenance for heavy-duty gas turbines is to
ensure maximum periods of operation between overhauls and inspection, and perform in-place,
on-site inspection and maintenance using local trade skills to disassemble, inspect and re-
assemble.
In addition to maintenance of the basic gas turbine, the control devices, fuel metering
equipment, gas turbine auxiliaries, load package, and other station auxiliaries also require
periodic servicing. Analysis of scheduled outages and forced outages show that the primary
maintenance effort is attributed to five basic systems:
x Controls and accessories,
x Combustion,
x Turbine,
x Generator
x Balance of plant.
The unavailability of controls and accessories is generally composed of short-duration outages,
whereas conversely the other four systems are composed of fewer, but usually longer duration
outages.
11.2 INSPECTION & REPAIR
Refurbishment of Gas Turbine Components
Overhaul and refurbishment of gas turbine components is usually carried out in specialist
workshops. This will typically follow the following sequence:
x Receipt
x Evaluation of condition
x Disassembly
x Cleaning and stripping
82
x Dimensional checking
x Define workscope
x Heat treatment
x Welding, brazing, blending
x Coating
x Final inspection
x Verification
Verification is needed to provide own assessment that all necessary has been done. Evaluation
of incoming condition is of crucial importance. Good workshops usually have an in-house
repair shop. Serial numbers are usually on the edges of components or cast on.
Evaluation of damage
Damage can occur in shipping and handling. On receipt it should be confirmed that
components are in the expected condition; determine the cleaning and stripping required and
then define the inspection procedure. It is very important that this evaluation of components is
done up-front.
Figure 45 Changeout of RB211 Coberra gas generator. Courtesy Rolls Royce.
83
Disassembly
Disassembly can include rotating parts and parts subject to oxidation or heat damage. These
include the turbine discs, support rings, core plugs, cowl wraps and blades. It is often found that
vanes need re-welding if previously repaired to correct poor penetration. Components are
stripped and cleaned chemically or thermo-mechanically; usually with Aluminium Oxide and
NOT sand. Good repair shops will heat tint rotating parts, turbine blades and buckets at ~1100F
(590 C) to show up areas of oxidation damage.
Dimensional checking
Gas turbine components operate to high tolerances. Dimensional checking is crucial early in
maintenance to ensure correct fit. This is done by physical measurements, ultrasonics and by
use of a computer measurement machine (CMM). Fixtures are used that simulate actual fitting.
Non-destructive testing (NDT)
NDT methods applied in maintenance include visual, penetrant, magnetic particle, ultrasonic
and X-radiography. Penetrant is used for side-wall inspections. Blades out MPI is normal for
turbine blades. In-situ inspection is possible using specialised ultrasonic methods and MPI of
blade end faces.
MPI and penetrant methods are used to look for cracking of casings, cowls and components in
the combustion system and hot gas path. Transient thermography with thermal signal
reconstruction (TSR) signal processing has recently been applied for inspection of compressor
and turbine blades, transition pieces and vane inspection. This method can show up loss of wall
thickness (Figure 46 and Figure 47).
Figure 46 Thermography images of turbine blade component and vane showing wall
thinning, internal air channels, and misaligned or missed channels: (a) conventional
thermography or turbine blade (b) thermography of turbine blade with TSR processing,
(c) thermography of vane with TSR processing. . Images Courtesy Thermal Wave Inc.
www.thermalwave.com
84
Metallurgical Examination
Metallurgical examination is important, particularly for hot section equipment. It is very
important that the repair shop has a metallurgist in house.
Defining of workscope
This combines evaluation, customer requirements, repair facility, inspection and standards.
Quality assurance (QA) is mandatory. Good practice includes use of an in-house repair shop,
having a suitably experienced metallurgist on site, and taking time in gas turbine repair.
Processes
Heat treatment is an important part of repairs for Ni-based superalloys. This needs to be
undertaken in a controlled atmosphere, under vacuum or hot isostatic pressure (HIP).
Temperature is controlled using 3 thermocouples; one new, one slightly used and one older,
which are replaced in a cycle. These need to be physically on the part.
Nozzle and Vanes
Most repairs to nozzles and vanes are done with TIG welding. GSAW (stick), GMAW (MIG),
GTAW (TIG) and micro-plasma welding. It is detrimental if too much weld is left on as it needs
to be ground off leaving more scope for defects.
Figure 47 Thermography images of turbine vane using TSR processing showing
variations in local wall thickness. Courtesy Thermal Wave Inc. www.thermalwave.com
Buckets and Blades
Repair of these components involves brazing processes, blending, coating and final inspection.
Dirt and oxide is removed. By brazing and diffusing at high temperature it is possible to build
up a thin wall of material to restore dimensions and wall thickness. But, this will not restore lost
strength. The component is re-profiled by blending and recoated. Thermal barrier coating is
used on aero foils.
85
Final inspection is made to check metallurgical experience, dimensions, appearance, ensure
functionality. This is best done by someone who understands the tolerances. Water is used to
check there is no blockage of cooling holes.
Quality records
These include Heat treatment checks, other process records, direct material and documentation.
11.3 MAINTENANCE GUIDANCE
The inspection and repair requirements outlined in Maintenance and Instructions Manuals
provided to owners establishes a pattern of inspections. In addition, supplementary information
is provided through a system of Technical Information Letters. This updating of information,
contained in the maintenance and instructions manual, assures optimum installation, operation
and maintenance of the turbine.
Many of the Technical Information Letters contain advisory technical recommendations to
resolve issues and improve the operation, maintenance, safety, reliability or availability of the
turbine. The recommendations contained in Technical Information Letters should be reviewed
and factored into the overall maintenance planning program.
For a maintenance program to be effective, from both a cost and turbine availability standpoint,
owners must develop a general understanding of the relationship between their operating plans
and priorities for the plant and the manufacturer's recommendations regarding the number and
types of inspections, spare parts planning, and other major factors affecting the life and proper
operation of the equipment.
The heavy-duty gas turbine is designed to withstand severe duty and to be maintained on-site,
with off-site repair required only on certain combustion components, hot-gas-path parts and
rotor assemblies needing specialized shop service. The following features are designed into
heavy-duty gas turbines to facilitate on-site maintenance:
x Casings, shells and frames are generally split on the machine horizontal centreline.
Upper halves may be lifted individually for access to internal parts. With upper-half
compressor casings removed, all stator vanes can be slid circumferentially out of the
casings for inspection or replacement without rotor removal. On most designs, the
variable inlet guide vanes (VIGVs) can be removed radially with upper half of inlet
casing removed. With the upper-half of the turbine shell lifted, each half of the first
stage nozzle assembly can be removed for inspection, repair or replacement without
rotor removal. On some units, upper-half, later-stage nozzle assemblies are lifted with
the turbine shell, also allowing inspection and/or removal of the turbine buckets.
Turbine buckets are generally moment weighed and computer charted in sets for rotor
spool assembly so that they may be replaced without the need to remove or rebalance
the rotor assembly.
x Bearing housings and liners are generally split on the horizontal centreline so that they
may be inspected and replaced, when necessary. The lower half of the bearing liner can
be removed without removing the rotor. Seals and shaft packings are usually separate
from the main bearing housings and casing structures and may be readily removed and
replaced. On most designs, fuel nozzles, combustion liners and flow sleeves can be
removed for inspection, maintenance or replacement without lifting any casings. In
general, all major accessories, including filters and coolers, are separate assemblies that
86
are readily accessible for inspection or maintenance. They may also be individually
replaced as necessary.
Inspection aids can be built into heavy-duty gas turbines to assist with inspection procedures.
These provide for visual inspection and clearance measurement of some of the critical internal
turbine gas-path components without removal of the gas turbine outer casings and shells. These
procedures include gas-path borescope inspection and turbine nozzle axial clearance
measurements. An effective borescope inspection program can result in removing casings and
shells from a turbine unit only when it is necessary to repair or replace parts. Boroscope access
locations for a gas turbine are shown below in Figure 48.
Figure 48 Typical gas turbine boroscope access locations. Courtesy GE.
There are many factors that can influence equipment life and these must be understood and
accounted for in the owner's maintenance planning. Starting cycle, power setting, type of fuel
used and level of steam or water injection are key factors in determining the maintenance
interval requirements as these factors directly influence the life of critical gas turbine parts. In
the approach of one of the major equipment suppliers (GE) to maintenance planning, a gas fuel
unit operating continuous duty, with no water or steam injection, is established as the baseline
condition, which sets the maximum recommended maintenance intervals. For operation that
differs from the baseline, maintenance factors are established that determine the increased level
of maintenance that is required. For example, a maintenance factor of two would indicate a
maintenance interval that is half of the baseline interval.
Gas turbines are affected in different ways for different service-duties. Thermo-mechanical
fatigue is the dominant limiter of life for peaking machines, while creep, oxidation, and
87
corrosion are the dominant limiters of life for continuous duty machines. Interactions of these
mechanisms are considered in the design criteria, but to a great extent are second order effects.
For that reason, maintenance requirements are based on independent counts of starts and hours.
Whichever criterion limit is first reached determines the maintenance interval.
An alternative approach, converts each start cycle to an equivalent number of operating hours
(EOH) with inspection intervals based on the equivalent hours count. This logic can create the
impression of longer intervals; while in reality more frequent maintenance inspections are
required. Different approaches to setting maintenance time are summarised below in Figure 49.
Figure 49 Gas turbine maintenance requirements. Courtesy GE.
Fuels
Fuels burned in gas turbines range from clean natural gas to residual oils. Heavier hydrocarbon
fuels have a maintenance factor ranging from three to four for residual fuel and two to three for
crude oil fuels. These fuels generally release a higher amount of radiant thermal energy, which
results in a subsequent reduction in combustion hardware life, and frequently contain corrosive
elements such as sodium, potassium, vanadium and lead that can lead to accelerated hot
corrosion of turbine nozzles and buckets.
Some elements in these fuels can cause deposits either directly or through compounds formed
with inhibitors that are used to prevent corrosion. These deposits impact performance and can
lead to a need for more frequent maintenance. Distillates, as refined, do not generally contain
high levels of these corrosive elements, but harmful contaminants can be present in these fuels
when delivered to the site. Two common ways of contaminating number two distillate fuel oil
are: salt water ballast mixing with the cargo during sea transport, and contamination of the
distillate fuel when transported to site in tankers, tank trucks or pipelines that were previously
used to transport contaminated fuel, chemicals or leaded gasoline. Natural gas fuels are
generally considered to be the optimum fuel with regard to turbine maintenance.
88
Figure 50 Hot-gas-path maintenance intervals. Courtesy GE
Table 6 Maintenance Factors hot-gas-path
Hot gas path inspection
a
24,000 hours or 1200 starts
Major inspection
b
48,000 hours or 2400 starts
Factors impacting maintenance
Hours factors
x Fuel Gas 1
Distillate 1.5
Crude 2 to 3
Residual 3 to 4
x Peak load
x Water/steam injection Dry control 1 (GTD-222)
Wet control 1.9 (5% H
2
O GTD-222)
Starts Factors
x Trip from full load
x Fast Load
x Emergency start
8
2
20
a,b Criterion is hours or starts whichever occurs first
The importance of proper fuel quality has been amplified with Dry Low NOx (DLN)
combustion systems. Proper adherence to equipment manufacturers fuel specifications is
required to allow proper combustion system operation, and to maintain applicable warranties.
Liquid hydrocarbon carryover can expose the hot-gas-path hardware to severe over temperature
89
conditions and can result in significant reductions in hot-gas-path parts lives or repair intervals.
Owners can control this potential issue by using effective gas scrubber systems and by
superheating the gaseous fuel prior to use to provide a nominal 50F (28C) of superheat at the
turbine gas control valve connection. The prevention of hot corrosion of the turbine buckets and
nozzles is mainly under the control of the owner. Undetected and untreated, a single shipment of
contaminated fuel can cause substantial damage to the gas turbine hot gas path components.
Potentially high maintenance costs and loss of availability can be minimised or eliminated by:
x Placing a proper fuel specification on the fuel supplier. For liquid fuels, each shipment
should include a report that identifies specific gravity, flash point, viscosity, sulphur
content, pour point and ash content of the fuel.
x Providing a regular fuel quality sampling and analysis program. As part of this program,
an online water in fuel oil monitor is recommended, as is a portable fuel analyser that,
as a minimum, reads vanadium, lead, sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium.
Water (or steam) Injection
Water (or steam) injection for emissions control or power augmentation can impact on the lives
of turbine parts and maintenance intervals. This relates to the effect of the added water on the
hot-gas transport properties. Higher gas conductivity, in particular, increases the heat transfer to
the buckets and nozzles and can lead to higher metal temperature and reduced parts lifetime.
The impact on part life from steam or water injection is related to the way the turbine is
controlled. The control system on most base load applications reduces firing temperature as
water or steam is injected.
Cyclic Effects
For the starts-based maintenance criteria (as opposed to the hours-based maintenance criteria
described earlier), operating factors associated with the cyclic effects produced during start-up,
operation and shutdown of the turbine must be considered. Operating conditions other than the
standard start-up and shutdown sequence can potentially reduce the cyclic life of the hot gas
path components and rotors, and, if present, will require more frequent maintenance and parts
refurbishment and/or replacement. A typical gas turbine start-stop cycle is illustrated in Figure
51.
Thermal mechanical fatigue testing has found that the number of cycles that a part can
withstand before cracking occurs is strongly influenced by the total strain range and the
maximum metal temperature experienced. Any operating condition that significantly increases
the strain range and/or the maximum metal temperature over the normal cycle conditions will
act to reduce the fatigue life and increase the starts-based maintenance factor.
Rotor
In addition to the hot gas path components, the rotor structure maintenance and refurbishment
requirements are affected by the cyclic effects associated with start-up, operation and shutdown.
Maintenance factors specific to an application's operating profile and rotor design must be
determined and incorporated into the operators maintenance planning. Disassembly and
inspection of all rotor components is required when the accumulated rotor starts reach the
inspection limit.
90
Figure 51 Turbine start-stop cycle firing temperature changes
Combustion System
A typical combustion system contains transition pieces, combustion liners, flow sleeves, head-
end assemblies containing fuel nozzles and cartridges, end caps and end covers, and assorted
other hardware including cross-fire tubes, spark plugs and flame detectors. In addition, there can
be various fuel and air delivery components such as purge or check valves and flex hoses.
GE, for example, provides several types of combustion systems including standard combustors,
Multi-Nozzle Quiet Combustors (MNQC), IGCC combustors and Dry Low NOx (DLN)
combustors. Each of these combustion systems have unique operating characteristics and modes
of operation with differing responses to operational variables affecting maintenance and
refurbishment requirements. The maintenance and refurbishment requirements of combustion
parts are impacted by many of the same factors as hot gas path parts including start cycle, trips,
fuel type and quality, firing temperature and use of steam or water injection for either emissions
control or power augmentation.
Combustion maintenance is performed, if required, following each combustion inspection (or
repair) interval. It is expected and recommended that intervals be modified based on specific
experience. Replacement intervals are usually defined by a recommended number of
combustion (or repair) intervals and are usually combustion component specific. In general, the
replacement interval as a function of the number of combustion inspection intervals is reduced if
the combustion inspection interval is extended. For example, a component having an 8,000 hour
combustion inspection (CI) interval and a 6(CI) or 48,000 hour replacement interval would have
a replacement interval of 4(CI) if the inspection interval was increased to 12,000 hours to
maintain a 48,000 hour replacement interval.
Off Frequency Operation
Heavy-duty single shaft gas turbines are generally designed to operate over a 95% to 105%
speed range. However, operation at other than rated speed has the potential to impact
maintenance requirements. Depending on the industry code requirements, the specifics of the
91
turbine design and the turbine control philosophy employed, operating conditions can result that
will accelerate life consumption of hot gas path components. Where this is true, the maintenance
factor associated with this operation must be understood and these speed events analysed and
recorded so as to include in the maintenance plan for this gas turbine installation. Generator
drive turbines operating in a power system grid are sometimes required to meet operational
requirements that are aimed at maintaining grid stability under conditions of sudden load or
capacity changes. Most codes require turbines to remain on line in the event of a frequency
disturbance. For under-frequency operation, the turbine output decrease that will normally occur
with a speed decrease is allowed and the net impact on the turbine as measured by a
maintenance factor is minimal. In some grid systems, there are more stringent codes that require
remaining on line while maintaining load on a defined schedule of load versus grid frequency.
Air Quality
Maintenance and operating costs are also influenced by the quality of the air that the turbine
consumes. In addition to the deleterious effects of airborne contaminants on hot-gas-path
components, contaminants such as dust, salt and oil can also cause compressor blade erosion,
corrosion and fouling. Twenty-micron particles entering the compressor can cause significant
blade erosion. Fouling can be caused by sub micron dirt particles entering the compressor as
well as from ingestion of oil vapours, smoke, sea salt and industrial vapours. Corrosion of
compressor blading causes pitting of the blade surface, which, in addition to increasing the
surface roughness, also serves as potential sites for fatigue crack initiation. These surface
roughness and blade contour changes will decrease compressor airflow and efficiency, which in
turn reduces the gas turbine output and overall thermal efficiency.
Inlet Fogging
One of the ways some users increase turbine output is through the use of inlet foggers. Foggers
inject a large amount of moisture in the inlet ducting, exposing the forward stages of the
compressor to a continuously moist environment. Operation of a compressor in such an
environment may lead to long-term degradation of the compressor due to fouling, material
property degradation, corrosion and erosion. Experience has shown that depending on the
quality of water used, the inlet silencer and ducting material, and the condition of the inlet
silencer, fouling of the compressor can be severe with inlet foggers.
As an example, for turbines with Type 403 stainless steel compressor blades, the presence of
moisture will reduce blade fatigue strength by as much as 30% as well as subject the blades to
corrosion. Further reductions in fatigue strength will result if the environment is acidic and if
pitting is present on the blade. Pitting is corrosion-induced and blades with pitting can see
material strength reduced to 40% of its virgin value. The presence of moisture also increases the
crack propagation rate in a blade if a flaw is present. Water droplets, in excess of 25 microns in
diameter, will cause leading edge erosion on the first few stages of the compressor. This
erosion, if sufficiently developed, may lead to blade failure. Additionally, the roughened leading
edge surface lowers the compressor efficiency and unit performance.
92
Maintenance Inspections
Maintenance inspection types may be broadly classified as:
x Standby,
x Running
x Disassembly inspections
The standby inspection is performed during off-peak periods when the unit is not operating and
includes routine servicing of accessory systems and device calibration. The running inspection
is performed by observing key operating parameters while the turbine is running. The
disassembly inspection requires opening the turbine for inspection of internal components and is
performed in varying degrees. Disassembly inspections progress from the combustion
inspection to the hot-gas-path inspection to the major inspection as shown in the figure below.
Standby Inspections
Standby inspections are performed on all gas turbines but are applicable particularly to gas
turbines used in peaking and intermittent-duty service where starting reliability is of primary
concern. This inspection includes routinely servicing the battery system, changing filters,
checking oil and water levels, cleaning relays and checking device calibrations. Servicing can
be performed in off-peak periods without interrupting the availability of the turbine. A periodic
start-up test run is an essential part of the standby inspection.
The turbine suppliers Maintenance and Instructions Manual, as well as the Service Manual
Instruction Books, contain information and drawings necessary to perform these periodic
checks. Among the most useful drawings in the Service Manual Instruction Books for standby
maintenance are the control specifications, piping schematic and electrical configuration. These
drawings provide the calibrations, operating limits, operating characteristics and sequencing of
all control devices. This information should be used regularly by operating and maintenance
93
personnel. Careful adherence to minor standby inspection maintenance can have a significant
effect on reducing overall maintenance costs and maintaining high turbine reliability. It is
essential that a good record be kept of all inspections made and of the maintenance work
performed in order to ensure establishing a sound maintenance program.
Running Inspections
Running inspections consist of the general and continued observations made while a unit is
operating. This starts by establishing baseline operating data during initial start-up of a new unit
and after any major disassembly work. This baseline then serves as a reference from which
subsequent unit deterioration can be measured. Data should be taken to establish normal
equipment start-up parameters as well as key steady state operating parameters. Steady state is
defined as conditions at which no more than a 5F/3C change in wheel space temperature
occurs over a 15-minute time period. Data must be taken at regular intervals and should be
recorded to permit an evaluation of the turbine performance and maintenance requirements as a
function of operating time.
This operating inspection data, includes: load versus exhaust temperature, vibration, fuel flow
and pressure, bearing metal temperature, lube oil pressure, exhaust gas temperatures, exhaust
temperature spread variation and start-up time. This list is only a minimum and other parameters
should be used as necessary. A graph of these parameters will help provide a basis for judging
the conditions of the system. Deviations from the norm help pinpoint impending trouble,
changes in calibration or damaged components.
11.4 DISASSEMBLY INSPECTIONS
Combustion Inspection
The combustion inspection is a relatively short disassembly shutdown inspection of fuel
nozzles, liners, transition pieces, crossfire tubes and retainers, spark plug assemblies, flame
detectors and combustor flow sleeves. This inspection concentrates on the combustion liners,
transition pieces, fuel nozzles and end caps which are recognized as being the first to require
replacement and repair in a good maintenance program. Proper inspection, maintenance and
repair of these items will contribute to a longer life of the downstream parts, such as turbine
nozzles and buckets.
Hot-Gas-Path Inspection
The purpose of a hot-gas-path inspection is to examine those parts exposed to high temperatures
from the hot gases discharged from the combustion process. The hot-gas-path inspection
includes the full scope of the combustion inspection and, in addition, a detailed inspection of the
turbine nozzles, stationary stator shrouds and turbine buckets. To perform this inspection, the
top half of the turbine shell must be removed. Prior to shell removal, proper machine centreline
support using mechanical jacks is necessary to assure proper alignment of rotor to stator, obtain
accurate half-shell clearances and prevent twisting of the stator casings.
The first-stage turbine nozzle assembly is exposed to the direct hot-gas discharge from the
combustion process and is subjected to the highest gas temperatures in the turbine section. Such
conditions frequently cause nozzle cracking and oxidation and, in fact, this is expected. The
second- and third-stage nozzles are exposed to high gas bending loads, which, in combination
with the operating temperatures, can lead to downstream deflection and closure of critical axial
clearances. To a degree, nozzle distress can be tolerated and criteria have been established for
94
determining when repair is required. These limits are contained in the Maintenance and
Instruction Books previously described. As a general rule, first stage nozzles will require repair
at the hot-gas path inspection. The second- and third-stage nozzles may require refurbishment to
re-establish the proper axial clearances. Normally, turbine nozzles can be repaired several times
to extend life and it is generally repair cost versus replacement cost that dictates the replacement
decision.
Coatings play a critical role in protecting the combustion buckets operating at high metal
temperatures to ensure that the full capability of the high strength superalloy is maintained and
that the bucket rupture life meets design expectations. This is particularly true of cooled bucket
designs that operate above 1985F (1085C) firing temperature. Significant exposure of the base
metal to the environment will accelerate the creep rate and can lead to premature replacement
through a combination of increased temperature and stress and a reduction in material strength.
This degradation process is driven by oxidation of the unprotected base alloy. In the past, on
early generation uncooled designs, surface degradation due to corrosion or oxidation was
considered to be a performance issue and not a factor in bucket life. This is no longer the case at
the higher firing temperatures of current generation designs. These factors are illustrated in
Figure 52.
Given the importance of coatings, it must be recognized that even the best coatings available
will have a finite life and the condition of the coating will play a major role in determining
bucket replacement life. Refurbishment through stripping and recoating is an option for
extending bucket life, but if recoating is selected, it should be done before the coating has
breached to expose base metal.
Figure 52 Stage 1 bucket oxidation and bucket life. Courtesy GE
95
11.5 MAJOR INSPECTION
The purpose of the major inspection is to examine all of the internal rotating and stationary
components from the inlet of the machine through the exhaust section of the machine. A major
inspection should be scheduled in accordance with the recommendations in the owner's
Maintenance and Instructions Manual or as modified by the results of previous borescope and
hot-gas-path inspection. The work scope involves inspection of all of the major flange-to-flange
components of the gas turbine which are subject to deterioration during normal turbine
operation. This inspection includes previous elements of the combustion and hot-gas-path
inspections, in addition to laying open the complete flange-to-flange gas turbine to the
horizontal joints, as shown in Figure ##, with inspections being performed on individual items.
Prior to removing casings, shells and frames, the unit must be properly supported. Proper
centreline support using mechanical jacks and jacking sequence procedures are necessary to
assure proper alignment of rotor to stator, obtain accurate half shell clearances and to prevent
twisting of the casings while on the half shell.
Typical major inspection requirements for all machines are:
x All radial and axial clearances are checked against their original values (opening and
closing).
x Casings, shells and frames/ diffusers are inspected for cracks and erosion.
x Compressor inlet and compressor flowpath are inspected for fouling, erosion, corrosion
and leakage. The IGVs are inspected, looking for corrosion, bushing wear and vane
cracking.
x Rotor and stator compressor blades are checked for tip clearance, rubs, impact damage,
corrosion pitting, bowing and cracking.
x Turbine stationary shrouds are checked for clearance, erosion, rubbing, cracking, and
build-up.
x Seals and hook fits of turbine nozzles and diaphragms are inspected for rubs, erosion,
fretting or thermal deterioration.
x Turbine buckets are removed and a non-destructive check of buckets and wheel
dovetails is performed (first stage bucket protective coating should be evaluated for
remaining coating life). Buckets that were not recoated at the hot-gas-path inspection
should be replaced.
x Rotor inspections recommended in the maintenance and inspection manual or by
Technical Information Letters should be performed.
x Bearing liners and seals are inspected for clearance and wear.
x Inlet systems are inspected for corrosion, cracked silencers and loose parts.
x Exhaust systems are inspected for cracks, broken silencer panels or insulation panels.
x Check alignment - gas turbine to generator/gas turbine to accessory gear.
96
11.6 TURBINE BORE INSPECTIONS
Inspection of the bore and inside of rotors in gas and steam turbines has been difficult due to the
poor access and illumination. Commercial ultrasonic systems are now available that deploy
arrays of ultrasonic probes inside the bore to look for signs of cracking. A new commercial
system is shown below in Figure 53.
Figure 53 Ultrasonic turbine bore inspection system. Deploys arrays of ultrasonic
probes. Courtesy Phoenix
11.7 CLEANING
Gas turbine operation produces deposits and fouling which can affect smooth operation. It is
normal practice to clean the turbine at regular intervals. This is commonly done by the injection
of water droplets. It is very individual how this is done, different methods may be required for
on-line washing for 2-stage and one-stage turbines. Cleaning is characterised by flow rate and
pressure. To assist cleaning and optimise the process models have been developed for washing
17
systems . Such models may typically plot air flow rate versus power output. Smaller droplets
are desirable to avoid erosion. Injection may be into crossflow or parallel. Higher momentum
(size, velocity) gives better air flow penetration.
Washing frequency depends on the installation profile. Economic analysis is commonly used to
balance cleaning with operational requirements. For cleaning and other monitoring and
maintenance the following definitions are used:
x off-line not firing fuel,
x on-line firing fuel.
At high pressures small droplets are preferred, at low pressures 100-200Pm particles are typical.
In off-line cleaning the gas turbine is run at crank speed for cleaning; on-line the GT is run at
up-speed. There is a risk of running in flutter mode if too much water.
97
Key points to note for gas turbine washing include:
x On-line washing may not restore full power since dirt may be moved down the
compressor section settling at the high pressure sections.
x On-line washing needs to be supplemented with off-line washing to restore near-full
power conditions. To be effective, on-line washing needs to be carried out frequently
(once every 72 hours is typical)
x After each detergent on-line wash, a rinse wash should be applied to remove residue
from the injection nozzles.
x Effectiveness of washing techniques depends on the type of fouling experienced, the
selected washing liquid and the location of the injection nozzles.
x Solvent-based detergents are the most effective cleaning detergents. Water-based
detergents are less effective.
x Logging of performance records before and after washing are crucial to the washing
operation.
x Demineralised water with purity in accordance with Manufacturer's recommendations is
best used for washing. The critical issue is corrosion of the hot gas path due to
impurities.
x Selection of washing detergent needs to be based on the lowest possible ash content to
minimise hot gas path corrosion.
x For off-line washing, waste water handling shall be considered.
The cleaning of gas turbines has been modelled at Cranfield University and reported at
Turbo2004
17
. Particles deposit during operation; reduce inlet size and affect blade performance.
To clean it is normal to inject water droplets upstream of the compressor. There are a variety of
intake ducts on a given GT and a variety of operating conditions. Experiments are costly and
difficult; therefore it is preferable to do numerical analysis. Filter loss is included as a
correction, not explicitly included in the model domain. Outlet power and inlet mass flow
depend on installation, altitude (m), high ambient temperatures.
The Cranfield study modelled two scenarios: design point (DP) and a High Desert extreme
heavy duty installation (HD). At 870m in the HD environment power is down 23% and inlet
mass flow significantly reduced.
Droplet trajectories were modelled for a for 40 solid cone pattern. Flow was disrupted by the
bearing support struts. In gas turbine cleaning a complete wetting of first blade row from hub to
tip is essential. The spray centre line at the IGV was modelled. Better penetration was observed
as the velocity goes up. In HD conditions lower flow occured, better penetration above shaft
cone, adverse below. Shading occurred from the support struts. Jets impinged on the casing and
hit the support strut. The effect of particle size 300um and 50-500um was modelled.
It was concluded that operating condition has an effect on spray injection, Droplet trajectories
modelled based on momentum balance showed droplet diameter, injection velocity and
injection angle to be key factors. Small GTs have lower mass flow but similar operating
velocities to large GTs. The injection angle provides a simple method of compensation. It is a
common configuration to have vertical inlet ducts; in this situation the shaft cone is an obstacle.
98
11.8 SUMMARY BY SYSTEM AND COMPONENT
A summary of inspection practice by system and component is given below in Table 7. It should
be noted this is a general summary and actual inspection practice will vary between
manufacturer and turbine type; industrial or aero-derivative. Manufacturers may choose to
concentrate on specific areas dependent on the service experience with specific models and past
inspection and service experience on a given installation. There are areas such as the
combustion, hot gas path, exhaust and fuel systems that are common locations for degradation
in service and reported incidents (see Section 10.5).
99
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12 OPERATIONAL ISSUES
12.1 HAZARDS
Hazards associated with operation of GTS are covered in PM84 Paragraphs 6 to 11. HSE
Guidance Note PM84 is reproduced in full in Appendix 3. The fuel supply to a GT has to be at
high pressure. Typically, industrial units require natural gas up to 30 barg and some machines
require fuel up to 50 barg. The pipework supplying the fuel to the turbine combustion chambers
is often highly complex since the fuel is supplied to one or more annular distribution manifolds
connected to numerous individual burners. A combination of flanges, flexible pipes, valves and
bellows may be used, each being a potential leak site. Leaks are therefore foreseeable. Leaks
may be ignited immediately producing a flame, or may lead to the accumulation of a flammable
fuel air mixture. The delayed ignition of such a mixture within a confined space, such as an
acoustic enclosure, can lead to an explosion with potential for injury and major plant damage. A
leak of liquid at high pressure can produce a mist, which is flammable at a temperature below
the flashpoint of the liquid, so that leaks of liquid fuels, lubricating oils and hydraulic fluids
may also result in fires or explosions.
The burning of fuel in the GT may produce high surface temperatures capable of igniting a leak.
In the case of aero-engines the casings may glow dull red due to the heat produced. On larger
plant, hot surfaces in excess of 520C have been found during normal operation. In certain
circumstances such temperatures are sufficient to ignite leaks of mist or vapor from liquid fuels,
lubricating or hydraulic oils, as well as gaseous fuels.
GTs are a significant noise source capable of causing noise-induced hearing loss as well as
producing environmentally unacceptable noise. For these reasons they are often installed within
an acoustic enclosure.
Other explosion hazards may be present within the GT. An excess of flammable fuel/air mixture
may accumulate within the turbine inlet or exhaust system, which can be ignited (especially at
start-up).
Due to the high operating speeds mechanical failure can occur, in particular with turbine and
compressor blades and discs. Such failures can lead to a loss of containment, risk of injury or
damage from projectiles, mechanical damage, and fire and explosion risks from plant
disruption.
Electric shock and electromagnetic field hazards may also exist on generators and turbine
auxiliary systems.
12.2 START-UP AND SHUT-DOWN
Explosions within fired plant at start-up, due to the ignition of accumulated fuel, are a well-
recognized hazard, and measures should be adopted to control this hazard. Such measures
identified in PM84 should include adequate gas path purging (at least three volume changes)
before startup, a high standard of isolation to prevent leakage during shutdown and a controlled
duration for attempted ignition based on flame or combustion detection. Arrangements should
be provided to drain any accumulation of liquid fuel from the GT casing. These precautions are
normally inherent within the GT control package provided by the manufacturer. Care should
also be taken with the design of drain lines, to minimise risks when changing from a liquid fuel
to gas, by preventing gas from entering sump tanks. Consideration should also be given to
fitting gas detectors in such tanks.
105
12.3 SURGE PREVENTION
Surge is a backflow in pressure giving a momentary change in the direction of airflow. This is
different to overspeed. This flow reversal is accompanied by high fluctuating load on the
compressor bearings Surge must be avoided at all costs as it can cause damage to the turbine,
combustion chamber or back-end of the compressor; damage may be severe. There are a variety
of causes. Causes could include blockage of air supply, blockage of fuel or other transient
changes. In some circumstances it is possible to get a locked-in surge with pressure waves
bouncing back and forth.
Normally the gas turbine may carry on with little affect. In other circumstances surge can cause
severe damage, depending how deep the extent of the pressure variation. If surge conditions are
met, there is little an operator can do physically to stop or avoid a surge. Surge is best avoided
by keeping operation within strictly controlled boundaries which have been previously defined
and modelled by the turbine supplier. Some protection is afforded by surge-protection systems
and recycle valves which open to control pressure differentials if pressure variations potentially
leading to surge are monitored. Because of the potential consequences it is important to be
assured of the operator's competence in this area.
Surge is relevant to the air compressor in the turbine and to driven compressors. In the context
of gas turbines surge is possible in the Compressor (GC) of the GT. Where the GT drives a gas
compressor, surge must also be avoided in the driven equipment. Surge has the potential to
cause significant damage to a GT or compressor. If the discharge volume of trapped gas goes
past the stability limit a lot of load can be transferred to the thrust bearings. The GT usually
survives but the high stress conditions can lead to overheating of the machine.
Surge is avoided primarily by careful control of operating conditions so that the GT stays within
stability limits ( Figure 54). This is an important part of gas turbine design. Turbine suppliers
will run simulation models to ensure that the conditions that could give rise to surge in a given
design are well understood. A gas turbine will include a recycle loop with control valves
between the power turbine (PT) and gas compressor (GC) for surge prevention. Other ways of
minimising the likelihood of surge include: active and passive methods to increase the stability,
simulation to improve the accuracy of determining the stability (surge) limit, and simulation to
better understand the interaction between the compressor, the anti-surge devices (control
system, valves) and the station piping layout (coolers, scrubbers, check valves). A detailed study
of surge avoidance in centrifugal compressors driven by two-shaft gas turbines was given at
IGTI2004 by Kurz and White
7
The possible operating points of a centrifugal gas compressor
are limited by maximum and minimum operating speed, maximum available power, choke flow,
and stability (surge) limit
Surge is most likely during rapid or emergency shutdown. When the power supply is cut, the
rotating system slows down in inertia, gas is trapped with less head than normal operation.
Pressure is reduced, the ESD works against the emergency shutdown. Whether surge occurs
will depend on a number of factors including mass and energy balance, momentum, valve
characteristics, compressor characteristics and system inertia. Shutdown is rapid; as a rule of
thumb ~30% of speed is lost in the first second.
106
Figure 54 Limits of stable airflow
Each stage of a multi-stage air compressor possesses certain airflow characteristics that are
dissimilar from those of its neighbour; thus to design a workable and efficient compressor, the
characteristics of each stage must be carefully matched. This is a relatively simple process to
implement for one set of conditions (design mass flow, pressure ratio and rotational speed), but
is much more difficult when reasonable matching is to be retained with the compressor
operating over a wide range of conditions such as a gas turbine encounters.
If the engine demands a pressure rise from the compressor which is higher than the blading can
sustain, surge occurs. In this case there is an instantaneous breakdown of flow through the
machine and the high pressure air in the combustion system is expelled forward through the
compressor with a loud 'bang' and a resultant loss of engine thrust. Compressors are designed
with adequate margin to ensure that this area of instability is avoided
Models can give an understanding of the conditions leading to surge and aid prevention
7
. Recent
experience of using models by Statoil in the Troll field [Bjorge IGTI 2004] showed that models
can give insight to the factors causing surge and what protects the system, for example high
inertia, slow power decay and power-loss delay. Modern control systems with real time
monitoring of exhaust temperature and feedback can adjust performance of all parts of the
turbine (air compression, fuel input etc.) to prevent surge
A key factor in surge prevention is the downstream volume. Proper sizing of the system and
pressure side volume is essential. The volume downside of the check valve should be reduced as
much as possible. The size of the downstream volume is very important to get stability in the
compression system. The pressure coupling between the compressor and gas turbine is also an
important factor in determining the size of discharge volume.
Simplified models are available from suppliers to look at surge issues. These have been
validated against test data. The turbine supplier will normally determine what ESD valve to
use. In operation stepping to idle is preferred to ESD. Supplier experience is that ~90% of ESDs
are preventable. Surge in driven compressors may also impact on gas turbine integrity. Surge
avoidance in compressors is covered in Reference
7
12.4 RECYCLE FACILITY
The usual method for surge avoidance, anti-surge control, consists of operation and control of a
recycle loop. This can be activated by a fast acting valve, the anti-surge valve, when the control
system detects that the compressor is approaching its surge limit. Typical control systems use
107
suction and discharge pressure and temperature, together with the inlet flow into the compressor
as input to calculate the relative distance, the surge margin, of the present operating point to the
predicted or measured surge line of the air compressor or driven compressor.
If the surge margin reaches a preset value (often 10%), the anti-surge valve starts to open,
thereby reducing the pressure ratio of the compressor and increasing the flow through the
compressor. The situation is complicated by the fact that the surge valve also has to be capable
of precisely controlling low. Additionally, some manufacturers place limits on how far into
choke (or overload) they allow their compressors to operate. The surge prevention system may
cause associated noise and vibration problems.
12.5 CONTROL SYSTEMS
Control systems have been covered in detail in Section 0 and are also covered in PM84. Gas
turbines are complex machines and synchronisation and controlled operation of the different
systems is essential to ensure smooth operation and avoid surge or instability. It is important
that operators are fully familiar with the operation of the control system and any warning
indicators that may be indicative of a deviation from normal operating conditions. Gas turbines
are tolerant and reliable in normal operation provided fuel flow and input of air remain uniform.
Control is often undertaken through monitoring of exhaust temperature. In turbine packages,
the turbine control must respond to the operating requirements for the driven equipment such as
alternators, pumps or compressors.
A major recent North Sea incident occurred where a maintenance engineer had shut off part of
the control system during routine maintenance. The logic controlling the purging system for the
combustion chamber had been bypassed. There was a flame-out problem on restart. A
significant explosion occurred due to build up of fuel within the chamber damaging the power
turbine and exhaust and taking out the waste heat recovery systems. HSE inspectors
investigating were surprised that no controls were in place to prevent the maintenance engineer
switching off this safety control system.
Maintenance of gas turbines is usually subcontracted with the maintenance companies following
their own procedures. Gas turbines operate within clearly defined margins. Normal practice
before carrying out a new procedure or bypassing control systems in this way would be to
contact the turbine manufacturer who would simulate on their computer models and assure the
planned intervention would be OK
The key issue is that before overriding or modifying any part of the control system, the
maintenance engineer should check with the manufacturer that this is safe. Such changes need
to be undertaken by personnel with appropriate training and authorisation. Shortcuts are to be
avoided.
12.6 VIBRATION MONITORING
Vibration monitoring is used primarily to monitor conditions of bearings, blade tip rub, blade
integrity. Any imbalance in these causes vibration. Vibration monitoring gives an early
warning of any issues before they have time to cause major damage.
If the operating conditions imposed upon the compressor blade departs too far from the design
intention, breakdown of airflow and/or aerodynamically induced vibration will occur. These
phenomena may take one of two forms; the blades may stall because the angle of incidence of
108
the air relative to the blade is too high (positive incidence stall) or too low (negative incidence
stall). The former is a front stage problem at low speeds and the latter usually affects the rear
stages at high speed, either can lead to blade vibration which can induce rapid destruction.
12.7 FIRE DETECTION REQUIREMENTS
Fire and gas detection is essential in and around the acoustic enclosures. Advice on gas
detection can be found in PM84. At least one gas detector should always be installed if the GT
has a gaseous fuel supply. The best location for gas detection is in the ventilation outlet because
a leak will always reach it. The detector should be located sufficiently downstream to ensure
adequate mixing within the outlet duct. Additional detectors can also be used within the
enclosure to increase the probability of detecting small leaks. As well as considering the best
location for such additional detectors, care needs to be taken that they are not exposed to
temperatures above their operating range. Some large units have successfully used piped
sampling systems to monitor for gas from potential leaks. The sampling regime of these systems
means they are slow to respond but may be valuable as an additional source of warning of small
leaks. In the case of a turbine hall, CFD modelling work suggests it is useful to model likely
fuel dispersions around the GTs to identify the best location for gas detectors
30
. The
effectiveness of such detectors may also be improved by providing baffles, which will direct
predicted flows towards them.
The settings for gas detectors placed around a GT should be dictated by their purpose. Gas
detectors in the ventilation outlet from the enclosure should be set to alarm at the lowest
reasonably practicable level, preferably below 5% of the lower explosive limit (LEL) but not
exceeding 10%. Ventilation inlets should be located in a safe area, but if there is a possibility of
a flammable mixture being drawn into the enclosure via the air inlets, then further fast-acting
gas detectors will be required. In the event of a gas alarm safe plant rundown should be
initiated. During this period, the ventilation should run at its maximum rate. The increase in
ventilation may reduce the gas concentration, but this should not cancel the alarm or delay the
rundown. It should only be possible to cancel alarms manually and preferably only after the
plant has shut down. High-level trips should also be set as low as reasonably practicable, but no
higher than 25% of the LEL and should initiate automatic GT trip with gas supply valves being
fully closed. Intermediate detector settings, between the alarm and trip settings, may be valuable
as a means of initiating automatic controlled shutdown of larger turbines. Very sensitive
detectors may be valuable as a means of early warning of a gas leak, which may enable safe
access to investigate the leak source.
Gas detectors should be selected in accordance with BS EN 50073 and installed and calibrated
regularly in accordance with manufacturers' recommendations. In-situ calibration facilities are
recommended if plant is expected to run continuously for long periods. The use of additional
detectors or recalibration may be required for different fuels. However, recalibration must be
strictly controlled to prevent the incorrect setting of detectors. Where spurious trips must be
minimised, such as at larger plant or critical supply installations, a voting system based on a
number of detectors in the ventilation outlet may be used. For example, activation of any one
out of three detectors would initiate an alarm. However, any two out of three detectors above the
trip level would be required to automatically shut down the fuel supply. Displays of gas levels,
recording and trending facilities can also add to reliability and aid the diagnosis of faults.
12.8 PRECAUTIONS AGAINST FIRE
Guidance on precautions against fire is given in PM84 paragraphs14-22. Minimizing the risk of
fuel and oil leakage and controlling the presence of sources of ignition will reduce the risk of
109
fire. The presence of exposed hot surfaces during normal operation precludes complete control
over sources of ignition.
The fuel supply should be interlocked in a fail-safe manner with the fire and gas detection
systems. It should also be possible to manually isolate the fuel supply from a safe position
outside any enclosure around a GT.
Many oil fires, in particular oil-soaked insulation fires, have occurred. Insulation materials in
areas susceptible to oil leaks or likely to be exposed to such fluids during general maintenance
can include a protective film or metal skin. This should be carefully installed to avoid
puncturing, and seams should be taped or folded in such a way as not to collect fluids. Further
protection of high risk pipes can be achieved by the use of double-walled pipe systems to
contain any leak. To minimise risk, lubrication and hydraulic oil systems should be designed
and constructed to recognised engineering standards.
Once a GT is in service, a regular scheme of inspection for leaks of both fuel and oil should be
developed and implemented. This should be carried out in accordance with a safe system of
work to minimise the risk to those carrying out the inspection. Guidance on access to enclosures
is given in paragraphs 54-57. Such an inspection scheme should be regularly reviewed and
modified according to user experience. Results of inspections should be recorded. While visual
inspections can help identify liquid leaks they will not detect gas fuel leaks.
A fixed fire protection system should be installed to mitigate the consequences of a fire on the
GT. This should be to an appropriate standard, such as NFPA 750, BS ISO 14520PM or BS
5306 and, as a minimum, designed to be capable of at least suppressing a fire on the GT or
within the GT enclosure. The design and installation of fixed fire protection systems is a
specialist field and it is recommended that companies experienced in fire protection engineering
are consulted.
In considering the design of a fire protection system, careful attention also needs to be given to
its interactions with other parts of the installation and personnel. These may include:
a) The ventilation system;
b) The isolation of the fuel supply to reduce fire loading and the risk of explosion once the
fire has been extinguished;
c) The isolation of the electrical supply;
d) The choice of extinguishant to minimise the risk of electrocution or asphyxiation;
e) The environment in which the GT is installed; and
f) The means of access to the enclosure and the location of emergency shutdown
pushbuttons and fuel isolation devices.
g) The openings into the enclosure should be fitted with an automatic closing damper.
The early and reliable detection of fire is critical to the successful performance of the fire
protection system. Key to this is the careful choice and siting of fire detectors in the GT
enclosure. No single type of fire detector is the best in all situations and typically a combination
of thermal, flame and smoke detectors will be appropriate. The choice should be based on an
analysis of the characteristics of the potential fires that might occur in the GT enclosure and
their particular causes. Fire detectors should comply with the relevant part of BS EN 54 and
should be installed in accordance with the recommendations of BS 5839 and BS 7273. A
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manual release facility for the fire protection system should also be provided in accordance with
the recommendations of BS 7273.
Where a fixed fire protection system is installed it should be regularly inspected and properly
maintained in accordance with BS 5839 and BS 7273. The fire protection system should be
periodically inspected and serviced by a competent person with the necessary skills and
specialist knowledge of such systems. A suitable record should be kept of the inspection checks,
servicing and maintenance work carried out. The user should carry out a daily check that the
system is operational and other regular checks and tests detailed in the user instructions
provided by the fire protection system installer. The user should ensure that those with
responsibility for carrying out these tasks are adequately trained.
Exposure to extinguishants that are potentially hazardous should be prevented. This may be
achieved by selecting a non-hazardous extinguishant, eg water mist. Alternatively, potentially
hazardous extinguishants, such as gaseous fire extinguishants, can be used under carefully
controlled conditions to prevent inadvertent exposure to the extinguishant. The control
requirements depend on the particular extinguishant and its maximum concentration in the
enclosure. Details and recommendations on this are contained in BS ISO 14520. Extinguishing
systems that may create an asphyxiation or toxic hazard should be isolated before entry into an
enclosure. The isolation procedure should comply with BS ISO 14520 and BS 7273. However,
systems based on extinguishants such as water mist do not have to be isolated so the risk of
inadvertent isolation is eliminated. Inadvertent exposure to extinguishants should be avoided,
even with fire protection systems using concentrations at which there are no observed adverse
toxicological or physiological effects, in accordance with BS 5839.
PM84-5
A suitable alarm
should be incorporated into the fire protection control system to provide sufficient warning to
people within the enclosure to make their escape before discharge of the extinguishant. Where
there is a potential visibility hazard, the exits from the enclosure should be adequately
illuminated. Any air exhausts or air inlet.
12.9 RISK ASSESSMENT FOR ROUTINE ACTIVITIES
Risk assessment should be in place for routine activities such as cab entry, water wash, isolation
schemes and start-up checks. Guidance on Risk Assessment for GTs is given in PM84
paragraphs 12-13. Risk assessment should be undertaken by competent people at all stages of
the design, manufacture, packaging and commissioning of the GT. This should also include the
consequences of foreseeable abnormal operation impacting on nearby plant, for example on an
offshore platform. Manufacturers and suppliers should not only use existing knowledge of
hazards associated with GTs but should also maintain contact with the users of such plant to
gain information on plant failures. The commissioning stage is particularly important as it
necessarily includes the first admission of fuel to the equipment and also because the
responsibility for managing the plant is being progressively transferred to the user.
Before handover the user should carry out a suitable and sufficient risk assessment on the
operation of the GT. This should include the requirements of the Management of Health and
Safety at Work Regulations 1999 (see paragraph 80) and of the Dangerous Substances and
Explosive Atmospheres Regulations (see PM84 paragraph 91). For larger plants, which
generally present a greater risk, a more detailed risk assessment may be required, including the
use of qualitative or quantitative risk analysis techniques. As well as confirming that the safety
features of the plant meet the agreed specification, the risk assessment should also pay particular
attention to operational procedures. Third-party design appraisal may be used to demonstrate
reduced risk by providing verification that relevant design standards have been met. The
adequacy of the training and experience of those involved with the operation, maintenance,
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inspection and monitoring of the GT plant should also be confirmed. Consideration should be
given to the site conditions in which the equipment is installed, in order to reduce the risk of
environmental or third-party impact; for example weather related motion would affect
performance and lifecycle of components and equipment installed on floating platforms. The
risk assessment should be reviewed at appropriate intervals as operational experience develops.
12.10 ACCESS
Safety issues concerned with access to GT enclosures and confined spaces are covered in PM84
Paragaphs 54 to 57.The acoustic enclosure around a GT is likely to be a confined space (see
PM84 paragraph 82) as there is a foreseeable risk of serious injury due to the leakage and
subsequent ignition of a flammable fuel. Entry for maintenance when the GT has been shut
down should be under the control of a suitable safe system of work, which may include a permit
to work. Such a safe system of work should include the manual isolation of the fuel supply and
the testing of the atmosphere within the enclosure to confirm the absence of flammable or toxic
gases.
Strong justification will be required for entry to an enclosure during turbine operation. All other
potential options for carrying out the work from outside the enclosure should be considered
before allowing entry. Instrumentation with remote indication should be used to avoid routine
entry. CCTV and/or viewing windows can be used where practicable to provide visual checks
on machinery conditions. On new plant, both manufacturers and users should try to eliminate
the need for entry. If there is no alternative then it should be restricted to a minimum duration
and limited to authorised personnel carrying out specific tasks. The risk assessment should
identify why such an entry is required, what the inherent hazards are, and the measures to be
taken to reduce them. Thermal and noise hazards should also be considered in setting entry
duration. A written safe system of work will be required which may include a permit to enter
and to carry out specified work. Appropriate precautions should be taken to prevent the trapping
of personnel inside the enclosure under any foreseeable circumstances.
Due to the increased risk while load and fuel changes are taking place, entry should be
prohibited at these times. Such changes can occur automatically. However, entry should not be
permitted to the enclosure when there is an imminent planned change. Load changes may
increase the risk of a leak by an increase in fuel pressure when an idling GT is brought on load.
The small variations that occur during normal running are not considered to increase risk.
Changing from one fuel to another may increase the possibility of a leak occurring due to the
increase in fuel system pressures or use of different pipework. Similarly, entry at start-up and
under any ongoing uncontrolled emergency condition should not be permitted.
For GTs in a turbine hall, close approach to a running machine and access to hazardous areas in
the vicinity of the GT should be kept to the minimum necessary for safe operation in accordance
with risk assessment.
12.11 HAZARD MANAGEMENT IN HOT-SPOTS
Gas turbines operate at extremely high temperatures, sometimes exceeding 2000C in the
combustor and gas generator (Figure 1), the hottest parts of the gas turbine. The exhaust
manifold in particularly can achieve high temperatures and is covered with lagging for safety
reasons. Despite the use of air cooling the turbine casing may also be extremely hot.
These high temperatures pose a risk in terms of injury and burns to personnel and fire ignition
following oil, gas or fuel leak. Rigorous safety measures should be in place to avoid injury to
112
personnel from contact with hot surfaces. The integrity of lagging should be checked,
particularly after storm conditions.
Analysis of the incidents, dangerous occurrences and accidents on UK installations (Section
10.5 ) indicates ignition from oil and fuel leaks to be responsible for a high proportion of the
total incidents. Good maintenance and preventative measures against leakage or subsequent
ignition is important
12.12 PRECAUTIONS AGAINST EXPLOSION
Precautions against explosion are covered in guidance PM84 paragraphs 23 to 30. This includes
ventilation, dilution ventilation and explosion suppression. If an enclosure is provided, then
precautions should also be taken against explosion hazards. These precautions should be based
on risk assessment. The use of certain fuels having low auto-ignition temperatures (AIT) or
ignition energies, such as naphtha or hydrogen enriched fuel, requires specialist advice because
of their particular hazards. The risk assessment should identify the additional risks posed by
such fuels and any measures necessary to reduce the risk to an acceptable level.
Ventilation was initially installed in acoustic enclosures to assist cooling of the GTs.
Subsequently it has been shown that it can also be used as a basis of safety, if designed as
dilution ventilation. In practice this means that the ventilation should ensure that there are no
stagnant or poorly ventilated spaces and that any leak is effectively mixed with air. Re-
circulation and re-entrainment should be minimised, further reducing any accumulation of
flammable mixture. This may require a large number of air inlet positions to obtain adequate
distribution and, in extreme cases, supplementary fans or air distributors. Dilution ventilation is
only acceptable as a basis of safety when associated with the use of suitable gas detection. See
PM84 paragraphs 43-45.
In most cases a GT cannot directly comply with the regulations made to implement the ATEX
Directive (paragraph 88), because of the requirement to exclude hot surfaces from hazardous
areas. The European Commission have published guidance on their website
29
, which confirms
that the provision of dilution ventilation will, by preventing an explosion, enable GTs operating
in an enclosure to be regarded as ATEX compliant. Conformity assessment of the ventilation
design, in the UK, will be required to ATEX Equipment-Group II, Category 3 equivalence, and
will therefore be the responsibility of the final supplier.
While dilution ventilation has now been accepted as the preferred basis of safety, explosion
relief and explosion suppression may be used as additional risk reduction measures. However if
either of these techniques were to be used as an alternative basis of safety, then appropriate
justification would be required.
Explosion relief is easier and less costly to fit to new plant than to retrofit. It has the advantage
of proven reliability as a basis of safety in many process industries. Strengthening of the
enclosure can be used to reduce the vent area required. Modification of existing roof panels may
provide sufficient explosion relief. All such relief panels should be restrained and should
discharge to a safe place, preferably in the open air, in order to prevent injury to personnel and
damage to adjacent plant. Any ductwork associated with the relief panels should be designed to
contain the expected pressures.
Explosion suppression is a well established technique in other industries. A suitable suppressant
is distributed within an enclosure at the onset of an explosion with such speed that the explosion
is quenched and the pressure rise is limited to a small acceptable value. It can be linked to a fire
extinguishing system and will similarly preclude access to the plant during normal operation
113
unless isolated. Ventilation, fuel controls and fire extinguishing systems may need to be linked
to the suppression system to maintain safety following its operation.
Turbines within spacious halls are unlikely to present an explosion hazard, since foreseeable
flammable mixtures are not sufficiently enclosed. Such an arrangement has significant
advantages of accessibility for maintenance, although employees in the building are likely to
need protection against exposure to noise. In turbine halls the use of dilution ventilation as a
basis for safety and ATEX compliance is less applicable, and the focus shifts towards gas
detection. However, the ventilation of such large halls should be designed, and checked, to
ensure that large accumulations of flammable mixture would not arise from foreseeable leaks,
and that such leaks can be detected
8
Screens or baffles may assist the detection of leaks by
restricting the spread of fuel/air mixtures. Access to hazardous areas in the vicinity of the GT
should be restricted to mitigate the residual risk, as noted at PM84 paragraph 57.
GT enclosures may, in exceptional circumstances, be installed in a hazardous area. Their
installation in zone 1 areas (see definitions of zones in BS EN 60079109) should be avoided. If
installation is contemplated in zone 2 areas, expert specialist advice should be sought. Such
advice should include consideration of the following precautions:
a) Combustion air and ventilation air should be drawn from a safe area, i.e. un-zoned,
taking wind effects into account;
b) Fast-acting gas detectors should be placed in combustion air and ventilation air intakes
to provide alarm and trip functions. These detectors should be set to the lowest levels
compatible with a minimum of spurious operations;
c) Engine exhaust should discharge to a safe place outside any zoned areas, taking wind
effects into account;
d) Ventilation should be forced, so as to maintain a positive pressure within the enclosure;
e) A pressure detector should be used to interlock the enclosure pressure with the GT fuel
trip;
f) Access to the enclosure should be prevented during GT operation and after engine
shutdown until hot surfaces have cooled to a safe level. An assessment of the time
required to achieve adequate cooling will be required;
g) The enclosure should be constructed to minimise air loss to the outside;
h) In general, the enclosure and associated equipment should comply with BS EN
standards for equipment intended for use in hazardous atmospheres; and
i) Depending upon the regulations applicable to the installation site, certification of
conformity and appropriate marking may also be required.
12.13 VENTILATION
Ventilation requirements andeffectiveness are covered in PM84 paragraphs 31 to 41.
If practicable for new plant, ventilation should be designed so that it passes from potential
hydrocarbon leak sources away from surfaces which are at a high temperature, and not towards
them. However, in doing so care should be taken not to expose other sensitive components, such
as instrumentation and cable trays, to excessive temperatures. Also any modified ventilation
flow should not generate component stresses in the GT casing that could lead to failure. It
should be noted that the appropriate distribution of ventilation air is more important than its
quantity, and that high ventilation rates may inhibit the detection of small leaks.
114
Dilution ventilation air movement should be monitored and interlocked to GT start and trip
sequences so that the unit cannot start without sufficient ventilation and GT pre-purging. The
gas shut-off valves should not open and any gas-line vent valves should not close until after the
GT purge cycle is complete. Failure of the ventilation system during running should initiate a
fuel trip, unless the ventilation is automatically restored from an alternate or emergency power
supply. This should also supply the air movement detection instruments, gas detection
instruments and associated engine trip systems. In the case of battery back-up systems a
controlled shutdown should be initiated within the expected safe period of operation of the
batteries. Reliance must not be placed on battery back-up systems to continue normal running.
All types of electrical back-up systems involved in safe operation of the plant will require
regular maintenance and testing to ensure their continued availability.
At turbine start-up, thermally induced flows that are present during normal operation may be
absent. The possibility of gas leaks is also likely to be greater at start-up, for example following
maintenance operations. The effectiveness of the ventilation under normal operating conditions
and at turbine start-up should therefore be confirmed.
In smaller enclosures the effectiveness of the ventilation may be studied with the use of smoke
combined with closed circuit television (CCTV). In larger enclosures (above about 50 m
3
) tracer
gas techniques have been used effectively. However, it has been found that in most cases
ventilation and gas leakage in these larger enclosures are best predicted by modelling with
computational fluid dynamics (CFD). Currently other available techniques may fail to take full
account of the momentum of the leak. An additional benefit is that CFD permits a quantitative
assessment against the criterion noted below. A CFD approach also has the advantage. that
ventilation modifications, if shown to be necessary, can be modelled without actual plant
change, or even before the plant is built.
A quantitative criterion against which to assess dilution ventilation efficiency in enclosures has
been proposed
[10]
and shown to be both conservative
[PM84-8]
and attainable. It is based on the
principle of limiting any foreseeable accumulation of flammable mixture, so that its ignition
would not present a hazard to the strength of the enclosure or to people. The criterion proposes
that the size of the flammable cloud, as defined by the iso-surface at 50% of the lower explosive
limit (LEL), should be no larger than 0.1 % of the net enclosure volume. This criterion has been
developed to allow a common basis for assessment of ventilation effectiveness in enclosures. It
is primarily applicable to a CFD-based approach. The results of any research into this field
should be taken into account as they become available.
In adopting a CFD approach, the model should be representative of the plant. The geometry of
the enclosure, turbine and associated equipment should be adequately resolved by the CFD grid.
It may not prove possible to explicitly resolve small obstacles, such as pipework, fittings etc, in
which case these should be taken into account by adopting a porosity-based approach. The
number and location of ventilation inlets and outlets should be correctly represented, as should
the flow rates. Consideration should be given to thermal boundary conditions, and the need to
satisfy an overall heat balance for the turbine enclosure system. Where possible, the CFD model
should be demonstrated as being representative of actual conditions, by comparison of
simulated velocity and temperature fields with in-situ measurements.
The effects of buoyancy in a CFD model should be addressed, since thermally induced natural
convection flows can be significant. While the main fuel, natural gas, is inherently buoyant, a
high-pressure release will normally cause a substantial amount of mixing, and the resulting gas
cloud may then be at relatively low concentration. In these circumstances the gas cloud could be
more affected by the background ventilation, including any thermally induced flows, or flows
115
induced by the momentum of the release. The modelling of the gas leak in a CFD approach can
be undertaken in one of two ways: either the leak source is resolved explicitly by the CFD grid,
or the effects of the leak are introduced as sub-grid scale sources of mass, momentum, energy,
and turbulence. In practice, it is usually not feasible to resolve the leak directly at its source, due
to its small dimensions. In such cases it is acceptable to use correlations or a simple jet model to
provide a larger pseudo-source a small distance downstream from the leak location, which can
be resolved by the CFD grid. In general, this approach is more reliable than use of a sub-grid
scale source.
The leak rate to be modelled in CFD simulations should be the largest leak that would just pass
undetected. This can be calculated as that gas release rate which, when fully mixed in the
ventilating air passing through the enclosure, just initiates the alarm for a detector located in the
ventilation outlet. Larger leaks than this should be readily detected and appropriate action taken.
Smaller leaks could pass undetected, but present no hazard if the ventilation design has been
validated.
A CFD approach should aim to demonstrate that the ventilation is effective for a credible `worst
case'. The leak rate should be calculated using the above approach, and the leak location and
orientation chosen to produce the largest flammable cloud predicted by CFD modelling. This
can be best achieved by an approach which identifies poorly ventilated regions, ie re-circulating
or stagnant flow. Identification of poorly ventilated regions can be achieved by analysing
simulations or measurements. Since it is not possible to know, in advance, which combination
of factors will lead to the largest flammable cloud, a small number of alternative leak locations
and orientations should be simulated. These leak scenarios should be investigated separately to
avoid interactions, rather than all modelled within a single simulation.
CFD results should be subject to sensitivity analysis regarding areas of modelling uncertainty.
In particular, the sensitivity of the flammable cloud volume to the mesh resolution should be
addressed. This can, for example, be achieved by local grid refinement. The numerical schemes
that are used to estimate fluid flow across the boundaries of grid cells can also have a significant
influence on the accuracy of the results. Simple schemes may result in over-rapid mixing,
purely as a consequence of numerical errors. This effect is commonly referred to as false, or
numerical, diffusion. More advanced numerical schemes should ideally be used to avoid
excessive numerical diffusion.
12.14 FUEL SUPPLY SYSTEMS
Fuel supply systems are covered in paragraphs 48 and 49 of PM84. Fuel pipework should be
designed, constructed, tested and installed to an appropriate recognised standard. Relevant
references are given in Institution of Gas Engineers and Managers publication UP/9.14
Replacement pipework should be subject to the same standards. Vulnerable pipework should be
routed so as to avoid the likely disintegration plane of ejected turbine disks and blades. Fuel
pipework should also be designed with the minimum of non-welded joints compatible with
maintenance requirements. Assembly and maintenance requirements should be considered at the
design stage.
All fuel pipelines should be assembled, and reassembled following maintenance, under a quality
assurance scheme. They should also be pressure tested, so far as practicable. All flanges and
fittings upstream of any final flanges or connections at combustion chambers should be pressure
and leak tested after assembly. Final flanges or connections should be tightened under recorded
and controlled quality assured conditions, and leak tested so far as practicable. Adequate access
to all such fuel pipework flanges is thus essential. Where it is possible to produce a small
116
backpressure by spinning the gas turbine, techniques such as the use of proprietary leak
detection spray or a tracer gas can be used to aid leak detection
33
.
12.15 GAS FUEL
Paragraphs 50 and 51 of PM84 give special precautions for gas fuel
A high standard of automatic isolation, based on two safety shut-off valves meeting class A
performance standards, should be fitted to the gas supply to prevent gas from passing into
downstream equipment while the GT is stationary. For systems where the fuel thermal energy
input flow rate exceeds 1.2 MW, the valves should be fitted with a system to prove their
effective closure, for example by the fitting of proving switches to detect mechanical overtravel,
or by sequential pressure proving, which may use an intermediate vent valve. The latter system
has the advantage that it effectively tests the valves for leakage at each start-up and shutdown.
Further guidance on isolation is given in IGE/UP/9.
For applications where gas supplied by a national gas transporter is further compressed by the
end user, safety features will be required to prevent the back feed of high-pressure gas into the
distribution system.
Appropriate measures to prevent this situation during upset conditions may be required by the
gas transporter. Such measures could include:
a) a plant inlet `emergency shutdown valve' acting on rising pressure in addition to other
plant safety requirements; and
b) a 'non-return valve' at the suction side of the gas compressor package to prevent reverse
flow.
Further details are given in IGE /UP/6.
12.16 ADDITIONAL EXPLOSION PRECAUTIONS FOR LIQUID FUELS AND OILS
Additional precautions to avoid explosion with liquid fuels and oils are given in Paragraphs 52
and 53 of PM84.
Liquid fuel leaks from high-pressure sources can produce a mist, which can be flammable at a
temperature below the flashpoint of the liquid. Ignition of such a mist can have explosive effects
similar to gas explosions. Effective ventilation should be provided but, because ventilation is
less effective in diluting and removing liquid droplets, their formation should be avoided as far
as possible. Vulnerable joints and fittings should be minimised. Consideration should be given
to the use of welded joints or the use of double containment pipework, as well as to the use of
proprietary mist eliminators (spray shields) or encapsulation to protect remaining vulnerable
joints and fittings. Mist detection should be considered as a further risk reduction measure if
practicable. So far as possible, joints should be positioned so that leaks do not drip or spray onto
hot surfaces. In particular, for liquid fuels of very low AIT such as naphtha, segregation of risk
areas, explosion relief or explosion suppression should be considered. This is because of the
increased risk of ignition and the uncertainties of CFD modelling of such releases. Further
guidance on liquid fuel installations is given in IGE/UP/9.
High pressure leaks of lubricating oils and hydraulic oils may also produce a flammable mist
with risks similar to those noted above for fuels. The properties of any such flammable fluids
should be obtained from suppliers and taken into account in a risk assessment. Where necessary,
additional precautions as described above should be considered to reduce the risk. Where other
117
risk reduction measures against flammable oil mists do not provide an adequate level of safety,
it will be necessary to use fire-resistant or non-flammable fluids.
12.17 EMERGENCY PROCEDURES
Emergency procedures are covered in Paragraph 59 of PM84. Actions to be taken in the event
of fire or gas alarms should be written into emergency plans and regularly reviewed. Guidance
from suppliers should be sought and applied. Training in emergency procedures should be given
to operators. Instructions should be given on when to shut down under controlled conditions or
to trip fuel
supplies immediately, when to summon the emergency services, control of the ventilation
system, access limitation, and emergency communications. Emergency shutdown controls
should be located within the control room and at other appropriate locations based on a risk
assessment.
12.18 AIR AND GAS SEALS
There are many air and gas seals in gas turbines to separate different regions and pressures of air
and gas flow and to facilitate cooling of high temperature components. Air may build up in the
lubricant oil used for bearing and seals in the gas turbine. This is separated off in separation
tank. Air inlet to the tank is controlled to avoid the risk of explosion, with breather valves to
avoid pressure build-up. There have been quite a few incidents associated with blockage of
breather valves, leading to pressure release. This can pose a safety hazard particularly if sour
gas is present and in enclosed environments.
12.19 CHANGEOVER IN DUEL FUEL SYSTEMS
Many offshore gas turbines are duel fuel, that is they can also operate on diesel as well as
produced gas. There have been a number of incidents associated with fuel changeover. It is
important to ensure that necessary control sequences are carried out. This includes shutting off
the fuel system for conventional gas operation and purging the combustion chambers to clear
these of existing fuel build up.
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13 RECENT TRENDS
13.1 MICROTURBINE DEVELOPMENT
A recent trend is the development of small microturbines for simple power generation or driven
equipment applications. The positive features of microturbines are large power for small size.
The negatives are fuel requirements and running cost. Applications foreseen include use in the
home to cover grid unreliability, refrigeration, and military use for remote vehicles and sensors.
There are potential offshore applications include use on remote installations or where a small
local power or drive requirement such as pumping exists.
Compact radial and centrifugal designs have been developed by Hitachi http://www.power-
hitachi.com and SWRI GE have been developing microturbines in the CHP project
15
. Goal is
33-40% electrical efficiency. Applications seen include power refrigeration and heating.
x NOx <7ppm
x 10,000h between major overhauls
x Cost $500/kW
In refrigeration an evaporator, condensor and power module are required. Microturbines tend to
use integral single-piece component turbines rather than individual turbine blades.
13.2 DRY LOW EMISSIONS (DLE)
Increasingly stringent emission controls have produced a trend to gas turbines giving low NOx
and CO emissions (<25vppm). This is achieved using a dry low emissions (DLE) combustion
systems and requires careful control of air and fuel input and other operating parameters. DLE
versions are available now from most major suppliers.
As an example, design innovations to achieve DLE and give significantly lower NOx emissions
in RB211gas generators in Rolls Royce Trent and Coberra 6000 gas turbines included:
x pre-mix, lean burn combustion in original lean burn designs. Successful initially but
developed a noise problem.
x Solution to make fueling asymmetric and moving the location of heat release. Similar
problems were found in the secondary zone and removed.
x less cooling air and lower flame temperature to give lower Nox emissions and improved
fuel mixing
x new shorter combustors. These gave more uniform and lower NOx emissions.
x new mixing ducts fuel in, air gradually goes in
x damping technologies to remove noise.
x pressure wave dumping, resonant cavities take out noise. New combustor gives much
lower noise.
x Closed loop emission control
The temperature is critical to the level of emissions. Too low a temperature leads to CO, too
high a temperature results in higher NOx emissions as illustrated below in Figure 55.
119
NOx CO
C
O
L
e
v
e
l
65
0
100
N
O
x
L
e
v
e
l
0
2000
Temperature (qC)
Figure 55 Schematic illustrating the effect of temperature on NOx and CO emissions
13.3 STEAM INJECTION FOR EMISSION REDUCTION AND POWER OUTPUT
An alternative way of reducing NOx and CO emissions to below 3ppm has been reported
35
involving premixing steam with the fuel prior to its combustion. The steam is intimately mixed
with the fuel in such away as to suppress the size of the flame and promote combustion
efficiency. This combustion consumes much of the excess oxygen and thereby inhibits NOx and
CO formation. Very low emission levels have been demonstrated in preliminary laboratory and
engine testing.
The use of steam injection to increase power output of gas turbines is already established. It has
been reported that steam mass flow typically boosts power output by up to 30%. Without
consuming more fuel with a 15% reduction in plant heat rate
35.
.
13.4 WASTE HEAT RECOVERY UNITS
Waste heat recovery units (WHRU) are increasingly used offshore. These convert waste heat
generated in the exhaust gases of the gas turbine for hot water, heating, process and other
services. This is achieved by integrating a WHRU heat exchanger unit within the exhaust
system of the gas turbine.
13.5 COMBINED CYCLE GAS TURBINES
Combined cycle gas turbines CCGTs combine a gas turbine with a steam turbine used for
secondary power generation
14
. The heat generated from the gas turbine is used to produce steam
for the steam turbine. CCGTs therefore have greater efficiency than conventional gas turbines.
CCCGTs are more commonly found in power stations than offshore installations. Daily cycling
and weekend shutdowns can reduce component life.
120
Figure 56 Advanced combined cycle gas turbine system configuration. Courtesy GE
36
.
The use of combined cycle is usually associated with larger turbines such as the GE Frame 5 15-
18MW to very large gas turbines (>100MW) in conventional utilities. Smaller CCGTs are
available, for example in the 5-50MW range. The additional topside weight and space necessary
to incorporate an additional steam turbine could limit application offshore.
Combined cycle gas turbines are more complex than conventional GTs. This change in regime
and complexity causes:
x Lower life in nozzles and blades (average 25,000h compared with 40-45,000h
previously)
x Higher degradation rate, typically 5-7% in first 10,000h
x High thermal efficiency 45-60%
x Lower availability, typically 10% less 10% ~80%)
Sources of downtime have been summarised as:
x <200MW Turbine 53%, Compressors 30%, Rotor, Auxiliary, Combustors 30%
x >200MW Turbine 28%, Compressor 28%
121
Figure 57 Cycle diagram for a combined cycle gas turbine (CCGT) showing steam
turbine in axial line with the gas turbine. Courtesy GE power
36
In the conventional power industry manufacturers pay penalties ($Ms) on not meeting power
and heating rates. This is aggravated by the instability of low NOX combustors. For CGGTs the
use of Long Term Service Agreements (LTSA) are a future trend. LTSA may be necessary to
get financing and insurance cover. The driving forces are: gas turbines pushing design
envelopes, limited operational history, limited parts availability, high degradation rate.
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14 OPERATIONAL SUPPORT GUIDANCE
Guidance on operational activities which will have an effect on the safety and reliable operation
of rotating equipment is given in HSE research report RR076 including gas turbine packages.
This includes delineation of factors which may indicate that the equipment is being well
maintained or there are deficiencies. Summary tables are included for major packages to be
used on site visits in reviewing the installation.
To avoid confusion this guidance note does not propose a separate system for review of gas
turbines and the inspectors and readers are referred to RR076 for the details of the review
process. Some indicators from RR076 that are relevant to gas turbines are reproduced below.
Additional indicators that may be indicative of good practice in operation and maintenance of
gas turbines are given in Section 15.
123
T
a
b
l
e
8
T
h
e
t
a
b
l
e
g
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5
15 EXAMPLES OF GOOD AND BEST PRACTICE
In this context good practice is defined as practice or action that would be expected by any
reasonably trained inspector to be done on an installation. Best practice covers procedures and
operation practice that goes beyond this.
HSE guidance document PM84 [1] covers the main safety factors that need to be considered in
the operation of gas turbines. This includes ventilation, access, fire prevention systems, surge
prevention, and electrical and control systems. PM84 notes that the guidance is not obligatory
to operators. Adherence to the advice in PM84, developed in working groups including users,
operators, suppliers and HSE is seen as good practice. Conversely not following the guidance
may be indicative or poor practice or require justification.
There are many basic things that would be considered normal and part of good practice. These
include access arrangements, use of monitoring systems, appropriate ventilation, checking for
leaks of gas, fuel or lubricant. These are necessary from a safety perspective and do not
constitute best practice. Specific indicators of lack of good practice for turbine packages taken
from RR076 are summarised above in Table 8.
Gas turbines are specialist equipment and maintenance is usually managed by the supplier or
specialist contractor under a maintenance agreement. Simple adherence to the recommendations
of such contractors is not in itself indicative of good practice. Best practice would be where the
operator takes and active interest in what has been done at maintenance and any failures or
degradation found that may impact on future integrity. For example:
x What is the basis for any components which have been found defective being
left in service and not replaced.
x Are the rejection criteria for defective components in accordance with offshore
practice, where tighter definitions may be used than on onshore applications.
x What is the reason for upgrades or chances to design
x Where cracking has been found or failures have occurred; are these known
limitations with a given turbine model or new. Are these a result of changes in
design, for example to blade profile or casing material.
From operation experience it is good practice to have technicians that know both disciplines:
mechanical (propulsion) and electronic (control). It is highly beneficial to know both to
properly diagnose faults. Electromechanical and digital system experience is important. Dual
trade is beneficial
Maintenance manuals are the first port of call in any maintenance and inspection process.
Things that an inspector would need to check for include:
x What is the kit
x Who provided it
x What documentation is available
x Amendment status
x Is the manufacturer aware any issues in this particular installation
x Are Manuals available and being used
x Updates
x Right air, fuel
x Are reasonable precautions being observed
127
A lack of familiarity of relevant platform personnel with these factors would be indicative of
poor practice.
There are certain fundamentals in safe turbine operation. These include:
x Not blocking air intakes
x Fuel supply protected, inviolate
x No water (unless intended). water injection used in some GTs to enhance performance).
x Don't block exhausts
x If the GT needs lube oil it is stored in the right containers, recorded, right stuff.
x People operating know what to do
A lack of familiarity of relevant platform personnel with these factors would similarly be
indicative of poor practice.
An example of best practice is where the dutyholder has procurement and design specification
documents that bring together best practice from their historical operating experience with gas
turbines; see procurement example in Appendix 2. Such documents may also suggest
amendments to API procurement standards based on the operators experience. Examples of
relevant advice from such procurement and design documents reviewed in Appendix 2 include:
x Identify all changes which are not proven in similar machines produced over the last 5
years or where less than 100 000 fired hours have been accumulated in all machines.
x Give attention to off-design conditions which may occur during start-up and shutdown
procedures associated with the particular applications of the gas turbine.
x Consider spares availability. A spares inventory comprising either a recommended
range of individual components or a complete gas generator and/or rotors, or a
combination of both, will be dictated by the required plant availability. In some cases,
holding a complete spare gas generator may be more economical in the longer term than
holding individual components.
x Consider gas and liquid fuel variability on the installation. Aero-derivative gas turbines
require premium gas and liquid fuels. If the gas turbine fuel may be a crude oil, residual
fuel oil, very lean gas, refinery mix gas or a gas that is subject to changes of Wobbe
Index of more than 10%, then industrial gas turbines may be preferable.
x The site conditions of elevation, humidity and ambient temperature should be taken into
consideration together with the type of fuel (gas/liquid) and combustors and the power
requirements of the driven equipment in order to arrive at a realistic site-rated power
(rating) of the gas turbine.
x Copper and its alloys shall not be used in the presence of hydrogen sulphides, acetylene,
ammonia, ammonium chloride or mercury. Materials for components in contact with
gas shall conform to NACE MR0175 if the level of H2S exceeds the levels specified
therein.
x The location of the combustion air intake shall be carefully selected so as not to shorten
the life of the gas turbine. Satisfactory access shall be provided and no undue hazard
shall be created. If flammable gasses are detected in the combustion air inlet, the
safeguarding system shall shut down the gas turbine.
128
x The combustion air intakes should be as close to the gas turbine as possible, to
minimise cost and any power reduction due to pressure loss. The intake shall be located
in a non-hazardous area or a zone 2 area;
x Air intakes should not be located in a zone 0 or a zone 1 area. The intake should not be
placed beneath a roof of any building within which flammable vapours may
accumulate.
x Process equipment, pipe flanges and open drains should not be placed within 5 metres
of the air intake. Careful consideration shall be given to the area classification
surrounding the gas turbine installation.
x In marginal cases, it should be investigated whether identical fuels have been used by
other operators and any specific design requirements determined, especially in relation
to trace elements.
x Gas turbine hot parts are particularly sensitive to alkaline metals such as sodium and
potassium. Other elements may have additional restrictions due to environmental
emission limits and the general corrosion requirements of downstream systems.
x Fuel condition. The possibility of liquid entrainment or condensate formation in the fuel
gas supply should be avoided by system design. The system should be designed to
prevent this occurring under all conditions, in particular the formation of condensates in
fuel gas lines under idle conditions.
x Gas Turbine Washing. Advice on key points regarding turbine cleaning practice as
identified in Section 11.7.
Whilst the actual advice may vary between dutyholder and installation, the availability of such
prior service information and inclusion in Dutyholder specifications is a sign of best practice.
129
16 LIST OF APPLICABLE GUIDANCE AND REGULATIONS
API 613 - Continuous Duty Gear
API 614 - Lube Oil System
API 616 - Gas Turbines
API 617 Centrifugal compressors for petroleum, chemical and gas service industries
API 617 - Compressors
API 670 - Machinery Protection
API 671 - Flexible Couplings
API 677 - Auxiliary Drive Gear
API RP 11 PGT Packaged combustion gas turbines
ASME B133 - Gas Turbines
ASME PTC 22 Gas turbine power plants
ASME PTC-10 Compressor Testing
ASME PTC-22 Gas Turbine Testing
ASTM D 2880 Specification for gas turbine fuel oils
ATEX Directives 94/9/EC Equipment in Hazardous Environments European Union (EU)
BS 5839: Part 1: 2002 Fire detection and alarm systems for buildings. Code of Practice for
system design, installation, commissioning and maintenance PM84-5
BS 7273: Parts 1-3 Code of Practice for the operation of fire protection measures PM84-6
BS 7273: Parts 1-3 Code of Practice for the operation of fire protection measures PM84-6
BS EN 50073: 1999 Guide for selection, installation, use and maintenance of apparatus for
the detection and measurement of combustible gases or oxygen PM84-11
BS EN 54: Parts 1-11 Fire detection and fire alarm systems PM84-4
BS EN 60079-10: 1996 Electrical apparatus for explosive gas atmospheres. Classification
of hazardous areas PM84-9
BS EN 61508: 2002 Parts 1-7 Functional safety of electrical/electronic programmable
electronic safety related systems PM84-12
BS EN60079-17:2003 British and European standard on electrical apparatus for explosive
gas atmospheres; Part 17: Inspection and maintenance of electrical installations in
hazardous areas (other than mines)
BS ISO 14520: Parts 1-15, 2000 Gaseous fire extinguishing systems. PM84-2
BS5306-4: 2001 Fire extinguishing installations and equipment on premises - Part 4
Specification for carbon dioxide systems PM84-3
EEMUA 140 Noise procedure specification. British Standard.
EU Emissions Trading Scheme Regulations 2005
HSE L101 Control and mitigation measures. Dangerous Substances and Explosive
Atmospheres Regulations 2002. Approved Code of Practice and guidance L101 HSE Books
1997 ISBN 0 7176 1405 0 PM84-19
131
HSE L134 Design of plant, equipment and workplaces. Dangerous Substances and
Explosive Atmospheres Regulations 2002. Approved Code of Practice and guidance L134
HSE Books 2003 ISBN 0 7176 2199 5 PM84-18
HSE L138 Dangerous Substances and Explosive Atmospheres Regulations 2002. Approved
Code of Practice L138 HSE Books 2003 ISBN 0 7176 2203 7 (available from autumn 2003)
PM84-17
IEC 61511: 2003 Functional safety -Safety instrumented systems for the process industry
sector - Part 1: Framework, definitions, system, hardware and software requirements
PM84-13
IGE SR/25 Hazardous area classification of natural gas installations Institution of Gas
Engineers and Managers PM84-20
IGE/UP/6 Application of positive displacement compressors to natural gas systems
Institution of Gas Engineers and Managers PM84-16
ISO 2324 Gas turbines - acceptance tests
L101 Safe work in confined spaces. Confined Spaces Regulations 1997. Approved Code of
Practice, Regulations and guidance Ll01 HSE Books 1997 ISBN 0 7176 1405 0 PM84-22
NACE MR0175 Sulphide stress cracking resistant metallic material for oil field equipment
NFPA 750:2000. 1 Water mist fire protection systems National Fire Protection Association
(NFPA) National Fire Codes 750:2000. 1 Water mist fire protection systems National
Fire Protection Association (NFPA) National Fire Codes 750:2000. PM84-1
ON58 HSE Offshore Division Operations Note 58 Dangerous Substances and Explosive
Atmospheres Regulations 2002 DSEAR - A short guide for the offshore industry Issue Date
Jan 2003
ON59 HSE Offshore Division operations Note 59 The Equipment and Protective Systems
Intended for use in Potentially Explosive Atmospheres Regulations 1996 EPS - A short
guide for the offshore industry Issue Date Jan 2003
ON63 HSE Offshore Division Operations Notice 63 A Guide to the Equipment and
Protective Systems Intended for Use in Potentially Explosive Atmospheres Regulations 1996
Issue Date Dec 2003
PM84 Guidance Note PM84 Control of safety risks at gas turbines used for power
generation
SI 2005 No 925 The Greenhouse Gas Emissions Trading Scheme Regulations 2005, ISBN
0110727150 The Stationary Office Limited, EU Emissions Trading Scheme Regulations
2005 http://www.og.dti.gov.uk/environment/euetsr.htm
132
17 REFERENCES
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2. RR076 Machinery and rotating equipment guidance notes, HSE Research Report 076
http://www.hse.gov.uk/research/rrhtm/rr076.htm
3. Brun K and Kurz R Gas turbines in oil and gas applications ASME IGTI Turbo 2004
Conference, Power for land, sea and air, Vienna Austria, 14-17 June 2004
4. Gas Turbine Theory, second edition, Cohen H, Rogers GFC and Saravanamuttoo,
Longman Group Limited , ISBN 0 58244926 x cased, 11927 8 Paper, 4
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15. Microturbines for Power Generation, Turbo2004 Session K Monday 15.30, ASME IGTI
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16. Brun K A Novel Centrifugal Flow Gas Turbine Design Paper GT2004-53063 ASME
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2004
17. Gas turbine cleaning IGTI Paper TH33 Cranfield University ASME IGTI Turbo 2004
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19. Water mist fire protection systems National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) National
Fire Codes 750:2000. 1 Water mist fire protection systems National Fire Protection
Association (NFPA) National Fire Codes 750:2000. PM84-1
133
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Regulations 2002. Approved Code of Practice and guidance L101 HSE Books 1997
ISBN 0 7176 1405 0 PM84-19
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Atmospheres Regulations 2002. Approved Code of Practice and guidance L134 HSE
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Practice L138 HSE Books 2003 ISBN 0 7176 2203 7 (available from autumn 2003)
PM84-17
24. Hazardous area classification of natural gas installations IGE SR/25 Institution of Gas
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25. Safe work in confined spaces. Confined Spaces Regulations 1997. Approved Code of
Practice, Regulations and guidance Ll01 HSE Books 1997 ISBN 0 7176 1405 0 PM84-22
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Equipment HSE www.hse.gov.uk/comah/sragtech/techmeasareaclas.htm
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135
APPENDICES
Appendix 1 List of UK installations A1
Appendix 2 Typical procurement package technical specification A2
Appendix 3 HSE guidance note PM84 on gas turbines A3
Appendix 4 Gas turbine suppliers and summary for UK installations A4
Appendix 5 Specification of turbines used in UK sector A5
Appendix 6 Key systems and components A6
A-1
APPENDIX 1 LIST OF UK INSTALLATIONS
The installations in UK waters can change particularly for mobile and floating installations (FPS,
FPSO). This list summarises the position at April 2004.
Installation Dutyholder Fixed/ Type of Type of Reg Location
Mobile Fixed Mobile No.
AH001 AMERADA HESS F FP N/A 246 UK
ALBA FSU CHEVRON F FSU N/A 425 UK
ALBA NORTHERN CHEVRON F F N/A 409 UK
ALWYN NORTH TOTAL E&P UK PLC F F N/A 290 UK
AMETHYST BP SNS (N) F NUI N/A 372 UK
ANASURIA SHELL U.K. (CENTRAL) F FPSO N/A 500 UK
ANDREW BP MBU F F N/A 483 UK
ANGLIA A GAZ DE FRANCE F F N/A 408 UK
ANGLIA B GAZ DE FRANCE F SUBSEA N/A 0 UK
ARBROATH PETROFAC F F N/A 354 UK
PRODUCTION
SERVICES
ARCH ROWAN ROWAN DRILLING (UK) M N/A JU 188 USA
LTD
ARDMORE ROWAN DRILLING (UK) F F N/A 603 UK
(ROWAN GORILLA LTD
VII)
ARMADA BG INTERNATIONAL F F N/A 478 UK
AUDREY PWD CONOCO PHILLIPS F NUI N/A 334 UK
49/11A
AUK A SHELL U.K. (CENTRAL) F F N/A 88 UK
BAE 6 TOWERS BAE F F N/A 0 UK
AIR
BALMORAL ENI F FP N/A 301 UK
BAR 331 SAIPEM M N/A MH 0 NL
BAR PROTECTOR SAIPEM M N/A MH 578 UK
BARQUE PB 48/13A SHELL U.K. SOUTHERN F NUI N/A 364 UK
OPS
BARQUE PL 48/14P SHELL U.K. SOUTHERN F F N/A 470 UK
OPS
BEATRICE A TALISMAN ENERGY F F N/A 160 UK
(UK) LIMITED
BEATRICE B TALISMAN ENERGY F F N/A 161 UK
(UK) LIMITED
BEATRICE C TALISMAN ENERGY F F N/A 271 UK
(UK) LIMITED
BELLWELL CONOCO PHILLIPS F SUBSEA N/A 0 UK
BERYL A MOBIL NORTH SEA F F N/A 95 UK
LIMITED
BERYL B MOBIL NORTH SEA F F N/A 174 UK
LIMITED
BESSEMER PERENCO UK LIMITED F NUI N/A 490 UK
BLEO HOLM BLUEWATER F FPSO N/A 520 UK
ENGINEERING
BORGHOLM DOLPHIN DRILLING M N/A SS 341 UK
DOLPHIN COMPANY
BORGILA DOLPHIN DRILLING M N/A SS 582 UK
DOLPHIN COMPANY
BORGNY DOLPHIN DOLPHIN DRILLING M N/A SS 157 UK
COMPANY
BORGSTEN DOLPHIN DRILLING M N/A SS 170 UK
A1-1
Installation Dutyholder Fixed/ Type of Type of Reg Location
Mobile Fixed Mobile No.
DOLPHIN COMPANY
BOULTON CONOCO PHILLIPS F NUI N/A 511 UK
BRAE A MARATHON OIL (UK) F F N/A 192 UK
LIMITED
BRAE B MARATHON OIL (UK) F F N/A 332 UK
LIMITED
BRENT A SHELL U.K. NORTHERN F F N/A 122 UK
OPS
BRENT B SHELL U.K. NORTHERN F F N/A 107 UK
OPS
BRENT C SHELL U.K. NORTHERN F F N/A 137 UK
OPS
BRENT D SHELL U.K. NORTHERN F F N/A 124 UK
OPS
BRIGANTINE BG SHELL U.K. SOUTHERN F NUI N/A 548 UK
OPS
BRIGANTINE BR SHELL U.K. SOUTHERN F NUI N/A 554 UK
OPS
BRITANNIA BOL (BRITANNIA F F N/A 489 UK
OPERATOR LIMITED)
BRUCE BP (DBU) F F N/A 430 UK
BUCHAN A TALISMAN ENERGY F FP N/A 89 UK
(UK) LIMITED
BULFORD DOLPHIN DRILLING M N/A SS 304 UK
DOLPHIN COMPANY
BUZZARD FIELD ENCANA (U.K) LIMITED F F N/A 6067 UK
BYFORD DOLPHIN DOLPHIN DRILLING M N/A SS 171 NOR
COMPANY
CAISTER 44/23A CONOCO PHILLIPS F NUI N/A 431 UK
CM (MURDOCH
FIELD)
CAMELOT CA MOBIL NORTH SEA F NUI N/A 362 UK
CAMELOT CB MOBIL NORTH SEA F F N/A 435 UK
CAPTAIN TEXACO F FPSO N/A 495 UK
CARRACK A SHELL U.K. SOUTHERN F F N/A 576 UK
OPS
CASTORO 10 SAIPEM M N/A MH 900034 UK
CASTORO SEI SAIPEM M N/A SS 9188 UK
CECIL PROVINE ROWAN DRILLING (UK) M N/A JU 200 USA
LTD
CENTRAL BRAE MARATHON OIL (UK) F F N/A 377 UK
LIMITED
CHARLES ROWAN ROWAN DRILLING (UK) M N/A JU 182 USA
LTD
CLAIR BP (DBU) F F N/A 6020 UK
CLAYMORE TALISMAN ENERGY F F N/A 120 UK
(UK) LIMITED
CLEETON P/Q BP SNS (N) F F N/A 319 UK
CLYDE TALISMAN ENERGY F F N/A 286 UK
(UK) LIMITED
CORMORANT A SHELL U.K. NORTHERN F F N/A 138 UK
OPS
CORVETTE A SHELL U.K. SOUTHERN F NUI N/A 522 UK
OPS
CRYSTAL OCEAN BROVIG M N/A MH 542 UNKNOWN
CRYSTAL SEA BROVIG M N/A MH 552 UNKNOWN
CSO ALLIANCE TECHNIP OFFSHORE M N/A MH 579 VARIOUS
CSO APACHE TECHNIP OFFSHORE M N/A MH 0 VARIOUS
A1-2
Installation Dutyholder Fixed/ Type of Type of Reg Location
Mobile Fixed Mobile No.
CSO TECHNIP OFFSHORE M N/A SS 507 VARIOUS
CONSTRUCTOR
CSO INSTALLER TECHNIP OFFSHORE M N/A SS 0 VARIOUS
DAVY PERENCO UK LIMITED F NUI N/A 491 UK
DEEPSEA BERGEN ODFJELL M N/A SS 462 UK
DEEPSEA DELTA ODFJELL M N/A SS 580 UK
DEEPSEA TRYM ODFJELL M N/A SS 562 UK
DOUGLAS (LBA) BHP BILLITON F F N/A 465 UK
DSND MAYO SUBSEA 7 (UK) M N/A MH 0 VARIOUS
DSND PELICAN SUBSEA 7 (UK) M N/A MH 900054 VARIOUS
DUNBAR TOTAL E&P UK PLC F F N/A 447 UK
DUNLIN A SHELL U.K. NORTHERN F F N/A 136 UK
OPS
EAST BRAE MARATHON OIL (UK) F F N/A 454 UK
LIMITED
EIDER SHELL U.K. NORTHERN F F N/A 350 UK
OPS
ELGIN FRANKLIN TOTAL E&P UK PLC F F N/A 540 UK
ENSCO 100 ENSCO M N/A JU 331 NL
ENSCO 101 ENSCO M N/A JU 543 NL
ENSCO 102 ENSCO M N/A JU 568 UK
ENSCO 70 ENSCO M N/A JU 363 NL
ENSCO 71 ENSCO M N/A JU 309 NL
ENSCO 72 ENSCO M N/A JU 289 UK
ENSCO 80 ENSCO M N/A JU 176 UK
ENSCO 85 ENSCO M N/A JU 194 UK
ENSCO 92 ENSCO M N/A JU 202 UK
ERSKINE TEXACO F F N/A 504 UK
ETAP BP MBU F F N/A 512 UK
F G McCLINTOCK TRANSOCEAN SEDCO M N/A JU 317 WHE
FOREX
FORTIES A APACHE NORTH SEA F F N/A 76 UK
LIMITED
FORTIES B APACHE NORTH SEA F F N/A 103 UK
LIMITED
FORTIES C APACHE NORTH SEA F F N/A 82 UK
LIMITED
FORTIES D APACHE NORTH SEA F F N/A 104 UK
LIMITED
FORTIES E APACHE NORTH SEA F F N/A 314 UK
LIMITED
FRIGG CDPI TOTAL E&P NORGE AS F F N/A 108 UK
FULMAR A SHELL U.K. (CENTRAL) F F N/A 152 UK
GALAXY I GLOBAL SANTA FE M N/A JU 420 UK
DRILLING
GALAXY II GLOBAL SANTA FE M N/A JU 518 CAN
DRILLING
GALAXY III GLOBAL SANTA FE M N/A JU 538 UK
DRILLING
GALLEON 48/20PN SHELL U.K. SOUTHERN F F N/A 455 UK
OPS
GALLEON PG SHELL U.K. SOUTHERN F F N/A 477 UK
OPS
GANNET A SHELL U.K. (CENTRAL) F F N/A 384 UK
GLAS DOWR BLUEWATER F FPSO N/A 503 AFR
ENGINEERING
GLOBAL KERR MCGEE F FPSO N/A 555 UK
PRODUCER III
A1-3
Installation Dutyholder Fixed/ Type of Type of Reg Location
Mobile Fixed Mobile No.
(LEADON)
GLOMAR GLOBAL SANTA FE M N/A JU 524 USA
ADRIATIC IV DRILLING
GLOMAR GLOBAL SANTA FE M N/A JU 257 UK
ADRIATIC VI DRILLING
GLOMAR GLOBAL SANTA FE M N/A JU 308 USA
ADRIATIC VII DRILLING
GLOMAR GLOBAL SANTA FE M N/A JU 214 UK
ADRIATIC XI DRILLING
GLOMAR ARCTIC I GLOBAL SANTA FE M N/A SS 256 USA
DRILLING
GLOMAR ARCTIC GLOBAL SANTA FE M N/A SS 0 UK
II DRILLING
GLOMAR ARCTIC GLOBAL SANTA FE M N/A SS 281 UK
III DRILLING
GLOMAR ARCTIC GLOBAL SANTA FE M N/A SS 244 UK
IV DRILLING
GLOMAR BALTIC I GLOBAL SANTA FE M N/A JU 380 USA
DRILLING
GLOMAR GRAND GLOBAL SANTA FE M N/A SS 299 CAN
BANKS DRILLING
GLOMAR GLOBAL SANTA FE M N/A JU 300 WHE
LABRADOR I DRILLING
GLOMAR NORTH GLOBAL SANTA FE M N/A SS 204 CAN
SEA DRILLING
GOLDENEYE SHELL U.K. (CENTRAL) F F N/A 4022 UK
GRYPHON A KERR MCGEE F FPSO N/A 448 UK
HAEWENE BRIM BLUEWATER F FPSO N/A 519 UK
ENGINEERING
HAMILTON (LBA) BHP BILLITON F NUI N/A 468 UK
HAMILTON BHP BILLITON F NUI N/A 467 UK
NORTH (LBA)
HARDING FIELD BP MBU F F N/A 476 UK
HEATHER ALPHA DNO HEATHER LTD F F N/A 144 UK
HENRY TRANSOCEAN SEDCO M N/A SS 333 CAN
GOODRICH FOREX
HEWETT FIELD PETROFAC F F N/A 11 UK
PRODUCTION
SERVICES
HOTON BP SNS (N) F F N/A 560 UK
HYDE 48/6 BP SNS (N) F NUI N/A 446 UK
INDE 49/18A PERENCO UK LIMITED F NUI N/A 2 UK
INDE 49/18B PERENCO UK LIMITED F NUI N/A 59 UK
INDE 49/23A PERENCO UK LIMITED F F N/A 3 UK
INDE 49/23C PERENCO UK LIMITED F F N/A 123 UK
INDE 49/23D PERENCO UK LIMITED F NUI N/A 368 UK
INDE 49/24J SHELL U.K. SOUTHERN F F N/A 17 UK
OPS
INDE 49/24K SHELL U.K. SOUTHERN F F N/A 18 UK
OPS
INDE 49/24L SHELL U.K. SOUTHERN F F N/A 145 UK
OPS
INDE 49/24M SHELL U.K. SOUTHERN F F N/A 528 UK
OPS
INDE 49/24N SHELL U.K. SOUTHERN F F N/A 529 UK
OPS
IOLAIR TRANSOCEAN SEDCO M N/A SS 241 NOR
FOREX
A1-4
Installation Dutyholder Fixed/ Type of Type of Reg Location
Mobile Fixed Mobile No.
IRISH SEA HALLIBURTON M N/A JU 494 UK
PIONEER MANUFACTURING &
SERVICES LTD
J W MCLEAN TRANSOCEAN SEDCO M N/A SS 70 UK
FOREX
JACK BATES TRANSOCEAN SEDCO M N/A SS 508 UK
FOREX
JADE PHILLIPS NORTHERN F F N/A 558 UK
OPS
JANICE KERR MCGEE F FPSO N/A 523 UK
JOHN SHAW TRANSOCEAN SEDCO M N/A SS 388 UK
FOREX
JUDY-JOANNE PHILLIPS NORTHERN F F N/A 449 UK
OPS
JUNO MINERVA BP SNS (N) F F N/A 566 UK
KAN TAN IV MAERSK COMPANY M N/A SS 248 WHE
LIMITED
KETCH A SHELL U.K. SOUTHERN F F N/A 531 UK
OPS
KITTIWAKE SHELL U.K. (CENTRAL) F F N/A 378 UK
KOMMANDOR SUBSEA 7 (UK) M MH MH 0 VARIOUS
SUBSEA
LAPS FIELD MOBIL NORTH SEA F F N/A 8 UK
LEIV EIRIKSSON OCEAN RIG LIMITED M N/A SS 549 NOR
LEMAN 49/26A SHELL U.K. SOUTHERN F F N/A 12 UK
OPS
LEMAN 49/27A PERENCO UK LIMITED F F N/A 4 UK
LEMAN 49/27B PERENCO UK LIMITED F F N/A 5 UK
LEMAN 49/27C PERENCO UK LIMITED F NUI N/A 6 UK
LEMAN 49/27D PERENCO UK LIMITED F NUI N/A 7 UK
LEMAN 49/27E PERENCO UK LIMITED F NUI N/A 22 UK
LEMAN 49/27F PERENCO UK LIMITED F NUI N/A 58 UK
LEMAN 49/27G PERENCO UK LIMITED F NUI N/A 287 UK
LEMAN 49/27H PERENCO UK LIMITED F NUI N/A 253 UK
LEMAN 49/27J PERENCO UK LIMITED F NUI N/A 254 UK
LEMAN B 49/26B SHELL U.K. SOUTHERN F F N/A 13 UK
OPS
LEMAN BT 49/26B SHELL U.K. SOUTHERN F NUI N/A 16 UK
OPS
LEMAN C 49/26C SHELL U.K. SOUTHERN F F N/A 14 UK
OPS
LEMAN D 49/26D SHELL U.K. SOUTHERN F F N/A 15 UK
OPS
LEMAN E 49/26E SHELL U.K. SOUTHERN F F N/A 189 UK
OPS
LEMAN F 49/26F SHELL U.K. SOUTHERN F F N/A 284 UK
OPS
LEMAN G 49/26G SHELL U.K. SOUTHERN F F N/A 285 UK
OPS
LENNOX (LBA) BHP BILLITON F NUI N/A 466 UK
LOGGS CENTRAL CONOCO PHILLIPS F NUI N/A 326 UK
LOGGS CONOCO PHILLIPS F NUI N/A 348 UK
SATELLITES
LOMOND BP MBU F F N/A 418 UK
LORELAY ALLSEAS M N/A MH 0 VARIOUS
LYELL KERR MCGEE F SUBSEA N/A 422 UK
MAERSK CURLEW MAERSK COMPANY F FPSO N/A 510 UK
LIMITED
A1-5
Installation Dutyholder Fixed/ Type of Type of Reg Location
Mobile Fixed Mobile No.
MAERSK MAERSK COMPANY M N/A JU 211 DK
ENDEAVOUR LIMITED
MAERSK MAERSK COMPANY M N/A JU 506 UK
ENDURER LIMITED
MAERSK MAERSK COMPANY M N/A JU 247 UK
ENHANCER LIMITED
MAERSK MAERSK COMPANY M N/A JU 539 DK
EXERTER LIMITED
MAERSK MAERSK COMPANY M N/A JU 439 UK
GALLANT LIMITED
MAERSK GIANT MAERSK COMPANY M N/A JU 292 NOR
LIMITED
MAERSK MAERSK COMPANY M N/A JU 293 DK
GUARDIAN LIMITED
MAERSK MAERSK COMPANY M N/A JU 581 UK
INNOVATOR LIMITED
MAERSK MAERSK COMPANY M N/A SS 371 NOR
JUTLANDER LIMITED
MAGELLAN GLOBAL SANTA FE M N/A JU 438 UK
DRILLING
MAGNUS 211/12 BP (DBU) F F N/A 203 UK
MARIANOS TECHNIP OFFSHORE M N/A SS 575 VARIOUS
MARKHAM ST1 LASMO NETHERLANDS F F N/A 456 UK
BV
MCP 01 TOTAL E&P UK PLC F F N/A 119 UK
MILLER BP MBU F F N/A 369 UK
MONARCH GLOBAL SANTA FE M N/A JU 346 UK
DRILLING
MONITOR GLOBAL SANTA FE M N/A JU 406 UK
DRILLING
MONTROSE PETROFAC F F N/A 111 UK
PRODUCTION
SERVICES
MORECAMBE BAY BRITISH GAS F F N/A 340 UK
HYDROCARBON
RESOURCES LIMITED
MPSV SHELL U.K. SOUTHERN M N/A JU 5023 UK
OPS
MSV REGALIA PROSAFE OFFSHORE M N/A SS 288 NOR
LTD
MURCHISON CNR (CANADIAN F F N/A 158 UK
211/19 NATIONAL RESOURCE)
MURDOCH CONOCO PHILLIPS F F N/A 565 UK
COMPLEX
NAVIS EXPLORER DOLPHIN DRILLING M N/A DS 567 UK
COMPANY
NELSON SHELL U.K. (CENTRAL) F F N/A 407 UK
NEPTUNE BP SNS (N) F NUI N/A 537 UK
NINIAN CENTRAL CNR (CANADIAN F F N/A 153 UK
NATIONAL RESOURCE)
NINIAN CNR (CANADIAN F F N/A 151 UK
NORTHERN NATIONAL RESOURCE)
NINIAN CNR (CANADIAN F F N/A 141 UK
SOUTHERN NATIONAL RESOURCE)
NOBLE AL WHITE NOBLE DRILLING M N/A SS 252 UK
NOBLE GEORGE NOBLE DRILLING M N/A JU 458 UK
SAUVAGEAU
NOBLE JULIE NOBLE DRILLING M N/A JU 533 NL
A1-6
Installation Dutyholder Fixed/ Type of Type of Reg Location
Mobile Fixed Mobile No.
ROBERTSON
NOBLE LYNDA NOBLE DRILLING M N/A JU 249 UK
BOSSLER
NOBLE PIET VAN NOBLE DRILLING M N/A JU 342 UNKNOWN
EDE
NOBLE RONALD NOBLE DRILLING M N/A JU 236 UK
HOOPE
NOBLE TON VAN NOBLE DRILLING M N/A SS 414 UK
LANGEVELD
NORDIC APOLLO UGLAND STENA F FPSO N/A 547 UK
STORAGE
NORPIPE PHILLIPS NORWAY F F N/A 226 UK
NORTH SHELL U.K. NORTHERN F F N/A 183 UK
CORMORANT OPS
NORTH EVEREST BP MBU F F N/A 417 UK
NORTH SEA NORTH SEA F FPSO N/A 499 UK
PRODUCER PRODUCTION
NORTH WEST BP (DBU) F F N/A 187 UK
HUTTON
NORTHERN PETROFAC F FPSO N/A 167 UK
PRODUCER PRODUCTION
SERVICES
OCEAN ALLIANCE DIAMOND OFFSHORE M N/A SS 359 NOR
DRILLING
OCEAN AMERICA DIAMOND OFFSHORE M N/A SS 45 USA
DRILLING
OCEAN DIAMOND OFFSHORE M N/A SS 282 UK
GUARDIAN DRILLING
OCEAN NOMAD DIAMOND OFFSHORE M N/A SS 264 UK
DRILLING
OCEAN PRINCESS DIAMOND OFFSHORE M N/A SS 218 UK
DRILLING
OCEAN RIG 2 OCEAN RIG LIMITED M N/A SS 550 WHE
OCEAN VALIANT DIAMOND OFFSHORE M N/A SS 385 AFR
DRILLING
OCEAN DIAMOND OFFSHORE M N/A SS 452 UK
VANGUARD DRILLING
OCEAN VICTORY DIAMOND OFFSHORE M N/A SS 42 USA
DRILLING
ORELIA TECHNIP OFFSHORE M N/A DSV 266 VARIOUS
OSI (LBA) BHP BILLITON F FSU N/A 480 UK
PAUL B LOYD TRANSOCEAN SEDCO M N/A SS 398 UK
JUNIOR FOREX
PETROJARL PGS PRODUCTION AS F FPSO N/A 486 UK
FOINAVEN
PETROJARL I PGS PRODUCTION AS F FPSO N/A 352 NOR
PETROLIA PETROLIA DRILLING M N/A SS 242 UK
LTD
PICKERILL PERENCO UK LIMITED F F N/A 401 UK
PIPER B TALISMAN ENERGY F F N/A 391 UK
(UK) LIMITED
POLYCONCORD RASMUSSEN A/S M N/A SS 219 UK
POLYCONFIDENC RASMUSSEN A/S M N/A SS 374 USA
E
PORT REGENCY RASMUSSEN A/S M N/A SS 215 UNKNOWN
PORT RIGMAR PORT RIGMAR AS M N/A JU 492 NOR
PRIDE NORTH PRIDE NORTH SEA LTD M N/A SS 208 UK
ATLANTIC
A1-7
Installation Dutyholder Fixed/ Type of Type of Reg Location
Mobile Fixed Mobile No.
PRIDE NORTH SEA PRIDE NORTH SEA LTD M N/A SS 112 UK
PUFFIN SHELL U.K. (CENTRAL) F F N/A 6026 UK
RAMFORM BANFF PGS PRODUCTION AS F FPSO N/A 525 UK
RAVENSPURN BP SNS (N) F F N/A 356 UK
NORTH
RAVENSPURN BP SNS (N) F NUI N/A 357 UK
NORTH ST2 & ST3
RAVENSPURN BP SNS (N) F NUI N/A 320 UK
SOUTH
ROCKWATER 1 SUBSEA 7 (UK) M MH MH 0 VARIOUS
ROUGH FIELD CENTRICA STORAGE F F N/A 79 UK
LTD
ROWAN ROWAN DRILLING (UK) M N/A JU 272 USA
CALIFORNIA LTD
ROWAN GORILLA ROWAN DRILLING (UK) M N/A JU 283 USA
II LTD
ROWAN GORILLA ROWAN DRILLING (UK) M N/A JU 559 USA
III LTD
ROWAN GORILLA ROWAN DRILLING (UK) M N/A JU 358 USA
IV LTD
ROWAN GORILLA ROWAN DRILLING (UK) M N/A JU 526 CAN
V LTD
ROWAN GORILLA ROWAN DRILLING (UK) M N/A JU 544 USA
VI LTD
ROWAN GORILLA ROWAN DRILLING (UK) M N/A JU 545 UK
VII LTD
ROWAN HALIFAX ROWAN DRILLING (UK) M N/A JU 237 USA
LTD
S7000 SAIPEM M N/A SS 347 VARIOUS
SAFE BRITANNIA PROSAFE OFFSHORE M N/A SS 217 NOR
LTD
SAFE CALEDONIA PROSAFE OFFSHORE M N/A SS 213 NOR
LTD
SAFE LANCIA PROSAFE OFFSHORE M N/A SS 255 UK
LTD
SAFE PROSAFE OFFSHORE M N/A SS 553 NOR
SCANDINAVIA LTD
SALTIRE A TALISMAN ENERGY F F N/A 405 UK
(UK) LIMITED
SANTA FE 135 GLOBAL SANTA FE M N/A SS 245 UK
DRILLING
SANTA FE 140 GLOBAL SANTA FE M N/A SS 250 UK
DRILLING
SANTA FE GLOBAL SANTA FE M N/A JU 35 UK
BRITANNIA DRILLING
SCARABEO 6 SAIPEM M N/A SS 280 UK
SCHIEHALLION BP (DBU) F FPSO N/A 509 UK
SCHOONER A SHELL U.K. SOUTHERN F F N/A 469 UK
OPS
SCOTT FIELD ENCANA (U.K) LIMITED F F N/A 434 UK
SEAFOX 2 WORKFOX UK LTD M N/A JU 268 NL
SEAFOX 3 WORKFOX UK LTD M N/A JU 259 NL
SEAFOX 4 WORKFOX UK LTD M N/A JU 482 NL
SEAN P 49/25A SHELL U.K. SOUTHERN F F N/A 279 UK
OPS
SEAN RD SHELL U.K. SOUTHERN F F N/A 278 UK
OPS
SEAWAY STOLT OFFSHORE M N/A MH 0 VARIOUS
A1-8
Installation Dutyholder Fixed/ Type of Type of Reg Location
Mobile Fixed Mobile No.
COMMANDER
SEAWAY CONDOR STOLT OFFSHORE M N/A MH 900010 UNKNOWN
SEAWAY STOLT OFFSHORE M N/A MH 574 VARIOUS
DISCOVERY
SEAWAY EAGLE STOLT OFFSHORE M N/A MH 0 VARIOUS
SEAWAY FALCON STOLT OFFSHORE M N/A MH 573 VARIOUS
SEAWAY STOLT OFFSHORE M N/A MH 0 VARIOUS
KINGFISHER
SEAWELL WELL OPERATORS UK M N/A MH 311 UK
LTD
SEDCO 704 TRANSOCEAN SEDCO M N/A SS 83 UK
FOREX
SEDCO 706 TRANSOCEAN SEDCO M N/A SS 394 UK
FOREX
SEDCO 711 TRANSOCEAN SEDCO M N/A SS 220 UK
FOREX
SEDCO 712 TRANSOCEAN SEDCO M N/A SS 276 UK
FOREX
SEDCO 714 TRANSOCEAN SEDCO M N/A SS 258 UK
FOREX
SEILLEAN TRANSOCEAN SEDCO F FPSO N/A 383 WHE
FOREX
SEMAC I SAIPEM M N/A SS 9002 UK
SHEARWATER SHELL U.K. (CENTRAL) F F N/A 541 UK
SHELF EXPLORER TRANSOCEAN SEDCO M N/A JU 201 EUR
FOREX
SKANDI NAVICA SUBSEA 7 (UK) M N/A MH 0 VARIOUS
SKIFF PS SHELL U.K. SOUTHERN F NUI N/A 546 UK
OPS
SOLE PIT CLIPPER SHELL U.K. SOUTHERN F F N/A 365 UK
48/19A OPS
SOLITAIRE ALLSEAS M N/A MH 0 VARIOUS
SOVEREIGN TRANSOCEAN SEDCO M N/A SS 261 UK
EXPLORER FOREX
STANISLAV SEAWAY HEAVY LIFT M N/A MH 428 VARIOUS
YUDIN
STENA DEE STENA DRILLING LTD M N/A SS 318 UK
STENA SPEY STENA DRILLING LTD M N/A SS 221 UK
TARTAN A TALISMAN ENERGY F F N/A 159 UK
(UK) LIMITED
TERN A SHELL U.K. NORTHERN F F N/A 353 UK
OPS
THAMES A 49/28 MOBIL NORTH SEA F F N/A 306 UK
THIALF HEEREMA M N/A SS 349 VARIOUS
THISTLE A DNO THISTLE LTD F F N/A 125 UK
TIFFANY ENI F F N/A 400 UK
TOG MOR ALLSEAS M N/A MH 20 VARIOUS
TOISA POLARIS SUBSEA 7 (UK) M N/A MH 0 VARIOUS
TRANSOCEAN TRANSOCEAN SEDCO M N/A SS 463 EUR
ARCTIC FOREX
TRANSOCEAN TRANSOCEAN SEDCO M N/A SS 118 UK
EXPLORER FOREX
TRANSOCEAN TRANSOCEAN SEDCO M N/A SS 481 UK
LEADER FOREX
TRANSOCEAN TRANSOCEAN SEDCO M N/A JU 294 UK
NORDIC FOREX
TRANSOCEAN TRANSOCEAN SEDCO M N/A SS 572 UK
PROSPECT FOREX
A1-9
Installation Dutyholder Fixed/ Type of Type of Reg Location
Mobile Fixed Mobile No.
TRANSOCEAN TRANSOCEAN SEDCO M N/A SS 475 EUR
SEARCHER FOREX
TRANSOCEAN TRANSOCEAN SEDCO M N/A SS 166 EUR
WILDKAT FOREX
TRENCH SETTER ALLSEAS M N/A MH 21 VARIOUS
TRENT 43/24 PERENCO UK LIMITED F NUI N/A 497 UK
TRITON AMERADA HESS F FPSO N/A 536 UK
TYNE PERENCO UK LIMITED F NUI N/A 498 UK
UISGE GORM BLUEWATER F FPSO N/A 493 UK
ENGINEERING
UNITY APACHE NORTH SEA F F N/A 427 UK
LIMITED
VIKING 49/17B CONOCO PHILLIPS F F N/A 10 UK
VIKING CONOCO PHILLIPS F NUI N/A 19 UK
SATELLITES
WAVENEY BP SNS (N) F F N/A 521 UK
WELL SERVICER TECHNIP OFFSHORE M N/A SS 312 VARIOUS
WELLAND 53/4A MOBIL NORTH SEA F NUI N/A 393 UK
WEST ALPHA SMEDVIG LTD M N/A SS 450 UNKNOWN
WEST NAVION SMEDVIG LTD M N/A MH 557 UNKNOWN
WEST SOLE A BP SNS (N) F F N/A 27 UK
WEST SOLE B BP SNS (N) F NUI N/A 28 UK
WEST SOLE C BP SNS (N) F NUI N/A 29 UK
WEST SOLE BP SNS (N) F F N/A 0 UK
NEWSHAM
WINDERMERE RWE / DEA F F N/A 502 UK
Key
F Fixed
M Mobile
FPSO Floating, Production, Storage and Offloading Vessel
FSU Floating Storage Unit
MH Mono Hull
SS Semi- Submersible
JU Jack-Up
DSV Drilling Service Vessel
NUI Normally Unmanned Installation
A1-10
APPENDIX 2 TYPICAL PROCUREMENT PACKAGE
TECHNICAL SPECIFICATION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
This Appendix is intended to help inspectors be aware of the factors that may be considered
in procurement of a gas turbine for offshore use. The technical procurement specifications
for gas turbines offshore are difficult to obtain for commercial and practical reasons. Such
information is very detailed and confidential in nature. More importantly the engineers
involved in production and maintenance of the installation usually different to those in the
original design team.
The design team would normally be brought together specifically for purpose of
procurement and then disbanded once the installation is complete. Whilst Information
relevant to operation and safety would be retained, detailed technical information relating to
procurement is normally archived and not easily accessible at a later date. Procurement of
specific process or equipment packages may be undertaken in-house or sub-contracted out to
a packager or design house. For these reasons it did not prove straightforward to access
technical procurement information during the project.
Procurement and design of gas turbines for operation in the UK sector is usually based on
the American API design codes. These are well developed and include standard data forms
that provide the basis for procurement. For gas turbine applications in the oil & gas sector,
API 616 is the foundation for most purchase specifications. Operators are reluctant to vary
from standard package specifications because of the additional regulatory approval that may
be required. For similar reasons the turbines used on a given installation for a given function,
such as power generation, are usually likely to be of very similar specification.
Dutyholders have experience over many years in the procurement of gas turbines. API 616
is generic and may not in all cases contain sufficient information regarding offshore
requirements. It is normal for the operator to encompass their own best practice and specific
information into a Design and Engineering Practice. For example:
x Combustion Gas Turbines Design and Engineering practice on selection, testing
and installation
x Combustion Gas Turbines Amendments and supplements to API 616
These design documents bring together best practice form the basis for the technical
procurement specifications issued by the requisitioning oil company.
In this Section an example is given of the information that might typically be included in a
technical purchase specification. The information included in practice will depend on the
operator, their normal practices and the turbine requirement. Experienced operators may
seek to incorporate good practice and consistency across their installations. The reliance
placed on the turbine supplier for advice in selection of an appropriate gas turbine will vary.
Gas turbines are specialised items of equipment and significant advice and interaction with
the gas turbine supplier in meeting the installation requirements is both advisable and
necessary.
1.2 API CODES
A2-1
The codes give some flexibility, for example; API 616 Foreword states: "Equipment
Manufacturers, in particular, are encouraged to suggest alternatives to those specified when
such approaches achieve improved energy effectiveness and reduce total life costs without
sacrifice of safety and reliability."
The following codes mostly affect the packaging:
x API 616 - Gas Turbines
x API 617 - Compressors
x API 614 - Lube Oil System
x API 670 - Machinery Protection
x API 613 - Continuous Duty Gear
x API 677 - Auxiliary Drive Gear
x API 671 - Flexible Couplings
In addition there are codes governing testing and operation:
x ASME PTC-22 Gas Turbine Testing
x ASME PTC-10 Compressor Testing
x ASME B133 - Gas Turbines
API 616 and ASME PTC-22 are the only two principal gas turbine specific codes for oil &
gas applications. API 670, 614, 613, etc. are more generic codes.
The codes and associated data sheets cover most aspects of the gas turbine package and often
form the main basis for procurement. The information includes: definitions, for example:
x ISO Rating,
x Normal Operating Point,
x Maximum Continuous Speed,
x Trip Speed, etc; mechanical integrity - blade natural frequencies, vibration levels,
balancing requirements, alarms and shutdowns;
x Design requirements and features - materials, welding, accessories, controls,
instrumentation, inlet/exhaust systems, fuel systems; inspection, testing, and
preparation for shipment; and
x Minimum testing, inspection and certification documentation requirements. API 616
does not cover government local codes & regulations
1.3 SUPPLIER PROCUREMENT ADVICE
The main suppliers of gas turbine normally provide standard forms to assist in the selection
of the most appropriate turbine or turbines for a specific application. The information
requested is very similar to that included in the API 616 forms.
The supplier needs to take account of the installation layout and hence any zoning
requirements and the optimum configuration for the exhaust, the intended fuel composition
and whether larger turbines or several smaller turbines are preferable. This will depend if
the turbine(s) are required for power generation or driven equipment. For safety critical
applications it is necessary to ensure sufficient redundancy is in place.
The operator will normally have standard data sheets available as part of their procurement
sytem.
A2-2
1.4 TYPICAL TECHNICAL PROCUREMENT SPECIFICATION
The main technical basis for procurement is the operators design and engineering practices
and these define what is included in the technical procurement specification. The
information that may be included in a typical technical procurement specification is
summarized below.
Information included
The design specification specifies gives requirements and recommendations for the type,
selection, testing and installation of combustion gas turbine for mechanical and generator
drives and for hot gas generation. As an example, the following issues may be addressed.
Introduction
x Definitions
x Selection and evaluation
x Range and variety of gas turbines
x Prototype gas turbines
x Complete unit responsibility
Technical information
x Operating requirements
x Spares inventory
x Type selection aeroderivative or industrial, one or two shaft
x Site environment and fuel considerations
x Power requirements
x Use of standard packages
x Installation cranes, safe access, lay down areas, mounting, enclosures, auxiliary
equipment
x Noise levels- limits, support information, general requirements
x Oil tank vents
x Materials specification,temperature, corrosion and environment resistance,
coatings, certification
x Starting drives - gas expansion starters, hydraulic motors, diesel engines
x Foundations, baseplates and mountings
x Controls and instrumentation
x Inlet system intake location, new configurations, material, leak prevention, joints
and movement allowances
x Air compressor cleaning
x Exhaust system Exhaust emission, height, proximity to process equipment, rain
ingress, maintenance access, recirculation
x Combustion air filtration requirements, anti-icing, shutters
x Fire protection ventilation dampers, extinguishing systems, enclosure surveillance
x Acoustic enclosures accessibility, ventilation, area classification
x Fuels and fuel systems fuel selection, gas fuels and systems, liquid fuels and
systems, dual fuel systems, power augmentation
x Inspection and tests general, combustion tests, complete unit or string tests
Appendices in the design and engineering practice advise on issues such as definitions of
vital, non-essential and non-essential services and how that impacts on selection, gas turbine
A2-3
enclosure ventilation, mounting and foundation requirements, exhaust stack rain-catcher
requirements, key points for gas turbine washing systems. Diagrams of typical installation
arrangements may be included.
References
Reference is made to the Operators other design standards, covering for example:
x Requisitioning binder containing data sheets
x Metallic materials - selected standards
x Metallic materials - prevention of brittle fracture
x Noise control
x Installation of rotating equipment
x combustion gas turbines (amendments/ supplements to API 616)
x field inspection prior to commissioning of mechanical equipment
x fire-fighting systems
x data/requisition sheet for equipment noise limitation
x data/requisition sheet for gas turbines
Oil Industry Standards
Reference is normally included to relevant oil industry standards, for example:
x API RP 11 PGT Packaged combustion gas turbines
x API 617 Centrifugal compressors for petroleum, chemical and gas service
industries
x ASME PTC 22 Gas turbine power plants
x ASTM D 2880 Specification for gas turbine fuel oils
x NACE MR0175 Sulphide stress cracking resistant metallic material for oil field
equipment
x EEMUA 140 Noise procedure specification. British Standard.
x ISO 2324 Gas turbines - acceptance tests
1.5 VARIATIONS TO API 616 IN OFFSHORE APPLICATIONS
API 616 is generic and offshore operators may specify variations based on their service
experience, to ensure good practice, and to meet the particular requirements of an offshore
environment. The items that may be covered in such amendments include:
x Definitions
x Basic design
x Referenced standards
x Pressure casings
x Combustors and fuel nozzles
x Casing connections
x Rotating elements
x Seals
x Dynamics
x Bearings and bearing housings
x Lubrication
x Materials
A2-4
x Name plates and rotational arrows
x Accessories - starting and helper driver gears, couplings and guards mounting plates
x Controls and instrumentation
x Insulation, weatherproofing, fire protection
x Acoustic enclosure
x Piping and appurtenances
x Inlet coolers
x Fuel system treatment
x Inspection and tests
x Preparation for shipment
x Dynamic analysis for use with modified rotor bearing designs or prototype gas
turbines
A2-5
A2-6
APPENDIX 3 HSE GUIDANCE NOTE PM84 ON GAS
TURBINES
A3-1
A3-2
APPENDIX 4 GAS TURBINE SUPPLIERS AND SUMMARY
FOR UK INSTALLATIONS
INTRODUCTION
There has been significant consolidation in the gas turbine market in recent years. The
majority of gas turbines in the North Sea are now provided by Rolls Royce, Solar , General
Electric (GE) and Siemens-Westinghouse.
SOLAR
Solar based in Houston USA is one the largest suppliers of gas turbines for the offshore
market accounting for around 11% of those currently on UK installations. Solar is owned by
Caterpillar Group.
Website: http://esolar.cat.com
The Solar turbines commonly used offshore in UK installations and Worldwide are as
follows:
Company % UK Models UK Models Worldwide
Solar Turbines 11% Saturn 20 1MW Saturn 20 1MW
Centaur GSC 40/50
Taurus 60/70
Mars 90/100
3-4MW
5-7MW
8- 10MW
Centaur 40/50
Taurus 60/70
Mars 90/100
Titan 130
3-4MW
5-7MW
8-10MW
15MW
ROLLS ROYCE GAS TURBINES
1
Rolls Royce is the market leader in the UK sector accounting for about 21% of the gas
turbines, including the 501, RB211, Avon and Coberra brands. These are all aero-derivatives
and adaptations of Rolls-Royces aero-engines. Coberra gas turbines use the Avon 1535
aeroderivative gas generators
Website: http://www.rolls-royce.com/energy/products/oilgas/gasturb.jsp
The main Rolls Royce gas turbines used offshore in the UK and Worldwide include the
following:
Company % UK Models UK Models Worldwide
Rolls-Royce (Avon,
Coberra, RB211)
27% 501
Avon 1534/1535
Coberra 2000/6000
RB211
5MW
15MW
15MW
30MW
501
Avon
RB211
Trent
5MW
15MW
30MW
50MW
Olympus GT SK30 35MW
Paul Fletcher (stand-in for Tomas, Mon PM) Turbine Designer
A4-3
1
SIEMENS-WESTINGHOUSE
2
Siemens aquired Alstoms industrial gas turbine business www.power.alstom.com in 2003 to
fill in their portfolio for intermediate gas turbines up to 15MW. There are a number of new
turbine products: Cyclone, GT10C and GTX100 and an alternative fuels programme.
Siemens also took over the Alstom medium industrial gas turbine business with its
headquarters in Finspong, Sweden, supplying gas turbines from 15MW to 50MW. At the
same time, Siemens acquired the Alstom industrial steam turbine business, supplying
turbines up to 130MW, its main execution centers being in Finspong, (Sweden), Brno
(Czech Republic) and Nuremberg (Germany). The combined businesses are now registered
under the name of Demag Delaval Industrial Turbomachinery, and are fully owned by
Siemens.
Website: www.industrial.turbines.siemens.com
The main Siemens turbines used offshore on UK installations and Worldwide include the
following.
Company % UK Models UK Models Worldwide
Siemens-Westinghouse 46% Tornado G8000/8004 8MW Typhoon 5MW
(Alstom, Ruston, EGT) Alstom Ruston 14MW Tornado 8MW
TB3000/4500/5000 Cyclone 13MW
PGT10 14MW PGT10 14MW
Alstom had previously absorbed the turbine businesses of EGT and Ruston.
Siemens Frank Carchedi (Simens (UK) compressor aerodynamics Oil & Gas Mon 14.30
A4-4
2
The different gas turbine offerings arising historically from the Alstom, EGT, Ruston and
Siemens businesses have now been configured into a sequence of Siemens SGT models from
the SGT-100 formerly the Typhoon, the SGT-200 formerly the Tornado, up to the 100MW
plus SGT1000.
The Siemens gas turbine models used offshore are typically in the 5-30MW range.
GENERAL ELECTRIC OIL AND GAS
GE accounts for around 8% of the gas turbines on UK installations including the industrial
Frame5 gas turbine and the LM1600, LM2500, LM5000 and LM6000 series of
aeroderivative gas turbines.
LM2500 series aero-derivative gas turbines are used in a number of other manufacturers
turbine packages.The PGT series of gas turbines combines an aeroderivative gas turbine with
a more rugged industrial power turbine.
Website: www.gepower.com
GE turbines used on UK offshore installations and Worldwide include the following:
Company % UK Models UK Models Worldwide
General Electric Oil & 12% GE Frame 5 5MW GE5 5MW
Gas: GE-1201/1401A-C 10-15MW GE 10 10MW
LM2500+ 25MW LM 1600 16MW
LM5000/6000 40-50MW LM 2500 25MW
Links:
Gas Turbines- Aero-Derivative:
http://www.gepower.com/prod_serv/products/aero_turbines/en/index.htm
Gas Turbines Heavy Duty
http://www.gepower.com/prod_serv/products/gas_turbines_cc/en/index.htm
Turbine Generators
http://www.gepower.com/prod_serv/products/generators/en/index.htm
Turbine Control Systems:
http://www.gepower.com/prod_serv/products/turbine_ctrl_sys/en/index.htm
OTHER
Gas turbines currently used offshore in UK waters from other independent turbine suppliers
include the following:
Company % UK Models UK
ABB 12% ABB GT35
Dresser Rand Dresser KG2, KG3 1-2MW
MTU V16 12MW
Pratt and Witney Pratt & Witney ST18 2MW
A4-5
A4-6
APPENDIX 5 SPECIFICATION OF TURBINES USED IN UK
SECTOR
Example ISO rated performance specifications for gas turbines installed offshore in the UK
sector, and manufacturers current models for oil and gas use, are given in the following
Table. These are taken from a variety of sources including suppliers literature and the Gas
3
Turbine World 2005 Performance Specifications .
The values are for information and cannot be guaranteed to be correct. The performance
specification will vary as improvements are made to a given gas turbine and vary for simple
cycle and combined cycle applications. The specification will also vary depending on
whether the turbine is being used in power generation, to drive a compressor or mechanical
drive. For current specifications for gas turbines in these applications, images and cross
sections for specific turbines and a wider range of turbine specifications, readers are referred
to the Suppliers web sites and the Gas Turbine World performance specifications. These
sources provide general background and detail on ISO rating as well as describing the basis
for the turbine performance measures.
Gas Turbine World 2005 performance Specifications gas Turbine power ratings for Project Planning, Engineering, Design and
procurement, gas Turbine wold Vol 34 No. 6 2005 GTW Specifications
A5-1
3
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6
Appendix 6 Key Systems and Components
Introduction
The gas turbine itself contains three main components:
x Compressor,
x Gas generator (GG) including combustor and gas turbine (GT)
x Power turbine (PT),
Other key systems within the package include the fuel system either natural gas or liquid
(pumped), the bearing lube oil system including tank and filters, pumps (main, pre/post,
backup), the starter (usually either pneumatic, hydraulic or variable speed ac motor), cooling
systems, controls (on-skid, off-skid), driven equipment and the seal gas system (compressors).
There is other ancillary equipment external to the turbine package. This includes: the enclosure
and fire protection, the acoustic housing, the inlet system including air-filter (self-cleaning,
barrier, inertial) and silencer, the exhaust system including silencer and the exhaust stack, a lube
oil cooler (water, air), the motor control center, switchgear, neutral ground resistor and inlet
fogger/cooler. A basic description of each of the main systems is included here.
Package Mounting
The gas turbine within an Offshore Package is normally centre-line mounted from the
baseframe, ensuring internal alignment while permitting thermal expansion of the machine. The
main drive shaft, which will be at the hot or exhaust end for a mechanical drive package,
includes a flexible coupling, as will any auxiliary drive shafts. Flexible connections link to the
inlet and exhaust ducts. The fuel manifold is wrapped around the middle of the machine, with
multiple combustor fuel feeds. Hot surfaces will be fitted with heat shields or thermal insulation
for operator safety.
For turbine packages all machine elements are mounted to a common baseframe that is
sufficiently rigid to maintain machine alignment, despite movement of the supporting structure
or vessel. The normal 3-point mounting system eliminates the transmission of twisting forces to
and from the baseframe. As many as possible of the ancillary systems e.g. lubrication oil
system, seal gas support system, are built into the main baseframe in order to save space, and
the weight of additional bases. The control panel may be mounted separately or built on to the
end of the baseframe. The former permits control panels for separate machines to be grouped
together; the latter is convenient for pre-wiring.
Acoustic enclosure
The gas turbine is normally enclosed in a acoustic enclosure. The enclosure reduces the risk
from the noise hazard but introduces hazards of an enclosure possibly containing flammable
gas. The Acoustic Enclosure for an Aero-derivative Gas Turbine is normally close fitting, and
fitted out with ventilation and Fire & Gas Detection Systems. The internal space can be tightly
packed, making access to internal components quite difficult. Modern practice is to use a
modular approach with units simply replaced for maintenance. A problem on one component
has the potential to affect adjacent components or systems, whether by release of material,
vibration or over-heating. It may be necessary to remove a component to gain access to adjacent
components.
A6-1
The gas compressor and drive gearbox (if fitted) will be outside the acoustic enclosure, but still
very closely packed with service pipework & cable trunking. Good design should permit ready
access to compressor bearings, instruments and drive couplings.
The air inlet housing will be located separate from the turbine next to the external cladding of
the process area.
Ventilation
Ventilation requirements within the turbine enclosure are important to minimise the risk of fire
and explosion following any leak of fuel, gas or oil as well as ensure safety during maintenance
intervention and monitoring. Guidance on ventilation requirements for turbines in offshore
installations can be found in the main report and in PM84 (Appendix 3) and HSE Research
Report RR076.
Fire and gas explosion prevention system
Gas turbines operate at very high temperature particularly in the gas generator, combustor and
early stages of the power turbine. Temperatures are very high also in the exhaust and associated
lagging. There are large amounts of pipework external to the turbine for lubrication of bearings
and seals and fuel supply to the combustor. Gas leaks also can occur if seals become
ineffective. The high temperatures ensure that any leak is likely to lead to ignition and fire.
Most dangerous occurrences noted in the HSE RIDDOR and ORION databases are of this type.
A robust fire prevention system is required. This is usually based on extinguishing the fire
using an appropriate inert but breathable gas. Halon systems were formerly used but has been
phased out offshore. Guidance on fire prevention systems is given in Section PM84 and RR076.
Extinguishing systems
Water deluge systems shall not be fitted on gas turbine installations (a deluge of water on to a
hot gas turbine casing will cause extensive damage). Inergen or C0
2
gaseous fire extinguishing
systems are often used. Inergen is an agent composed of nitrogen, argon and carbon dioxide,
which after a release sufficiently reduces the concentration of oxygen to stop a fire but is safe
enough for humans to survive and function in a normal matter. The mixture of nitrogen, argon
and carbon dioxide stimulates respiration systems so that survival in a low oxygen environment
is possible. Inergen is therefore safer than C0
2
and may be the preferred choice for new
applications provided appropriate refills are locally available. Release of the agents can be
automatically and/or manually initiated. For offshore applications, fine water mist systems may
be considered if space is at premium. These systems require a large quantity of nozzles and
tubing to be an effective extinguishing system at the source of the fire.
Enclosure surveillance
For remote unattended locations, the use may be considered of closed circuit television (CCTV)
to monitor equipment within an acoustic enclosure. Zoom, pan and tilt controls shall be
provided from the control room. With low light image intensification, CCTV is a useful tool for
operators to survey remote equipment.
AIR INTAKE
Air intake to the turbine is through large bore ducting. The air is filtered using a self cleaning
inertial barrier filter. De-icing systems are also used to optimise the air condition before entry
A6-2
into the air compressor. Turbines are capable of working across a wide range of inlet
temperatures and environmental conditions. Control of air condition and temperature is
particularly critical for turbine performance and efficiency in low emission (DLE) turbines. A
silencer is also fitted to the air intake to minimise noise and vibration.
Air Intake Filter
Air feed to the gas turbine is filtered through a series of filtration elements to ensure cleanliness
of combustion air.
COMBUSTION AIR COMPRESSOR
The air compressor is the first major part of the gas turbine. Its function is to compress the air
before combustion and expansion through the turbine. There are two basic types of compressor,
one giving axial flow and the other centrifugal flow. Axial compressors are by far the most used
in modern offshore gas turbines giving higher air flow, pressure ratios, fuel effiviancy and
thrust. Centrifugal compressors may be found in older or smaller turbines where its simplicity
and ruggedness outweigh any other disadvantages. Both types are driven by the engine
turbine and are usually coupled direct to the turbine shaft.
The axial flow compressor is a multi-stage unit employing alternate rows of rotating (rotor)
blades and stationary (stator) vanes, to accelerate and diffuse the air until the required pressure
rise is obtained. A centrifugal flow compressor is a single or two-stage unit employing an
impeller to accelerate the air and a diffuser to produce the required pressure rise.
Figure A6.1 Axial compressor and high pressure turbine rotor in PGT5 gas turbine.
Courtesy Nuovo Pigneone
Axial Flow Compressor
An axial flow compressor consists of one or more rotor assemblies that carry blades of airfoil
section. These assemblies are mounted between bearings in the casings which incorporate the
stator vanes. The compressor is a multi-stage unit as the amount of pressure increase by each
stage is small; a stage consists of a row of rotating blades followed by a row of stator vanes.
A6-3
Design of blades and stator vanes is highly specialized. The casing and rotor are tapered from
the front (low-pressure) end to rear (high pressure) to maintain constant axial flow velocity.
The construction of the compressor centres around the rotor assembly and casings. The rotor
shaft is supported in ball and roller bearings and coupled to the turbine shaft in a manner that
allows for any slight variation of alignment. The cylindrical casing assembly may consist of a
number of cylindrical casings with a bolted axial joint between each stage or the casing may be
in two halves with a bolted centre line joint. One or other of these construction methods is
required in order that the casing can be assembled around the rotor.
Principles
The rotor is turned at high speed by the turbine so that air is continuously induced into the
compressor, which is then accelerated by the rotating blades and swept rearwards onto the
adjacent row of stator vanes. The pressure rise results from the energy imparted to the air in the
rotor which increases the air velocity. The air is then decelerated (diffused) in the following
stator passage and the kinetic energy translated into pressure.
Stator vanes serve to correct the deflection given to the air by the rotor blades and to present the
air at the correct angle to the next stage of rotor blades. The last row of stator vanes usually act
as air straighteners to remove swirl from the air prior to entry into the combustion system at a
reasonably uniform axial velocity. Pressure changes are accompanied by a progressive increase
in air temperature as the pressure increases.
The pressure change across each stage can be quite small, typically 1:1 and 1:2. The compressor
itself can increase pressure by factors of 30:1 or more. The ability to design multi-stage axial
compressors with controlled air velocities and straight through flow minimizes losses and
results in a high efficiency and hence low fuel consumption. This gives it a further advantage
over the centrifugal compressor where these conditions are fundamentally not so easily
achieved. For high pressure ratios variable-angle stator vanes or interstage blades are used to
ensure uniform flow and compression across the full speed range.
Figure A6-2 RB211 gas generator showing axial compressor with stator vanes at left
hand side, combustion chamber and initial turbine stages. Courtesy Rolls Royce
A6-4
A single-spool compressor consists of one rotor assembly and stators with as many stages as
necessary to achieve the desired pressure ratio and all the airflow from the intake passes through
the compressor. The multi-spool compressor consists of two or more rotor assemblies, each
driven by their own turbine at an optimum speed to achieve higher pressure ratios and to give
greater operating flexibility.
Although a twin-spool compressor can be used for a pure jet engine, it is most suitable for the
by-pass type of engine where the front or low pressure compressor is designed to handle a larger
airflow than the high pressure compressor. Only a percentage of the air from the low pressure
compressor passes into the high pressure compressor; the remainder of the air, the by-pass flow,
is ducted around the high pressure compressor.
Components
The construction of the compressor centres around the rotor assembly and casings. The main
components of an axial air compressor comprise:
x Rotors
x Blades
x Stator vanes
x Discs
x Casing
x Rotor shaft
x Bearings and seals
Rotors
The rotational speed of an axial compressor is such that a disc is required to support the
centrifugal blade load. Where a number of discs are fitted onto one shaft they may be coupled
and secured together by a mechanical fixing. Generally, the discs are assembled and welded
together, close to their periphery, thus forming an integral drum.
Figure A6-3 Detail of Rotor on aeroderivative gas turbine. Courtesy Sulzer.
A6-5
Rotor blades
The rotor blades are of airfoil section (Figure A6-4) and usually designed to give a pressure
gradient along their length to ensure that the air maintains a reasonably uniform axial velocity.
The higher pressure towards the tip balances out the centrifugal action of the rotor on the
airstream. The blade is twisted from root to tip to give the correct angle of incidence at each
point, defined by a stagger angle. Air flowing through a compressor creates two boundary
layers of slow to stagnant air on the inner and outer walls. In order to compensate for the slew
air in the boundary layer a localized increase in blade camber both at the blade tip and root has
been introduced. The blade extremities appear as if formed by bending over each corner, hence
the term end-bend.
Figure A6-4 Gas turbine compressor and stator parts including variable angle stators.
.Courtesy Nuovo Pigneone, EGT
Rotor Disc
Individual rotor blades are attached to the rotor disc. A variety of fixing methods may be used.
Fixing may be circumferential or axial to suit special requirements of the stage. In general the
aim is to design a securing feature that imparts the lightest possible load on the supporting disc
thus minimizing disc weight. Rotor discs are then stacked on the rotor shaft (Figure A6-5)
Figure A6-5 Installation of rotor blades. Courtesy Sulzer
A6-6
Stator vanes
The stator vanes are of airfoil section and are secured into the compressor casing or into stator
vane retaining rings, which are themselves secured to the casing (Figure A6-6). The vanes are
often assembled in segments in the front stages and may be shrouded at their inner ends to
minimize the vibrational effect of flow variations on the longer vanes. The stator vanes are
locked in such a manner that they will not rotate around the casing.
Figure A6-6 Axial compressor half casing and stator blades
Casings
The construction of the compressor centres around the rotor assembly and casings. The
cylindrical casing assembly may consist of a number of cylindrical casings with a bolted axial
joint between each stage or the casing may be in two halves with a bolted centre line joint. One
or other of these construction methods is required in order that the casing can be assembled
around the rotor.
Rotor Shaft
The rotor shaft is supported in ball and roller bearings and coupled to the turbine shaft in a
manner that allows for any slight variation of alignment.
Airflow Control
Where high pressure ratios on a single shaft are required it becomes necessary to introduce
airflow control into the compressor design. This may take the form of variable inlet guide vanes
for the first stage plus a number of stages incorporating variable stator vanes for the succeeding
stages as the shaft pressure ratio is increased (fig. 3-15). As the compressor speed is reduced
from its design value these static vanes are progressively closed in order to maintain an
A6-7
acceptable air angle value onto the following rotor blades. Additionally interstage bleed may be
provided but its use in design is now usually limited to the provision of extra margin while the
engine is being accelerated, because use at steady operating conditions is inefficient and
wasteful of fuel. Three types of air bleed systems are used: hydraulic, pneumatic and electronic.
Figure A6-7 Typical variable stator vanes. Courtesy Rolls Royce.
For casing designs the need is for a light but rigid construction enabling blade tip clearances to
be accurately maintained ensuring the highest possible efficiency. These needs are achieved by
using aluminium at the front of the compression system followed by alloy steel as compression
temperature increases. Whilst for the final stages of the compression system, where temperature
requirements possibly exceed the capability of the best steel, nickel based alloys may be
required. The use of titanium in preference to aluminium and steel is now more common;
particularly in military engines where its high rigidity to density ratio can result in significant
weight reduction. With the development of new manufacturing methods component costs can
now be maintained at a more acceptable level in spite of high initial material costs.
Stator vanes are normally produced from steel or nickel based alloys, a prime requirement being
a high fatigue strength when notched by ingestion damage. Earlier designs specified aluminium
alloys but because of its inferior ability to withstand damage its use has declined. Titanium may
be used for stator vanes in the low pressure area but is unsuitable for the smaller stator vanes
further rearwards in the compression system because of the higher pressures and temperatures
encountered. Any excessive rub which may occur between rotating and static components as a
result of other mechanical failures, can generate sufficient heat from friction to ignite the
titanium. This in turn can lead to expensive repair costs and a possible hazard.
A6-8
Figure A6-8 A hydraulically operated bleed valve and inlet guide vane
airflow control system.
In the design of rotor discs, drums and blades, centrifugal forces dominate and the requirement
is for metal with the highest ratio of strength to density. This results in the lightest possible rotor
assembly which in turn reduces the forces on the engine structure enabling a further reduction in
weight to be obtained. For this reason, titanium even with its high initial cost is the preferred
material and has replaced the steel alloys that were favoured in earlier designs. As higher
temperature titanium alloys are developed and produced they are progressively displacing the
nickel alloys for the disc and blades at the rear of the system.
Materials
Materials are chosen to achieve the most cost effective design for the components in question,
in practice for aero engine design this need is usually best satisfied by the lightest design that
technology allows for the given loads and temperatures prevailing.
A6-9
Figure A6-9 Typical types of fan blades.
Centrifugal impeller material requirements are similar to those for the axial compressor rotors.
Titanium is thus normally specified though aluminium may still be employed on the largest
lowpressure ratio designs where robust sections give adequate ingestion capability and
temperatures are acceptably low.
Balancing
The balancing of a compressor rotor or impeller is an extremely important operation in its
manufacture. In view of the high rotational speeds and the mass of materials any unbalance
would affect the rotating assembly bearings and engine operation. Balancing on these parts is
effected on a special balancing machine.
Centrifugal Flow Compressor
Centrifugal flow compressors have a single or double-sided impeller and occasionally a two-
stage, single sided impeller is used. The impeller is supported in a casing that also contains a
ring of diffuser vanes. If a double-entry impeller is used, the airflow to the rear side is reversed
in direction and a plenum chamber is required. The impeller shaft rotates in ball and roller
bearings and is either common to the turbine shaft or split in the centre. The impellor shaft is
connected by a coupling, which is usually designed for ease of detachment.
A6-10
Figure A6-10 Two stage cylindrical compressor and two stage turbine. PGT2 gas
turbine. Courtesy Nuovo Pigneone.
Impellers
The impeller is rotated at high speed by the turbine and air is continuously induced into the
centre of the impeller. Centrifugal action causes it to flow radially outwards along the vanes to
the impeller tip, thus accelerating the air and also causing a rise in pressure to occur. The engine
intake duct may contain vanes that provide an initial swirl to the air entering the compressor.
The impeller consists of a forged disc with integral, radially disposed vanes on one or both side
forming convergent passages in conjunction with the compressor casing. For ease of
manufacture straight radial vanes are usually employed. To ease the air from axial flow in the
entry duct on to the rotating impeller, the vanes in the centre of the impeller are curved in the
direction of rotation.
Diffusers
The air, on leaving the impeller, passes into the diffuser section where the passages form
divergent nozzles that convert most of the kinetic energy into pressure. To maximize the airflow
and pressure rise through the compressor requires the impeller to be rotated at high speed,
therefore impellers are designed to operate at tip speeds of up to 1,600 ft. per sec. To maintain
the efficiency of the compressor, it is necessary to prevent excessive air leakage between the
impeller and the casing; this is achieved by keeping their clearances as small as possible. The
diffuser assembly may be an integral part of the compressor casing or a separately attached
assembly. In each instance it consists of a number of vanes formed tangential to the impeller.
The vane passages are divergent to convert the kinetic energy into pressure energy and the inner
edges of the vanes are in line with the direction of the resultant airflow from the impeller. The
clearance between the impeller and the diffuser is an important factor
A6-11
GAS GENERATOR (CORE ENGINE)
Combustion System
The combustion chamber (has the difficult task of burning large quantities of fuel, supplied
through the fuel spray nozzles, with extensive volumes of air, supplied by the compressor, and
releasing the heat in such a manner that the air is expanded and accelerated to give a smooth
stream of uniformly heated gas at all conditions required by the turbine. This task must be
accomplished with the minimum loss in pressure and with the maximum heat release for the
limited space available. The amount of fuel added to the air will depend upon the temperature
rise required. However, the maximum temperature is limited to within the range of 850 to 1700
qC, determined by the temperature limitations for the materials from which the turbine blades
and nozzles are made.
The air has already been heated to between 200 and 550qC the work done during compression,
giving a temperature rise requirement of 650 to 1150 C from the combustion process. Since the
gas temperature required at the turbine varies with engine thrust, the combustion chamber must
also be capable of maintaining stable and efficient combustion over a wide range of engine
operating conditions. Efficient combustion has become increasingly important because of the
need to carbon emissions and atmospheric pollution.
Figure A6-11 Avon gas generator with combustion chamber and surrounding fuel
nozzles visible to right.
Combustion Process
Air from the engine compressor enters the combustion chamber at a velocity up to 200 m s
-1
sec,
Because at this velocity the air speed is far too high for combustion, the first thing that the
chamber must do is to diffuse it, i.e. decelerate it and raise its static pressure. The speed of
burning fuel at normal mixture ratios is only a few feet per second, any fuel lit even in the
diffused air stream, which now has a velocity of about 80 feet per second, would be blown
away. A region of low axial velocity has therefore to be created in the chamber, so that the
flame will remain alight throughout the range of engine operating conditions. Designs of
combustor and fuel nozzle are shown in Figure A6-12 below.
A6-12
Figure A6-12 Multiple combustor in EGT typhoon gas turbine. Right, combustion
chamber liner. Courtesy EGT, Nuovo Pigneone
In normal operation, the overall air/fuel ratio of a combustion chamber can vary between 45:1
and 130:1. However, fuel will only burn efficiently at, or close to, a ratio of 15:1, so the fuel
must normally be burned with only part of the air entering the chamber, in what is called a
primary combustion zone. This is achieved by means of a flame tube (combustion liner).
Approximately 20 per cent of the air mass flow is taken in by the snout or entry section.
Immediately downstream of the snout are swirl vanes and a perforated flare, through which air
passes into the primary combustion zone. The swirling air induces a flow upstream of the centre
of the flame tube and promotes the desired recirculation. The air not picked up by the snout
flows into the annular space between the flame tube and the air casing.
Through the wall of the flame tube body, adjacent to the combustion zone, are a selected
number of secondary holes through which a further 20 per cent of the main flow of air passes
into the primary zone. The air from the swirl vanes and that from the secondary air holes
interacts and creates a region of low velocity recirculation. This takes the form of a toroidal
vortex,similar to a smoke ring, which has the effect of stabilizing and anchoring the flame . The
recirculating gases hasten the burning of freshly. It is arranged that the conical fuel spray from
the nozzle intersects the recirculation vortex at its centre. This action, together with the general
turbulence in the primary zone, greatly assists in breaking up the fuel and mixing it with the
incoming air.
The temperature of the gases released by combustion is about 1,800 to 2,000 qC which is far
too hot for entry to the nozzle guide vanes of the turbine. The air not used for combustion,
which amounts to about 60 per cent of the total airflow, is therefore introduced progressively
into the flame tube. Approximately a third of this is used to lower the gas temperature in the
dilution zone before it enters the turbine and the remainder is used for cooling the walls of the
flame tube. This is achieved by a film of cooling air flowing along the inside surface of the
flame tube wall, insulating it from the hot combustion gases. A recent development allows
cooling air to enter a network of passages within the flame tube wall before exiting to form an
insulating film of air, this can reduce the required wall cooling airflow by up to 50 per cent.
Combustion should be completed before the dilution air, enters the flame tube, otherwise the
A6-13
incoming air will cool the flame and incomplete combustion will result. An electric spark from
an igniter plug initiates combustion and the flame is then self sustained.
Figure A6-13 Flame stabilizing and general airflow pattern through a combustion
chamber. Courtesy Rolls Royce
Fuel Supply
Fuel is supplied to the airstream by one of two distinct methods. The most common is the
injection of a fine atomized spray into the recirculating airstream through spray nozzles. The
second method is based on the pre-vaporization of the fuel before it enters the combustion zone.
In the vaporizing method the fuel is sprayed from feed tubes into vaporizing tubes which are
positioned inside the flame tube. These tubes turn the fuel through 180 degrees and, as they are
heated by combustion, the fuel vaporizes before passing into the flame tube. The primary
airflow passes down the vaporizing tubes with the fuel and also through holes in the flame tube
entry section which provide fans of air to sweep the flame rearwards.
Types Of Combustion Chamber
The design of a combustion chamber and the method of adding the fuel may vary considerably,
but the airflow distribution used to effect and maintain combustion is always very similar to that
described. Dilution air is metered into the flame tube in a manner similar to the atomizer flame
tube. There are three main types of combustion chamber in use for gas turbine engines. These
are the multiple chamber, the tubo-annular chamber and the annular chamber.
Multiple combustion chamber
This type of combustion chamber is used on centrifugal compressor engines and the earlier
types of axial flow compressor engines. It is a direct development of the early type of Whittle
combustion chamber. The major difference is that the Whittle chamber had a reverse flow but,
as this created a considerable pressure loss, the straight-through multiple chamber was
developed by Joseph Lucas Limited. The chambers are disposed around the engine and
compressor delivery air is directed by ducts to pass into the individual chambers. Each chamber
has an inner flame tube around which there is an air casing. The air passes through the flame
tube snout and also between the tube and the outer casing as already described .The separate
A6-14
flame tubes are all interconnected. This allows each tube to operate at the same pressure and
also allows combustion to propagate around the flame tubes during engine starting.
Tubo-annular combustion chamber
The tubo-annular combustion chamber bridges the evolutionary gap between the multiple and
annular types. A number of flame tubes are fitted inside a common air casing. The airflow is
similar to that already described. This arrangement combines the ease of overhaul and testing of
the multiple system with the compactness of the annular system.
Annular combustion chamber
The annular combustion chamber is the design most favoured in modern aero-derivative gas
turbines, such as those used offshore. This type of combustion chamber consists of a single
flame tube, completely annular in form, which is contained in an inner and outer casing . The
airflow through the flame tube is similar to that already described, the chamber being open at
the front to the compressor and at the rear to the turbine nozzles.The main advantage of the
annular chamber is that, for the same power output, the length of the chamber is only 75 per
cent of that of a tubo-annular system of the same diameter, resulting in considerable saving of
weight and production cost.
Another advantage is the elimination of combustion propagation problems from chamber to
chamber. In comparison with a tubo-annular combustion system, the wall area of a comparable
annular chamber is much less; consequently the amount of cooling air required to prevent the
burning of the flame tube wall is less, by approximately 15 per cent. This reduction in cooling
air raises the combustion efficiency to virtually eliminate unburnt fuel, and oxidizes the carbon
monoxide to non-toxic carbon dioxide, thus reducing air pollution.The introduction of the air
spray type fuel spray nozzle to this type of combustion chamber also greatly improves the
preparation of fuel for
Fuel manifold
The fuel manifold supplies fuel to the combustion nozzles via a series of pipes. Fuel flow and
ignition is controlled by the control system. The start up process for turbines is controlled to
provide adequate air flow through the compressor before fuel is injected. Excessive build up of
fuel due to failed starts has in a number of cases lead to internal explosion within the
combustion chamber and damage to the turbine.
Combustion Nozzles
Fuel is injected into the turbine through a series of injection nozzles. Design is such as to inject
the fuel into reverse flow to ensure uniform dispersion and mixing with the air prior to ignition.
Ignition is usually by inductive discharge.
A6-15
TRANSITION PIECE
The transition piece leading from the combustion chamber to the power turbine encounters
some of the highest temperatures in the gas turbine. Oxidation, erosion and cracking of the
transition piece are key concerns. There has been significant development of specialised NDE
methods including thermography for inspection and wall thickness wall loss measurement in
transition pieces.
Figure A6-14 Transition piece leading into power-turbine. Courtesy Sulzer
POWER TURBINE (PT)
The power turbine has the task of providing the power to drive the compressor and accessories
and, in the case of driven equipment of providing shaft power for power generation, the
compressor or pump. It does this by extracting energy from the hot gases released from the
combustion system and expanding them to a lower pressure and temperature. High stresses are
involved in this process, and for efficient operation, the turbine blade tips may rotate at speeds
over 1,500 feet per second. The continuous flow of gas to which the turbine is exposed may
have an entry temperature between 850 and 1,700 deg C and may reach a velocity of over 2,500
feet per second in parts of the turbine.
To produce the driving torque, the turbine may consist of several stages each employing one
row of stationary nozzle guide vanes and one row of moving blades. The number of stages
depends upon the relationship between the power required from the gas flow, the rotational
speed at which it must be produced and the diameter of turbine permitted.
The number of shafts, and therefore turbines, varies with the type of engine. High compression
ratio turbines usually have two shafts, driving high and low pressure compressors. On some
turbines, driving torque is derived from a free-power turbine This method allows the turbine to
run at its optimum speed because it is mechanically independent of other turbine and
compressor shafts.
A6-16
Figure A6-15 Power turbine rotor. Courtesy Rolls Royce
The mean blade speed of a turbine has considerable effect on the maximum efficiency possible
for a given stage output. For a given output the gas velocities, deflections, and hence losses, are
reduced in proportion to the square of higher mean blade speeds. Stress in the turbine disc
increases as the square of the speed, therefore to maintain the same stress level at higher speed
the sectional thickness, hence the weight, must be increased disproportionately. For this reason,
the final design is a compromise between efficiency and weight. Turbines operating at higher
turbine inlet temperatures are thermally more efficient and have an improved power to weight
ratio. The design of the nozzle guide vane and turbine blade passages is based on aerodynamic
considerations The turbine depends for its operation on the transfer of energy between the
combustion gases and the turbine. This transfer is never 100 per cent because of thermodynamic
and mechanical losses.
Figure A6-16 Turbine blades PGT2 gas turbine. Courtesy Nuovo Pigneone
A6-17
Figure A6-17 A typical turbine blade showing twisted contour
The losses which prevent the turbine from being 100 percent efficient are due to a number of
reasons the turbine blades. A further 4.5 per cent loss would be incurred by aerodynamic losses
in the nozzle guide vanes, gas leakage over the turbine blade tips and exhaust system losses;
these losses are of approximately equal proportions. The total losses result in an overall
efficiency of approximately 92 per cent.
The basic components of the turbine are the combustion discharge nozzles, the nozzle guide
vanes, the turbine discs and the turbine blades. The rotating assembly is carried on bearings
mounted in common to the compressor shaft or connected to it by a self-aligning coupling.
Nozzle guide vanes
The nozzle guide vanes are of an aerofoil shape with the passage between adjacent vanes
forming a convergent duct. The vanes are located in the turbine casing in a manner that allows
for expansion. The nozzle guide vanes are usually of hollow form and may be cooled by passing
compressor delivery air through them to reduce the effects. of high thermal stresses and gas
loads.
A6-18
Figure A6-18 Typical nozzle guide vanes showing their shape and location. Courtesy
Rolls Royce.
Turbine discs
Turbine discs are usually manufactured from a machined forging with an integral shaft or with a
flange onto which the shaft may be bolted. The disc also has, around its perimeter, provision for
the attachment of the turbine blades. To limit the effect of heat conduction from the turbine
blades to the disc a flow of cooling air is passed across both sides of each disc.
Turbine blades
The turbine blades are of an aerofoil shape, designed to provide passages between adjacent
blades that give a steady acceleration of the flow up to the 'throat', where the area is smallest and
the velocity reaches that required at exit to produce the required degree of reaction.. The actual
area of each blade cross-section is fixed by the permitted stress in the material used and by the
size of any holes which may be required for cooling purposes (Part 9). High efficiency demands
thin trailing edges to the sections, but a compromise has to be made so as to prevent the blades
cracking due to the temperature changes during engine operation.
The method of attaching the blades to the turbine disc is of considerable importance, since the
stress in the disc around the fixing or in the blade root has an important bearing on the limiting
rim speed. The blades on the early Whittle engine were attached by the de Laval bulb root
fixing, but this design was soon superseded by the 'fir-tree' fixing that is now used in the
majority of gas turbine engines. This type of fixing involves very accurate machining to ensure
that the loading is shared by all the serrations. The blade is free in the serrations when the
turbine is stationary and is stiffened in the root by centrifugal loading when the turbine is
rotating. Various methods of blade attachment are shown in fig. 5-9; however, the B.M.W.
hollow blade and the de Laval bulb root types are not now generally used on gas turbine
engines.
A gap exists between the blade tips and casing, which varies in size due to the different rates of
expansion and contraction. To reduce the loss of efficiency through gas leakage across the blade
tips, a shroud is often fitted. This is made up by a small segment at the tip of each blade which
forms a peripheral ring around the blade tips. An abradable lining in the casing may also be
A6-19
used to reduce gas leakage. Active Clearance Control (ACC.) is a more effective method of
maintaining minimum tip clearance throughout the turbine cycle. Air from the compressor is
used to cool the turbine casing and when used with shroudless turbine blades, enables higher
temperatures and speeds to be used.
The flow characteristics of the turbine must be very carefully matched with those of the
compressor to obtain the maximum efficiency and performance of the engine. If, for example,
the nozzle guide vanes allowed too low a maximum flow, then a back pressure would build up
causing the compressor to surge; too high a flow would cause the compressor to choke. In either
condition a loss of efficiency would very rapidly occur.
Among the obstacles in the way of using higher turbine entry temperatures have always been
the effects of these temperatures on the nozzle guide vanes and turbine blades. The high speed
of rotation which imparts tensile stress to the turbine disc and blades is also a limiting factor.
Figure A6-19 PGT turbine rotor showing fir tree root attachment of turbine blades and
blade clearances
A6-20
Figure A6-20 Various methods of attaching blades to turbine discs. Courtesy Rolls
Royce
Nozzle guide vanes
Due to their static condition, the nozzle guide vanes do not endure the same rotational stresses as
the turbine blades. Therefore, heat resistance is the property most required. Nickel alloys are
used, although cooling is required to prevent melting. Ceramic coatings can enhance the heat
resisting properties and, for the same set of conditions, reduce the amount of cooling air
required, thus improving engine efficiency.
Turbine discs
A turbine disc has to rotate at high speed in a relatively cool environment and is subjected to
large rotational stresses. The limiting factor which affects the useful disc life is its resistance to
fatigue cracking. In the past, turbine discs have been made in ferritic and austenitic steels but
nickel based alloys are currently used. Increasing the alloying elements in nickel extend the life
limits of a disc by increasing fatigue resistance. Alternatively, expensive powder metallurgy
discs, which offer an additional 10% in strength, allow faster rotational speeds to be achieved.
Turbine blades.
The correct choice of blade material is important. The blades, while glowing red-hot, must be
strong enough to carry the centrifugal loads due to rotation at high speed. A small turbine blade
weighing only two ounces may exert a load of over two tons at top speed and it must withstand
the high bending loads applied by the gas to produce the many thousands of turbine horse-
power necessary to drive the compressor. Turbine blades must also be resistant to fatigue and
thermal shock, so that they will not fail under the influence of high frequency fluctuations in the
gas conditions, and they must also be resistant to corrosion and oxidization. In spite of all these
demands, the blades must be made in a material that can be accurately formed and machined by
current manufacturing methods.
For a particular blade material and an acceptable safe life there is an associated maximum
-
permissible turbine entry temperature and a corresponding maximum engine power. It is not
A6-21
surprising that metallurgists and designers are constantly searching for better turbine blade
materials and improved methods of blade cooling. Over a period of operational time the turbine
blades slowly grow in length. This phenomenon is known as creep and there is a finite useful
life limit before failure occurs. The early materials used were high temperature steel forgings,
but these were rapidly replaced by cast nickel base alloys which give better creep and fatigue
properties.
Close examination of a conventional turbine blade reveals a myriad of crystals that lie in all
directions (equi-axed). Improved service life can be obtained by aligning the crystals to form
columns along the blade length, produced by a method known as Directional Solidification. A
further advance of this technique is to make the blade out of a single crystal. Each method
extends the useful creep life of the blade and in the case of the single crystal blade, the
operating temperature can be substantially increased. A non-metal based turbine blade can
be manufactured from reinforced ceramics.
The balancing of a turbine is an extremely important operation in its assembly. In view of
the high rotational speeds and the mass of materials, any unbalance could seriously affect
the rotating assembly bearings and engine operation. Balancing is effected on a special
balancing machine.
Bearings and seals
The shafts on the air compressor and power turbine have bearings on both ends and associated
seals to allow free movement of the shaft The bearings are typically high integrity thrust and
journal bearings. The shaft rotates at hign velocity and the bearing must also cope with the
aggressive environment and temperature fluctuations. There are a range of potential damage
mechanisms ranging from wear and erosion of the surface to rolling contact fatigue and
cracking. Degradation is also possible in the seals and bearing support structure. A lubrication
system ensures free flow of oil to the bearings and seals to prevent gas leaks. There are a large
number of other seals within the turbine to control airflow and dispersion of gases.
Figure 21 Bearing design on modern gas turbine. Courtesy Rolls Royce.
A6-22
MECHANICAL DRIVE
Output Shaft and Coupling
The output shaft provides direct drive for driven equipment. In most cases this will be to a
gearbox to give greater flexibility in the drive speeds for the gas turbine and the equipment.
Drive Gearboxes
The inclusion of a drive gearbox within the machine package allows the manufacturer to
optimise operating speeds of the Gas Turbine driver and Centrifugal Compressor separately.
The technical disadvantages of additional skid length, equipment complexity, and weight being
offset with benefits for the design of compressor and turbine. Gas Turbine packages will include
an Auxiliary Gearbox, normally integral to the cold end of the machine. This provides the
necessary linkage for turbine starting, and mechanical drives where required for oil or fuel
pumps. There are a limited number of safety issues from inclusion of a gearbox within a
machine package. The most serious are: the potential for accidental or failure engagement of
auxiliary drives, used to rotate the compressor at low speed, leading to massive overspeed and
usual disintegration of the drive; bursting of the gear wheels (design or manufacturing flaws),
fires due to leakage of lubricating oil.
Main Drive Coupling
The use of flexible couplings within a gas turbine machine package is essential to provide the
necessary degrees of freedom to enable the machine elements to be aligned, and compensate for
any flexibility inherent in the installation skid. Misalignment of the coupling, even within its
tolerance limits, puts increased loads on adjacent shaft bearings. It also reduces the service life
of the coupling, as flexible elements are subjected to greater strains. Coupling lubrication
(where required) and inspections needs to be proactively maintained as the coupling has
significant mass and has the potential to become a dangerous missile if it fails. Loss of drive is
not normally a safety-related incident; special design requirements apply if drive continuity is
critical.
Ancillary Gearbox
Mechanical or electrical power is required to run a number of turbine support systems including
cooling, lubrication and fuel injection. Drive is commonly take from the air compressor shaft in
the cold portion of the engine and converted for turbine system drive using a gearbox or small
generator. This should be distinguished from the auxiliary gearbox used for mechanical drive of
compressors and driven equipment, described separately in the main report.
Drive couplings
For dual-shaft turbine packages mechanical drive is achieved through an auxiliary gearbox with
flexible couplings. These are described in more detail under driven equipment in HSE Research
Report RR076.
EXHAUST SYSTEM
Exhaust air at very high temperatures is injected from the power turbine into the exhaust
system. This is cooled and dispersed to the flare stack or waste heat recovery unit (WHRU).
Approximately 50% of offshore turbine installations currently include waste heat recovery
A6-23
units. Because of the high temperatures the exhaust baffles are coated and lagged. Loss of
lagging following storm conditions and ignition of the lagging following an oil or fuel leak are
common sources of accidents. See analysis of dangerous occurrences and incidents for gas
turbines in main report.
The high velocity of the air can generate significant noise. Consequentially the exhaust system
will also include a silencer. Exhaust configuration may be axial, usual for WHRUs, or radial
allowing the exhaust air to be passed to the flare at a higher level in the installation.
ANCILLIARY SYSTEMS
The gas turbine is dependent on various ancillary systems for safe operation, operating
procedures and control system must ensure that these are operational prior to turbine start, and
at all times during operation.
Lubrication System
The supply of oil for lubrication of bearings and couplings, support to sealing systems and
hydraulic operation of actuators requires clean oil at appropriate pressures. For package units
this can be delivered from a common system feeding all elements within the package. Oil
pumps may be driven by electrical power or by auxiliary mechanical drives from the turbine.
Electrical drives are much simpler and make pump location much easier. Where the installation
has reliable electrical supplies this option would be preferred. If the package is required to
operate in stand-alone manner even after a total electrical failure, then shaft drives are required.
Where a common lubrication system is fitted, in particular one which also provides compressor
seal oil, there is a real issue of potential cross-contamination of the oil. Liquid fuel or the
heavier fractions of hydrocarbon gases can dissolve in oil, reducing its viscosity and increasing
its flammability. The fire hazard associated with this potential problem will be greatly reduced
if the oil system operates under a nitrogen atmosphere.
The most serious issues for the supply of oil to a machine package arise from either failure of
the supply that can lead to damage of the machines, or from oil spill or leakage resulting in a
fuel source for potential fires.
Process Coolers
Process coolers, e.g. Intercoolers, will typically be shell and tube heat exchangers built to a
recognised code. ASME and BS 5500 are commonly used. Ideally, cooling will be against a
closed fresh water cooling system, to minimise problems of corrosion, fouling and pollution.
Piping Systems
Piping systems are generally constructed to international standards, special standards are
required for fuel gas where double skinned piping is installed.
Control and Anti Surge Valves
The gas compressor is likely to have discharge control, recycle and anti-surge control valves,
the latter two duties may be combined. These valves are not necessarily provided by the
package vendor, but their specification, design, installation and control must be carefully
integrated into the operation of the package. Any changes in duty or design must be allowed for
in the valve design and set-up.
A6-24
Condition Monitoring
Condition monitoring on larger turbine packages will be provided as part of the package.
Vendors will offer their own preferred system, or will agree to tailor a system to suit the client's
requirements. It is important to ensure that the system provided suits the proposed method of
operating and maintaining the equipment.
Fuel and Ignition System
The fuel system will take Gas and/or Liquid Fuel from the installation at the available pressure,
filter the fuel(s) and raise pressure if necessary. The fuel system will control the rate of supply
of fuel(s) and isolate the supply when necessary.
Starter
To start the turbine it is necessary to rotate the turbine and air compressor, prior to injection and
ignition of fuel in the combustors. The starter is usually either pneumatic, hydraulic or a
variable speed ac motor. Start up is a safety critical event and needs careful control sequences.
Explosions have occurred with fuel build up after failed starts causing knock on damage
through to the exhaust system
All-electric Actuators
All-electric actuator have recently been developed to replace hydraulic actuator systems.
Hydraulic systems can suffer leaks, cleanliness issues,, complexity, poor efficiency and require
a separate servo system. Conventional all electric actuators have been tried previously but have
some drawbacks. Cant be used in hazardous areas, EMI interference, need separate controller
in safe area, interconnect harnesses. A recent paper at IGTI 2004 reported on development of an
intrinsically safe, explosion-proof actuator that can be used in zoned areas giving improved
control response without overshoot.
Bearing Lube oil System
The supply of oil for lubrication of bearings and couplings, support to sealing systems and
hydraulic operation of actuators requires clean oil at appropriate pressures. For package units
this can be delivered from a common system feeding all elements within the package.
The oil pumps may be driven by electrical power or by auxiliary mechanical drives from the
turbine. Electrical drives are much simpler and make pump location much easier. Where the
installation has reliable electrical supplies this option would be preferred. If the package is
required to operate in stand-alone manner even after a total electrical failure, then shaft drives
are required.
Power requirements for control valves and other instruments must be considered. As the
package lubrication system will be very congested, and fairly inaccessible, oil leaks from pump
seals or pipe joints will be difficult to detect and repair.
Where a common lubrication system is fitted, in particular one which also provides compressor
seal oil, there is a real issue of potential cross-contamination of the oil. Liquid fuel or the
heavier fractions of hydrocarbon gases can dissolve in oil, reducing its viscosity and increasing
its flammability. The fire hazard associated with this potential problem is greatly reduced if the
oil system operates under a nitrogen atmosphere.
A6-25
The most serious issues for the supply of oil to a machine package arise from either failure of
the supply that can lead to damage of the machines, or from oil spill or leakage resulting in a
fuel source for potential fires. Technical and safety aspects of lubrication systems are described
in more detail in RR076.
Oil pumps
The turbine will include oil pumps to provide lubrication to the seals and bearings. These may
be motor or shaft driven.
Fuel boost pump (diesel)
Most turbines are capable of duel fuel operation. If diesel is used this will require a fuel boost
pump.
Cooling system
Turbines generate extremely high temperatures (2000 C or more) in the combustion and gas
generator systems. These temperatures are sufficient to cause melting or severe oxidation or
degradation of components. A sophisticated cooling system using cold air passed axially from
the outside of the air compressor is used to maintain temperatures within reasonable limits in the
power turbine and subsequent components. The transition piece on the combustor has to
encounter particularly high temperatures.
Sealing gas System
As well a soil seals associated with the bearings, the turbine includes a sophisticated gas sealing
system. This uses pressure differences to prevent leakage of turbine gases and air into
inappropriate parts of the system
Package mounting and skid
Mounting arrangements for the turbine package have been discussed earlier in the main report.
This is usually based on 3-point mounting of equipment on robust frames. Mounting
arrangements are particularly important on floating installations where larger degrees of tilt may
be incurred.
Anciliary Equipment and Systems
Ancilliary equipment includes the lube oil cooler (water, air), motor control center, switchgear,
neutral ground resistor and inlet fogger/cooler.
Published by the Health and Safety Executive
03/06
RR 430