Cultural differences in brand

designs and tagline appeals

Jong Woo Jun and Hyung-Seok Lee
Department of Advertising, College of Journalism and Communications,
University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
Abstract
Purpose The objective of this study is to explore general cross-cultural differences in corporate
visual identity between the USA and Korea, and to apply Trompenaars specic versus diffuse
dimension to brand-logos and taglines in the two countries.
Design/methodology/approach A sample of the brand-logos and taglines from the top
100 companies in each country were content analysed for research objectives.
Findings The results indicate that Korean brands are generally more diffusive than those in the
USA. Specically, Korean brand-logos tend to use more abstract and symbolic creative designs than
those of the US, and the contents of Korean brand taglines contain more additional values than those in
the USA.
Research limitations/implications The ndings suggest the explanation power of new cultural
dimensions for academic researchers and the importance of localised corporate identity strategies for
international marketers.
Originality/value Because little is known about the differences between company brand designs
across cultures, this study lls a gap in the literature by examining company brand designs and
taglines. In addition, this study proved the usability of the newly developed Trompenaars specic
versus diffuse dimension.
Keywords Culture, Corporate identity, Brands, United States of America, South Korea
Paper type Research paper
Introduction
As the code of international branding sheds light on marketing strategies, multinational
companies focus on global approaches for marketing and communicating their
companies and products effectively. A company becomes truly global not only through
moving its headquarters to other countries, but also via branding strategies
and marketing messages (Mueller, 2004). Physical borders have become meaningless
for multinational companies. In these fast changing market environments, it is
necessary for marketers and advertisers to understand individual, local cultural values
and then deliberately reect on them in the execution of marketing communication
messages to develop more effective and persuasive marketing communication tools
(Aaker, 2000; De Mooij, 2000; Gurhan-Candi and Maheswaran, 2000).
Cultural differences may be the primary obstacle to developing internationally
accepted brands and communicating with global consumers, especially those who live in
developingcountries withmore traditional societies. To solve the conicts stemming from
a lack of knowledge about cultural differences and to better understand the values of
different cultures, it is vital to nd the right way to explain the inherent similarities and
differences that exist in various countries and cultures. The initial approach is to
understandthe different communicationstyles incross-cultural communicationsituations
by investigating the variations in cultural dimensions. The four cultural dimensions of
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International Marketing Review
Vol. 24 No. 4, 2007
pp. 474-491
qEmerald Group Publishing Limited
0265-1335
DOI 10.1108/02651330710761035
Hofstede (1980, 1983, 1991) and Halls (1966) hidden dimension are the representative
theories for understanding and explaining cultural differences. Among those, collectivism
versus individualism (Hofstede, 1980, 1991) and contextualism (Hall, 1989) are the most
popularly adopted cultural dimensions in the analysis of cross-cultural marketing and
advertising (Triandis, 1995).
AlthoughHofstede andHalls dimensions have beenwidelyusedbybothcross-cultural
researchers and international marketers and advertisers since they provide a valid
rationale for understanding core values across cultures, some critics have challenged their
limited explanation power due to the original developing process, as well as the validity
and generalizability of the cultural dimensions (Cutler et al., 1997; La Ferle et al., 2002).
Furthermore, these cultural dimensions are somewhat outdated. Consequently, the
development of new dimensions is needed to complement the old dimensions created by
Hofstede and Hall (Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner, 1998). Trompenaars and
Hampden-Turner (1998) suggested seven new cultural dimensions to solve the limit
described above:
(1) universalism versus particularism;
(2) individualism versus communitarianism;
(3) neutral versus emotional;
(4) specic versus diffuse;
(5) achievement versus ascription;
(6) orientation in time; and
(7) attitudes towards the environment.
The current study focuses on the specic versus diffuse dimension since this new
cultural dimension can be differentiated from preexisting dimensions and ts the
analysis of marketing messages. Specic and diffusive cultures are classied according
to the degree to which people interact with others in specic areas of life and single
levels of personality or diffusively in multiple areas of their lives and at several levels
of personality simultaneously (Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner, 1998, p. 83). For
example, a professor interacts within the specic culture of a university in the USA, but
maintains his or her title and status diffusively within the larger culture in German, one
of the diffusive cultures.
In this study, corporate identity (CI) especially corporate visual identity, such as
name, logotype/symbol, typography, colour, and tagline (Melewar and Jenkins, 2002;
Melewar and Saunders, 1998, 1999; Wheeler, 2003) is chosen as a target marketing
communication subject for examining cultural difference. Despite the increasing
importance of corporate visual identity, which heavily inuences consumer purchase
decisions (Melewar and Saunders, 1998), corporate visual identity has drawn
little attention from academics in the marketing and advertising elds. Furthermore,
little empirical cross-cultural literature exists in the area.
Thus, the current studyuses the USAandKoreatoexamine the differences incorporate
visual identityacross cultures. The two countries are relevant for this studybecause Korea
represents the typical diffuse culture and the USA is commonly classied as a specic
culture (Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner, 1998). In addition, previous studies note a
large cultural distance between the two countries (Hofstede, 1980, 1991; Hall, 1989).
Cultural
differences in
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475
Therefore, these cultural variables are appropriate for comparing the basic similarities or
dissimilarities in visual identity between US and Korean companies.
Given this background, the current study explores the potential applicability of
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turners specic versus diffuse dimension to two
culturally different nations to investigate how cultural differences affect corporate
visual identity. Specically, this study compares CI in the USA and Korea to:
.
clarify to what extent Trompenaars specic/diffuse dimension can explain
variances in communication practices like brand-logos and taglines;
.
provide information about the styles of brand design in each country; and
.
examine the cultural differences among brand taglines in the USA and Korea.
Furthermore, this study will aid academics and practitioners in marketing and
advertising by noting the specic differences in brand design elements and tagline
copy between two culturally different countries, thus suggesting managerial
implications for building effective brand-logos and taglines.
Literature review
Corporate identity (CI)
Since, Pilditch (1970) rst asserted the importance of CI, it has received increasing
attention from marketing and management scholars as well as practitioners
(Alessandri, 2001; Balmer and Wilson, 1998; Melewar and Jenkins, 2002; Melewar
and Saunders, 2000; Olins, 1978, 1989; van Riel and Balmer, 1997). However, CI is a
concept that many understand but few can actually explain. Consequently, little
consensus between academics and practitioners on the denition of CI exists. For
instance, practitioners collectively dene CI as a visual arrangement of elements, such
as the corporate name, logo, and tagline, while scholars view it as a higher level of
abstraction consisting of corporate strategy, corporate culture, and communication
(Alessandri, 2001; Balmer and Wilson, 1998; Melewar and Jenkins, 2002).
Though the conceptual denition of CI is disputed among academic researchers and
practitioners, many scholars and practitioners seem to agree with the concept of CI as a
strategic management tool used to present a company effectively to the public and to
affect long-term public perceptions (Alessandri, 2001). Lambert (1989) incorporated all
aspects of a companys presentation into CI, depicting the concept as an iceberg with
two levels: above the surface and below the surface. Above the surface primarily
consists of visual components that are visible to the consumers, such as name, logo, and
tagline, while invisible elements such as written communication, corporate structure,
and behaviour exist beneath the surface. In this view, Schmidt (1995) suggested a mixed
CI including corporate culture, corporate behaviour, market conditions, strategy,
products, services, communications, and graphic design. Furthermore, van Rekom
(1997, p. 411) dened CI as the set of meanings by which an object allows itself to be
known and through which it allows people to describe, remember and relate to it.
More recently, Alessandri (2001) suggested two denitions of CI with different
perspectives the conceptual and operational. She dened the conceptual denition of
CI as a rms strategically planned and purposeful presentation of itself in order to
gain a positive corporate image in the minds of the public and to gain a favourable
corporate reputation over time. The operational denition of CI was dened as
all of the observable and measurable elements of a rms identity manifest in its
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comprehensive visual presentation of itself which includes corporate name, logo,
tagline, colour palette, and architecture. Alessandri also incorporated the rms public
behavior including its corporate reception of employees, customers, stakeholders, and
suppliers, into her operational denition of CI (p. 177).
Similarly, van Riel and Balmer (1997) suggested the broader elements of CI which
include graphic design, integrated corporate communication, and a multidisciplinary
approach that focuses on organisational behaviour. They pointed out the importance of
marshaling the CI mix (communications, symbolisms, and organisational behaviour)
for marketers who must bridge the distance between an actual and desired CI. Among
the three paradigms for CI, the current study focuses on the graphic design of CI
(corporate visual identity), since it provides the central idea of the organisation with
impact, brevity and immediacy (Olins, 1995, p. 11). Corporate visual identity also
heavily inuences consumers purchase decisions by enhancing a companys
reputation and goodwill (Melewar and Saunders, 1998).
Furthermore, previous literature indicates the importance of corporate visual
identity for the corporate branding strategy, specically for multinational companies
facing the choice between a standardised and a localised CI (Henderson et al., 2003;
Melewar and Saunders, 1998, 1999; Melewar et al., 2000). In line with this position,
Schmitt (1995) insisted that Western companies should cautiously alter their global
corporate visual identity to local preferences when they entered a new market in East
Asia, because East Asians differ from Westerners in their assessments of corporate
name, visual symbols, colour, and phonological appeal. For example, he found that the
colour blue the prime CI colour in the USA is related to negative associations, such
as evil and sinister behaviour, in China. Moreover, East Asians value naturalism,
complexity of expression and decoration, and modern aesthetics with traditional
values (Schmitt, 1995).
Thus, considering the cultural distance between the USA and Korea, the corporate
visual identities exhibited by these two countries are appropriate for comparing basic
similarities or dissimilarities in brand design executions.
Cross-cultural studies
As one of the fundamental social processes in every culture, marketing communication
has been used to exert a strong impact on consumer attitudes and behaviours (Watson
et al., 2002). In the practices of international marketing and advertising, several
components of culture have been studied in order to compare and contrast the
effectiveness of persuasion across cultures, since cultural orientation has a considerable
effect on the processes of persuasion (Aaker and Maheswaran, 1997; Triandis, 1989).
Culture acts as a stringent screener that considerably inuences message meanings,
because the encoding and decoding of messages is fundamentally different in different
cultures, particularly Eastern and Western cultures (Hall, 1976). As Aaker (2000, p. 340)
notes:
. . . due to differences in culturally based traditions, religions, and histories, individuals in
distinct cultures tend to hold a different set of values and preferences. These cultural
differences are, in turn, reected in the content of marketing communication.
In line with this position, Aaker and Maheswaran (1997) found that heuristic cues, such
as consensus information, played a greater role in persuasion in a collectivistic culture
Cultural
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than in an individualistic culture, as the opinions of group members are emphasised in
collectivistic cultures. They also found that individuals in individualistic cultures used
detailed systematic processing or a capacity constrained heuristic processing strategy
to evaluate new information more often than collectivists. In support of this arguement,
individuals raised in East Asian cultures tend to weigh consensus information
information about others opinions towards an attitude object heavily because of a
heightened need for assimilation. In contrast, consensus information is perceived as
relatively non-diagnostic in the USA because the need to assimilate tends to be lower
(Choi et al., 1999).
Furthermore, researchers in the eld of communication have argued that the
effectiveness of persuasive styles and strategies may vary from culture to culture
(Bronfenbrenner, 1964; Burgoon et al., 1982; Wedge, 1968). For instance, Glenn et al.
(1977) found that Americans prefer a factual-inductive persuasive style, citizens of the
former USSR prefer an axiomatic-deductive style, and members of Arab communities
have a preference for an affective-intuitive style. They suggested that a style congruent
with culture should be considered to achieve communication goals.
The extant literature focusing on cultural differences between Korea and the USA
indicated that the effects of marketing communication would be different according to
their cultural orientation, such as high or low context, value direct/confrontational or
indirect/harmony-seeking behaviours, and individualistic or group-oriented
behaviours (Miracle et al., 1992).
Hall (1976) classied Korean culture as a relatively high context nation and the US as a
low context culture. Those who live in high context cultures are characterised as indirect
and contemplative, while those living in low context cultures are described as analytical
and action-oriented. For example, US subjects showed more favourable attitudes
towards advertising and brands as a result of high information levels of advertising than
Korean subjects (Taylor et al., 1997). Likewise, Korean magazine advertising relied more
heavily on emotional appeals as compared to US advertising, though this tendency varied
across product categories (Jeonet al., 1999). Cho et al. (1999) foundthat USadvertisingused
product features and the utilitarian needs for products (lowcontext) more frequently than
Korean advertising, while Korean advertising employeed metaphor (high context) more
often than their US counterparts.
Koreans are also more inclined to avoid confrontation in communication than
Americans. For instance, the Korean style of communication is regarded as
accommodation oriented rather than confrontation oriented because Koreans tend
to place more value on indirect communication to avoid rejection by others (Yum, 1987,
pp. 76-7). Kang (1988) and Gudykunst et al. (1987) also found that Koreans tend to prefer
indirect and non-confrontational communication, while Americans prefer a direct and
confrontational approach. Steward and Furse (1986) reported that American advertisers
tend to represent brand, product, and company name early on and frequently in
advertising. Therefore, to differentiate brands from competitors, a relatively direct and
confrontational approach would be used in the USA, while relatively fewer direct
references to the brand would appear in Korean advertising (Stewart and Furse, 1986).
Miracle et al. (1992) found an interesting pattern in television advertising in the USA
and Korea. In accordance with Steward and Furses (1986) ndings, the company name
was identied relatively later in Korean advertising. Furthermore, almost all Korean
advertisements showed their company names, but only 56 per cent of US companies
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represented their company names in advertising. However, in contrast with the
previous researchers ndings (Stewart and Furse, 1986), the authors found that the
brand name, logo, product, and package were identied relatively earlier in Korean
advertising than in US advertisements. They concluded that the:
Korean advertiser must feel that consumers usually base purchases of most products and
services at least in part on the reputation of the company, whereas in the US the reputation of
the company seems to be considered important to consumers in only about half of television
commercials (Miracle et al., 1992, p. 15).
According to Hofstede (1980), the USA and Korea are located at opposite ends of the
individualism scale. Among the 53 countries in the value placed individualism scale,
the US ranked the highest with a score of 91 out of 100, while Korea ranked far lower
with a score of 18. Thus, US advertising used more individualistic appeals and fewer
collectivistic appeals than Korean advertisements (Cho et al., 1999), and consumers
were persuaded more by an appeal when it matched the cultural orientations of their
country of origin (Han and Shavitt, 1994). That is, US advertisements emphasised
independence, self-reliance, self-improvement, and personal rewards and were less
likely to stress interdependence, family integrity, in-group goals, and a concern for
others (Belk and Bryce, 1986; Mueller, 1987; Miracle et al., 1992).
The previous literature observes that advertisements reecting local cultural values
are more persuasive than those that ignore them. Consequently, the effect of product
advertising across cultures has been a central area of research in marketing
communications, yet little is known about the differences in brand designs and tagline
copy created in different cultures. Therefore, the current study intends to ll this gap in
the literature by examining the implications of cultural differences in terms of
corporate visual identity.
Cultural dimensions of Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (1998, 2000) posited that no single best way for
organizing cultural differences exists. Their purpose in developing the cultural
dimension was to differentiate one culture from another and provide insight into the
globalization versus localization debates. Based on these purposes, Trompenaars and
Hampden-Turner (1998) suggested a model of seven cultural dimensions to better
understand cultural difference in business settings.
The rst ve dimensions involve relationships with other people. They are:
(1) universalism versus particularism;
(2) individualism versus communitarianism;
(3) neutral versus emotional;
(4) specic versus diffuse; and
(5) achievement versus ascription.
The other two dimensions include orientation in time and attitudes towards the
environment.
Universalism describes cultures in which social norms dominate and individuals
are accustomed to following the social norms. Particularism means that the culture
primarily focuses on friends, brothers, sisters, or other special relationships rather than
Cultural
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479
on the universal citizen. Universalism is common to North American and
North European countries such as Germany and Switzerland. They follow universal
norms and exhibit universal company cultures. On the contrary, French, Russian, and
most Asian cultures resist the inow of universalism, which results in a resistance to
indigenous culture, thus impeding the adoption of global culture (Trompenaars and
Hampden-Turner, 2000).
The individualism versus communitarianism dimension is similar to the
individualism/collectivism dimension of Hofstede, but countries belonging in this
dimension are somewhat different. For example, North America has a tendency
towards individualism while Asian countries, as well as Germany, England, Canada,
France, and Russia exhibit lower tendencies towards individualism (Trompenaars and
Hampden-Turner, 2000).
The third dimension is neutral versus emotional. This dimension evaluates the
culture by the degree to which the rationale or emotion dominates relationships
between people. People in emotionally neutral cultures control their emotions, but those
in affective cultures express their emotions by laughing, smiling, sneering, and
gesturing. The results of a study conducted to distinguish the cultural differences in
emotional expression found that Ethiopia (81 per cent) and Japan (74 per cent) were the
most neutral. Among European countries, Austria (59 per cent) was the most neutral,
and Italy (33 per cent) and France (30 per cent) were more affective (Trompenaars and
Hampden-Turner, 2000).
Among the dimensions Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner developed, the specic
versus diffuse cultural dimension is the primary subject of this paper, because it is a
new dimension that Hall and Hofstede did not consider. This dimension shares some
elements of Halls (1983) monochromic/polychromic dimension in terms of perceiving
time, and the contextual cultural dimension of Hall and Hall (1987). Further, it adopted
some portions from the concept of individualism/collectivism. The specic versus
diffuse dimension is correlated with power distance, individualism, and long-term
orientation (Hofstede, 1996). The specic culture means that individuals distinguish
their personal life from public affairs, whereas people in the diffuse culture exhibit a
collectivistic disposition that does not distinguish between public and private life.
When given the situation a boss asks a subordinate to help him paint his house,
65 per cent of Korean respondents would not paint the house while 82 per cent of US
respondents would not paint the house (Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner, 1998).
When asked whether or not a company should provide housing 35 per cent of Korean
respondents disagreed, as opposed to 85 per cent of US respondents. It is assumed that
peripheral variables intervene in relationships and affect communication in diffusive
cultures. Based on this assertion, the rst hypothesis can be drawn.
H1. Korean brand taglines will appeal to more culturally diffusive values such as
family, friends, neighbours, country, future, dreams, and emotional
expressions than American brand taglines.
In specic cultures, private realms are more clearly distinguished from public life and
there is considerable freedom for direct speech. People in specic cultures frequently
use the phrase Do not take this personally, which could be taken as in insult in more
diffuse cultures (Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner, 1998). The literature reviewed
supports this contention, as dened by the cultural dimension of confrontation
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(direct speech) versus accommodation (indirect speech). Koreans prefer indirect speech
and non-confrontational communication, while Americans favour a direct and
confrontational approach (Yum, 1987; Kang, 1988; Gudykunst et al., 1987). The
differing values between these two cultures are manifest in their advertising. For
example, Stewart and Furse (1986) found that American advertising identied brand,
product, and company names upfront and more frequently than Korean
advertisements. Therefore, we hypothesize that American companies taglines use a
relatively direct approach, while indirect references are employed in Korean taglines
(H2). Moreover, we also predict that Korean companies often use abstract or symbolic
elements in their brand logos, whereas these characteristics seldom appear in US
brand-logos (H3).
H2. American brand taglines will contain more direct speech than Korean brand
taglines.
H3. Korean brand-logos will be more abstract and symbolic than American brand
logos.
The remaining cultural dimensions include achievement versus ascription, attitudes
towards time, and attitudes towards environment. Achievement versus ascription
focuses on whether status is achieved or ascribed. Attitudes towards time are identied
as either sequential or synchronous, and suggest a pattern similar to Halls cognitive
trend of time concept. The last dimension, attitudes towards environment, is comprised
of inner versus outer-directed cultures. Inner-directed cultures tend to perceive nature as
controllable, while outer-directed cultures identify humans as part of nature and thus
believe that humans must harmonise with nature. Table I illustrates the comparative
differences in cultural dimensions between Korea and the USA. The table is based on the
answers provided for the representative questions found in Trompenaars and
Hampden-Turners (1998) Riding the Waves of Culture (McGraw-Hill). The index and
percents are calculated as a mean score of the individual questions.
To further assess additional differences between the brand design strategies used in
sample brand-logos, stylistic techniques are also investigated according to the
following research question:
RQ1. How do Korean and American brand designs differ in terms of motif and
colour?
Cultural dimension Korea USA
Trompenaars et al. (per cent) Universalism Low (42) High (72)
Individualism Low (53.5) High (65)
Emotional Low
a
High (43)
Specic Low (50) High (83.5)
Achieved Low (46.5) High (81)
Synchronous High (5.28) Low (4.3)
Environment Low (55.5) High (57)
Notes: The values are calculated means according to the answers of the representative questions
Trompenaars used;
a
index or percentage not available
Table I.
Cultural distance between
Korean and USA
Cultural
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481
Method
Based on the previous discussion of the specic/diffuse cultural dimension, we
developed hypotheses and used content analysis as an exploratory step to examine this
dimension in the brand-logos and brand taglines of Korean and US companies. While
content analysis is frequently used, especially when the research object is message
analysis, the scientic arrangements required to develop a coding scheme are difcult
to attain. In this regard, we adopted Riffe et al.s (1998) guideline to make the content
analyses more reliable, and we also followed the suggestion that the procedure of
content analysis is a multi-step process that requires developing categories for coding
thematic content, training coders, coding the categorical data, and statistically
analysing the coded data (Cho et al., 1999).
Sample
Brand-logos and taglines from the top 100 companies in both Korea and the USA
constitute the sampling universe. The top 100 companies sampled are truly multinational
corporations, and the brand is one of the most important components in international
marketing communication for multinational corporations. The Korean sample of
companies was collected from the Company Directory of Naver (2005), a Korean internet
portal site, and the US samples were collected from the Fortune 500 list of the largest US
corporations (Fortune, 2004). Brand-logos and taglines were captured from the home
pages of corporate websites, which typically show their CI at the top of the webpage.
Coding scheme
All Korean (n 100) and US (n 100) company brands were coded by two coders
who were bilingual English and Korean speakers. Practice in coding was conducted to
rene the categorization scheme. An inter-coder reliability test was done according to
Holstis formula (Wimmer and Dominick, 2003) and measured at 80 per cent. Normally,
a coefcient of 0.9 or greater indicates high reliability for percentage agreement, but a
coefcient of 0.8 or greater is regarded as acceptable in most situations (Neuendorf,
2002). Further, given that this study is exploratory in nature, a coefcient of 0.7 can be
used as acceptable criteria (Lombard et al., 2002).
As previously mentioned, the brand logo is operationally dened as a symbol of CI.
When the CI has additional pictorial design elements, the pictorial elements represent
the brand logo. When the CI only features typography, the typography represents the
brand-logo. The tagline is operationally dened as a short phrase that depicts a
companys brand essence, personality, and positioning, and differentiates it from its
core competitors (Wheeler, 2003). Taglines frequently have a shorter life span than
visual identities, and like advertising campaigns they are more susceptible to
the variations of market-place and lifestyle changes (Wheeler, 2003). A tagline is also
viewed as a slogan, clarier, mantra, company statement, or guiding principle that
represents and summarises a companys interest (Traverso, 2000). The tagline is
operationally dened in this paper as a sentence attached to the CI or the rst sentence
that appears on the homepage of the company web site.
The rst variable, additional value, is operationally dened as a companys appeal
to family, friends, neighbours, country name, future, dreams, and emotional
expressions that are beyond the scope of a cultures core values, such as quality,
trust, or price. Additional value also reects the diffusiveness of the brand value in
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taglines, and was measured as either absent (coded as 0) or present (coded as 1).
The present categories include the family (coded as 1), friend (coded as 2),
neighbour (coded as 3), country name (coded as 4), future (coded as 5), dreams
(coded as 6), and emotions (coded as 7). The category of direct speech includes
imperative, superlative, and provocative expressions. Wheelers (2003) classication of
tagline expressions into four categories was adopted. These categories are imperative,
superlative, provocative, and descriptive. The rst three categories are used to
represent direct speech. The imperative expression commands action and normally
starts with a verb. The superlative expression identies the position of the company as
the best in its industrial class. The provocative expression is thought-provoking, and
normally presented in the form of a question (Wheeler, 2003).
In the brand-logos, the direct speech variable was measured by logo shapes. This
study dened a word-mark and a letterform as direct expression of creative design, and
pictorial as well as the abstract/symbolic as indirect expression. Logo shapes are
measured by the word-mark (coded as 1), letterform (coded as 2), pictorial (coded as
3), and the abstract/symbolic (coded as 4). Each category is represented by ordinal
values. The bigger the number is, the more abstract and indirect the brand-logos.
Because the classication of creativity is subjective and delicate, this study followed
Wheelers (2003, p. 84) denition of brand-logo classication.
A word-mark is a freestanding word or words. It may be a company name or an acronym.
Logos including letterforms are the single letter used as a distinctive graphic focal point for a
brand-logo. A pictorial style uses a literal and recognizable image. The image itself may
allude to the name of the company or its mission, or it may be symbolic of a brand attribute.
An abstract style uses visual form to convey a big idea or a brand attribute. These marks, by
their nature, can provide strategic ambiguity, and work effectively for large companies with
numerous and unrelated divisions.
This study analysed creative motif utilizing the general motif that brand design
adopted since creative motif is a subjective concept. The classied creative motif
includes letter, circle, triangle, square, human, animal, nature, tradition, star, national
ag, and amorphous expression. Between-group t-test and x
2
tests were used to
identify the differences between Korean and US brands. In addition, multiple
discriminant analysis was used to determine the linear combination of independent
variables that best classify cases by country.
Results
A between-group t-test was used to examine the cultural differences between Korean
and US brand taglines. The independent variable is country, and the dependent
variables are additional value and direct speech, respectively. Table II illustrates the
results of the between-group t-tests showing means, standard deviations, and t-values.
Variables Country Mean SD N t Sig.
Additional value Korea 0.29 0.46 95 2.14 0.04
USA 0.16 0.37 70
Direct speech Korea 0.24 0.43 95 0.272 0.79
USA 0.26 0.44 69
Table II.
Brand taglines for
Korea and US
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483
The additional value for Korea is higher than that of the USA, and the mean difference
was statistically signicant ( p , 0.05). This result suggests that Korean taglines
contain more additional values, like appeals to family, friend, neighbour, and emotion
than their American counterparts. Thus, because these appeals are characteristics of a
diffusive culture, the results support H1. US taglines rely on direct speech slightly
more than Korean taglines, but the mean difference was not statistically signicant
( p . 0.05). Therefore, because the tagline analysis revealed no difference between the
use of direct speech in Korean and American taglines, H2 was not supported.
x
2
was used to test H3, which proposed that Korean brand-logos are more symbolic
than US brand-logos. The rst categorical variable is brand shape, and the second
categorical variable is country. Table III illustrates the results of the x
2
test showing
frequencies, x
2
value, and degree of freedom.
As shown in Table III, 56 per cent of Korean brand-logos are pictorial (33 per cent)
and symbolic (23 per cent), while only 34 per cent of US brand-logos are pictorial
(26 per cent) and symbolic (8 per cent). US brand-logos consisted of 66 per cent of
word-mark and letterform categories, with Korean brand-logos at 44 per cent. The
results are statistically signicant (x
2
12.72, p , 0.01) and can be projected onto the
populations from which the 200 subjects were taken. This result indicates that there is
a signicant relationship between Korea and the USA in terms of brand-logo shape.
Specically, Korean brand-logos are more abstract and symbolic than their US
counterparts.
General information about brand-logos in terms of creative motif and design style
reveals that the most frequent creative motif in Korean and US brand-logos is the letter
including the alphabet and number. The second highest ranked motif for Korean
brand-logos is the circle and the square for US brand-logos. Interestingly, the
third highest ranked creative motifs for Korean brand-logos were human-related
(12 per cent), but only 1 per cent of US brand-logos used this motif. As Table IV shows,
the most frequently used colours in Korean and American brand-logos are blue and
red. Over 70 per cent of Korean and American brand-logos use only one colour, with
90 per cent using up to two colours.
Shape of brand-logos
Word mark Letter form Pictorial Symbolic Total
Korea 30 14 33 23 100
The USA 42 24 26 8 100
Total 72 38 59 31 200
Notes: x
2
12.72; df 3; p , 0.01
Table III.
Cross-tabulation of
country by shape of
brand-logos
Main colour Number of colour
Blue Red Yellow Green Grey Black 1 2 More
Korean 45 35 6 8 3 3 71 21 8
USA 55 27 3 3 4 8 74 22 4
Table IV.
Used colours
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A multiple discriminant analysis was used to determine the linear combination of
independent variables that best classify cases into country groups. Independent
variables include brand-logo shape and tagline value. The dependent variable is the
brand-logos country. Tables V and VI illustrate the results of the multiple
discriminant analysis showing unstandardised coefcients, standardised coefcients,
Wilks l, and classication matrix.
The shape variable was found to be more important in discriminating the levels of
the country in terms of standard coefcients, and in terms of Wilks l. The F-ratio of
each Wilks l is statistically signicant ( p , 0.05). The canonical correlation is 0.23,
and Wilks l of the discriminant function is 0.95. The x
2
of the Wilks l is 8.94, and
is statistically signicant ( p , 0.05). The linear discriminant function equation is
D 2050 1.52 Shape 21.27 value. This means that the US brand-logos tend to be
more word-oriented, while Korean brand-logos suggest more additional values in
the expression of taglines. These results support H1 and H3. The average of the
discriminant function score for Korea is 20.20, and 0.28 for the US
As Table VI illustrates, 61 Korean cases were correctly classied, and 34 cases were
not. A total of 30 US cases were correctly classied, and 40 cases were not. The hit
rate was 61.2 per cent. This is a somewhat low proportion, but the hand calculated
t-value of the hit rate was 2.02, thus the resultant hit rate was statistically signicant.
Discussion and conclusion
The objective of this study is to investigate to what extent corporate visual identity is
similar or dissimilar in two culturally different nations, the US and Korea. The current
study also explores the potential applicability of Trompenaars and Hampden-Turners
specic versus diffuse dimension to corporate visual identity. Based on the
previous literature, the study hypothesized that a different cultural dimension
(specic versus diffuse) lead to differences in corporate visual identity (brand-logos
and taglines) in the two countries.
Unstandardised
coefcient
Standardised
coefcient Wilks l F-ratio
Mean of
Korea
Mean of
USA
Shape 1.52 0.75 0.96 6.70 (1, 163) 0.44 0.64
Value 21.27 20.54 0.97 4.29 (1, 163) 0.29 0.16
Constant 20.50
Notes: Canonical correlation 0.23; Wilks l 0.95; x
2
8.94 (df 2); p , 0.05
Table V.
Results of multiple
discriminant analysis
Predicted group
membership
Country Korea USA Total
Original Korea 61 34 95
USA 30 40 70
Note: 61.2 per cent of original grouped cases correctly classied
Table VI.
Classication matrix
Cultural
differences in
brand designs
485
The ndings reveal that the dened cultural dimension is associated with differences
in corporate visual identity across cultures. Generally, Korean brands are more
diffusive than those of the US. For example, taglines and brand-logos in the diffusive
Korean culture use more additional values in taglines and are more symbolic/abstract
than brand-logos and taglines in the specic US culture (H1 and H3). However, no
statistically signicant difference in direct/indirect speech between US and Korean
taglines was found, although the US illustrated a slightly higher tendency for direct
speech than Korea (H2). This somewhat inconsistent nding might be due to the fact
that taglines normally do not contain enough information to analyse true differences.
Results could vary if the analysed content was extended to advertising or other
marketing communication messages which contain more information to be analysed.
Given that the specic versus diffuse dimension is correlated with power distance,
individualism, and long-term orientation (Hofstede, 1996), the results are consistent
with previous research using those variables employed in the analysis of
advertisements (Cho et al., 1999; Han and Shavitt, 1994). Also, this result is in line
with Trompenaars and Hampden-Turners specic versus diffusive dimension.
According to them (1998), people in diffusive cultures do not like direct expression and
even consider it an insult. Thus, the nding suggests that Trompenaars and
Hampden-Turners framework sheds light on the design of corporate visual identity
across cultures.
This study proposes that empirical cultural differences exist in the brand strategies
of Korean and the US companies. The importance of brand design elements cannot be
underestimated, as the rst step in marketing communication is the development of a
brand-logo. However, though content and execution differences in advertising have
been broadly studied by various researchers, studies specically examining
differences in brand design remain limited. Furthermore, even if corporate visual
identity has been studied in the marketing and advertising eld, most research has
focused on verbal components, one element of corporate visual identity. Because visual
components of brand-logos and taglines also play a key role in enhancing a companys
image and reputation in East Asia (Han and Schmitt, 1997), both scholars and
marketers are advised to note the importance of visual components as a critical part of
branding strategy (Henderson et al., 2003).
The current study has several meaningful managerial implications. First, the
ndings of this study provide brand management guidelines for the multinational
marketers and advertisers attempting to enter US and Korean markets. Because
Korean taglines and brand-logos use more symbolic/abstract brand designs than those
from the US, a localised corporate visual identity for each country is recommended. It is
important to note that the frequently used styles of corporate visual identity in each
country have been strictly selected by each countrys experienced marketers and
advertisers as an effective brand management strategy that reects local cultural
values. Therefore, managers in each country are recommended to follow the same
practice in selecting or directing corporate visual identity.
Second, because many marketers and advertisers do not have practical design
experience, it is difcult for themto describe what theywant for CI when communicating
with designers. However, the ndings of this study may provide marketers and
advertisers with a useful communication tool since a theory-based dimension is easily
understood by most designers. For example, in the Korean market managers can ask
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designers to develop creative motifs that reect additional values because companies are
not just product providers for Korean consumers and should play a role as a friend,
family member, or close neighbour.
Third, given the fact that corporate visual identity acts as the face of a company and
is frequently used in product placement or global sponsorship, the study results could
be applied to other marketing communication strategies, especially those aimed at the
global market. International companies in the service industry could benet from
appealing to culturally diffusive values in brand-logos and taglines.
While this study found relevant differences between corporate visual identity in the
US and Korea, it also had some limitations. First, content analysis does not show the
direct inferences for the differences in corporate visual identities in the US and Korea
nor does it suggest what types of designs are effective in the two countries. Therefore,
experimental research or surveys are needed to directly assess whether corporate
visual identities congruent to each culture are more effective than those that do not
reect local cultural values from the consumers perspective.
Second, this study only investigated US and Korean corporate visual identity, so the
ndings may not be applicable to other nations, even those with similar specic or
diffusive dimension scores. For example, many countries in Asia and other continents,
such as China, Nepal, Singapore, Indonesia, Serbia, Hungary, Russia, Czech Republic,
Nigeria, and Venezuela, have diffusive dimension scores. Thus, future research is
needed to analyse a large sample of countries and test the applicability of Trompenaars
and Hampden-Turners specic versus diffusive dimension.
Third, the study rst attempted to apply Trompenaars and Hampden-Turners
cultural dimension to corporate visual identity. Therefore, it might be subject to trial and
error. For example, it is hard to differentiate the design elements into different categories
due to a lack of literature on this subject. Though brands from both countries were
categorized as word-oriented or not, it is recommended that a more rened scale be
developed to better differentiate the design elements inuencing creativeness.
Fourth, as indicated earlier, another limitation of the study stems from the amount
of information contained in taglines. The brand tagline is worth studying because
taglines represent a companys core message and are important in management
science literature (Dodson, 1989). However, brand-taglines contain little information
because the core message must be short and easy to deliver, thus rendering content
analysis difcult. Therefore, it may be necessary to extend content analysis to
advertising messages or different marketing communication messages to better apply
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turners cultural dimension.
In future research, it is recommended that CI be studied in the context of
advertising, such as the position of CI in advertisements, colour variation in the CI, and
the size of CI in commercials. In the same regard, research that applies the tagline to
other marketing communication messages and studies the relationship between
taglines and advertising is needed. Finally, we recommend that further research
investigate whether the results could be projected onto the individual product brand, or
the brand identity (BI) of individual products.
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About the authors
Jong Woo Jun is a PhD candidate in the Department of Advertising at the University of Florida.
Previous to his study, he worked in the advertising business. He has worked for LGAD and
Craysh in Korea. He received a BA and MA, both in mass communication from the Hankuk
University of Foreign Studies, Seoul, South Korea. He has publications in the Place Branding and
the East West Channel. Jong Woo Jun is the corresponding author and can be contacted at:
jwjun@u.edu
Hyung-Seok Lee (MA, California State University, Fullerton) is a doctoral student in the
Department of Advertising, College of Journalism and Communications, University of Florida.
His research focuses on brand personality, intercultural communication, and health
communication. E-mail: hyunglee@u.edu
Cultural
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