Communication Networks

Introduction
History of telecommunication (wiki)
Early communication
Smoke signal & drum
In 1792, Claude Chappe built the first semaphore system, a system of
conveying information by means of visual signals, using towers with pivoting
shutters, also known as blades or paddles, between Lille and Paris.
Telegraph
Samuel Morse developed a version of the electrical telegraph that he
unsuccessfully demonstrated on 2 September 1837. He was joined by Alfred
Vail who developed a telegraph terminal that integrated a logging device for
recording messages to paper tape. This was demonstrated successfully over
three miles (five kilometres) on 6 January 1838 and eventually over forty miles
(sixty-four kilometres) between Washington, DC and Baltimore on 24 May 1844.
The first commercial electrical telegraph was constructed in England by Sir
Charles Wheatstone and Sir William Fothergill Cooke on 9 April 1839.
Telephone
The conventional telephone was invented by Alexander Bell in 1876.
Transatlantic voice communication remained impossible until January 7, 1927
when a connection was established using radio. However no cable connection
existed until TAT-1 was inaugurated on September 25, 1956 providing 36
telephone circuits.

Introduction
History of telecommunication (wiki)
Radio & Television
1832, James Lindsay gave a classroom demonstration of wireless
telegraphy to his students
1893, Nikola Tesla described and demonstrated in detail the
principles of wireless.
1900, that Reginald Fessenden was able to wirelessly transmit a human voice.
December 1901, Guglielmo Marconi established wireless communication
between Britain and the United States.
On March 25, 1925, Scottish inventor John Logie Baird publicly demonstrated
the transmission of moving silhouette pictures. In October of 1925, Baird was
successful in obtaining moving pictures with halftone shades, which were by
most accounts the first true television pictures
Computer Networks & Internet
On September 11, 1940 George Stibitz was able to transmit problems using
teletype to his Complex Number Calculator in New York and receive the
computed results back at Dartmouth College in New Hampshire.
It was not until the 1960s that researchers started to investigate packet switching.
A four-node network emerged on December 5, 1969 between the University of
California, Los Angeles, the Stanford Research Institute, the University of Utah
and the University of California, Santa Barbara. ARPANET INTERNET
Introduction
History of Internet (wiki)
In the 1950s and early 1960s, prior to the widespread inter-
networking that led to the Internet, most communication networks
were limited by their nature to only allow communications between
the stations on the network.
Networks that led to the Internet
1. ARPANET
The first ARPANET link was established between the University of California, Los
Angeles and the Stanford Research Institute on 29 November 1969.
By 5 December 1969, a 4-node network was connected by adding the University of
Utah and the University of California, Santa Barbara.
Building on ideas developed in ALOHAnet, the ARPANET grew rapidly. By 1981, the
number of hosts had grown to 213.
2. X.25
In 1974, X.25 formed the basis for the SERCnet network between British academic
and research sites, which later became JANET.
3. UUCP
In 1979, two students at Duke University, Tom Truscott and Jim Ellis, came up with
the idea of using simple Bourne shell scripts to transfer news and messages on a
serial line with nearby University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
By 1981 the number of UUCP hosts had grown to 550, nearly doubling to 940 in 1984.
Recent
Milestones
1983: deployment of TCP/IP
1982: smtp e-mail protocol defined
1983: DNS defined for name-to-IP-address translation
1985: ftp protocol defined
1988: TCP congestion control
1990s: Web
hypertext [Bush 1945, Nelson 1960s]
HTML, HTTP: Berners-Lee
1994: Mosaic, later Netscape
late 1990s: commercialization of the Web
2000s:
more killer apps: instant messaging, P2P file sharing
network security to forefront
backbone links running at Gbps
P2P applications: BitTorrent (file sharing), Skype
(VoIP), PPLive (video)
more applications: YouTube, online gaming, social
networking
Wireless broadband, mobility, ubiquitous networking
IP-Multimedia Subsystem (IMS)

Questions
1. What is a communication network?
2. What is an internet? What is the Internet?
3. What is a protocol?
4. What are client and server programs?
5. What is an access network?
TCP connection request
TCP connection response
Get http://
<file>
time
1. What is a communication network?
A set of equipment and facilities that provides a
service: the transfer of information between users
located at various geographical points.
2. What is an internet? What is the Internet?
An interconnection of multiple networks into a single
large network.
A computer network that interconnects millions of
computing devices throughout the world. An
infrastructure that provides services to applications,
such as e-mail, web surfing, instant messaging, VoIP,
video streaming, internet radio
3. What is a protocol?
A protocol defines the format and the order of
messages exchanged between two or more
communicating entities, as well as the actions taken
on the transmission and/or receipt of a message or
other event.
Answers
4. What are client and server programs?
A client program is a program running on one end
system that requests and receives a service from a
server program running on the other end system.
5. What is an access network?
The physical link(s) connecting an end system to its
edge router, which is the first route on a path from the
end system to any other distant end system.
Residential access, company access, wireless access..
Answers
Residential Access: Point-to-Point Access
Dialup via modem
up to 56Kbps direct access to router (often less)
Cant surf and phone at same time: cant be always on.
DSL: digital subscriber line
deployment: telephone company (typically)
ADSL: the volume of data flow is greater in downstream
than the upstream. Whats the highest rate available?
(Japan: (yahooBB) Download: 50.5Mbps; Upload: 12.5Mbps, ~JPY4k/
month)
(Streamyx: 4Mbps, RM140/month)
dedicated physical line to telephone central office
FTTH: Fiber to the Home
The two main technologies used for these architectures
are VDSL2 and PON.
(Japan (yahooBB): Download/Upload 200Mbps; ~JPY7k/month)
(Unifi: (VIP20) Download/Upload 20Mbps; RM249/month)
Company Access: Local Area Network (LAN)
Ethernet:
10 Mbs, 100Mbps, 1Gbps, 10Gbps Ethernet
modern configuration: end systems connect into
Ethernet switch
Wireless LAN:
wireless users transmit/receive packets to/form a
base station within a radius of few tens of meters.
IEEE 802.11 (wifi)
Wider -area Wireless Access:
3G and beyond: Evolution-Data Optimized (EVDO),
High-speed Downlink Packet Access(HSDPA)
IEEE802.16 (wimax)
Wireless access
Physical Media
Twisted Pair (TP) cable
two insulated copper wires
Category 3: traditional phone wires, 10 Mbps
Ethernet
Category 5: 100Mbps Ethernet
Coaxial cable:
two concentric copper conductors
Bidirectional
Fiber Optic cable:
glass fiber carrying light pulses, each pulse a bit
high-speed point-to-point transmission (e.g., 10s-
100s Gps)
low error rate: repeaters spaced far apart ; immune
to electromagnetic noise
Radio link
terrestrial microwave, Wireless LAN, culluar,
satellite
Circuit Switching
End-end resources reserved for
call
link bandwidth, switch capacity
dedicated resources: no sharing
circuit-like (guaranteed) performance
call setup required
Resources (e.g., bandwidth) divided
into pieces
pieces allocated to calls
resource piece idle if not used by
owning call (no sharing)
frequency division / time division
Circuit Switching: FDM vs. TDM
Introduction 1-13
FDM
frequency
time
TDM
frequency
time
4 users
Example:
Numerical Problem:

How long does it take to send a file of
640,000 bits from host A to host B over a
circuit-switched network?
All links are 1.536 Mbps
Each link uses TDM with 24 slots/sec
500 msec to establish end-to-end circuit

Each end-end data stream divided into packets
All users packets share network resources
each packet uses full link bandwidth
resources used as needed
Resource Contention:
aggregate resource demand can exceed amount
available
congestion: packets queue (buffer), wait for link use
(delay)
store and forward: packets move one hop at a time
Node receives complete packet before forwarding

Packet Switching
Sequence of A & B packets does not have fixed
pattern, bandwidth shared on demand
statistical multiplexing.
TDM: each host gets same slot in revolving TDM
frame.

Packet Switching: Statistical Multiplexing
A
B
C
100 Mb/s
Ethernet
1.5 Mb/s
D
E
statistical multiplexing
queue of packets
waiting for output
link
10 users
with 35 users,
probability > 10 active
at same time is less
than 0.0004.

Circuit Switching vs. Packet Switching
1 Mb/s link, 100 kb/s per user when active, active 10% of time
Tier 1 ISP
Tier 1 ISP
Tier 1 ISP
Tier-2 ISP
Tier-2 ISP
Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP
Tier-2 ISP
local
ISP
local
ISP
local
ISP
local
ISP
local
ISP
Tier 3
ISP
local
ISP
local
ISP
local
ISP
Internet Structure
ISP = Internet Service Provider
The Internet: Technical Perspective
Internet Protocol was developed to provide for
the connectionless transfer packets called
datagram across an internetwork.
The component networks are interconnected by
special packet switches called gateway/routers.
IP traditionally provides best-effort services.
unreliable. (why?)
IP uses a hierarchical address space that has
grouping information. It consists of 4 bytes
usually expressed in dotted-decimal notation.
An IP address consists of two parts: network ID
& host ID.
The internet also provides a name space to refer
to machines connected to Internet.
The Internet: Technical Perspective
Automatic of translation of names to addresses
is provided by Domain Name System (DNS)
The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) allows
applications to transfer individual blocks of user
information using datagram.
The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) was
developed to provide reliable transfer of
streaming information over the connectionless
IP. TCP provides error and flow control, data
rate adaptation, and retransmission.
Applications developed on top of TCP/IP: SMTP
(email), FTP (file transfer), HTTP (web services),
RTP ( real-time streaming).

Why layering?
Internet Protocol Stack
Protocol Layer
Application
Transport
Network
Link
Physical
- Protocols: HTTP, SMTP, FTP.

- Protocols: UDP, TCP.

- Protocols: IP, Routing Protocols, ARP.

- Protocols: Ethernet, wifi, PPP, ATM.

- Protocols: Twisted-pair, coaxial cable, fiber.
OSI Protocol Stack
Protocol Layer
Application
Transport
Network
Link
Physical
- Protocols: encryption, compression

- Protocols: synchronization, checkpointing
Presentation
Session
Is Internet Protocol incomplete?
How if these two layers are
needed in some applications?
The OSI Model
Interface
Network
Support
Layers
User
Support
Layers
Transport
Layers
Layers Functions
Application Provides user-interface and support for services
Presentation
Syntax and semantics of the information exchanged
between two systems.
Translation (of different encoding system), encryption,
compression.
Session
Establishes, maintains and synchronizes the interaction
among cummunicating systems.
Dialog control, synchronization
Transport
Process-to-process delivery of the entire message.
(a process is an application program running on a host)
Service-point addressing, segmentation and reassembly,
connection control, flow control, error control.
Layers Functions
Network
Source-to-destination delivery of packet.
Logical addressing, routing,
Data Link
Makes the physical link a reliable error-free link.
Framing, physical addressing, flow control, error control, access control
Physical
Coordinates the functions required to carry a bit stream over a physical
medium.
Defines the procedures and functions that physical devices and
interfaces have to perform for transmission to occurs.
Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium, representation of
bits, data rate, synchronization of bits, line configuration, physical
topology, transmission mode.
source
Application
Transport
Network
Link
Physical
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H
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segment H
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datagram
destination
Application
Transport
Network
Link
Physical
H
t
H
n
H
l
M
H
t
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n
M
H
t
M
M
Network
Link
Physical
Link
Physical
H
t
H
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H
l
M
H
t
H
n
M
H
t
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M
H
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H
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router
switch
Encapsulation
message M
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frame
A network topology is how computers, and other devices are
connected over a network.
Network Topologies
Bus Topology
Its easy to setup and inexpensive.
All devices on the Bus Topology are connected using a single cable.
It is extremely important to note that both ends of the main cable need to be
terminated. If there is no terminator, the signal will bounce back when it reaches
the end.
The result: a bunch of collisions and noise that will disrupt the entire network.

Ring Topology
It provides a collision-free and redundant networking environment.
Note that since there is no end on a Ring Topology, no terminators are necessary.
A frame travels along the circle, stopping at each node. If that node wants to
transmit data, it adds destination address and data information to the frame.
When the destination is found, the data is taken out of the frame and the cycle
continues.

Dual-Ring Topology
This creates a sense of redundancy so that if any point in the network
fails, the second ring will (hopefully) be able to pick up the slack.
If both rings were to fail at separate locations, we can even use the
opposite ring at each point to patch the downed node.
Star/ Extended Star Topology
It is easy to setup, relatively cheap, and creates more redundancy than the Bus
topology.
The Star Topology works by connecting each node to a central device. This
central connection allows us to have a fully functioning network even when other
devices fail. The only real threat to this topology is that if the central device goes
down, so does the entire network.
The Extended Star Topology is a bit more advanced. Instead of connecting all
devices to a central unit, we have sub-central devices added to the mix. This
allows more functionality for organization and subnetting - yet also creating more
points of failure.
In many cases it is impractical to use a Star Topology since networks can span an
entire building. In this case, the Extended Star Topology is all but necessary to
prevent degraded signals.

Hierarchical Topology
The Hierarchical Topology is much like the Star Topology, except that it doesnt
use a central node.
It is also referred to as the Tree Topology.
If the device that is on top of the chain fails, consider the entire network down.
Mesh Topology
truly redundant network.
Fully mesh & partially mesh
The Full-Mesh Topology connects every single node together. Most reliable but
expensive.
The Partial-Mesh Topology only implement a few alternate routes.
Other Topologies?
i. Point-to-Point Topology
ii. Hybrid Topology
Addressing
Physical
Addressing
Link address as defined by its LAN and WAN.
Ethernet uses a 6-bytes (48 bits) physical address imprinted on
the NIC.
Logical
Addressing
For universal communications that are independent of
underlying physical networks.
IP address (32 bits)
Port
Addressing
For processes in the same host to receive data simultaneously.
16 bits length
Specific
Addressing
User-friendly address depending on the application.
For example: email address
Networks Performances:
Loss and Delay
packets queue in router buffers
packet arrival rate to link exceeds output link capacity
Lost
packets queue, wait for turn Delay
A
B
packet being transmitted (delay)
packets queueing (delay)
free (available) buffers: arriving packets
dropped (loss) if no free buffers
Types of Delay
1. Processing Delay
check bit errors
determine output link
2. Queuing Delay
waiting time at output link for transmission
3. Transmission Delay
Packet Length (bits) / Link Rate (b/s)
4. Propagation Delay
Length of Physical Link (m) / Propagation Speed (m/s)
Propagation Speed: 2 3 x 10
8
m/s
End-to-End Delay, d
end-end
= N(d
proc
+ d
trans
+ d
prop
+ d
queue
)
- to trace end-to-end delay, traceroute is used in Windows
- C:\ tracert [IP/Host Name]
prop trans queue proc nodal
d d d d d
Packet Loss
queue (aka buffer) preceding link in buffer has
finite capacity
packet arriving to full queue dropped (aka lost)
lost packet may be retransmitted by previous
node, by source end system, or not at all

Increasing buffer size can reduce packet loss?
Negative impacts?
Throughput
rate (bps) at which bits transferred between sender/receiver
i. instantaneous: rate at given point in time
ii. average: rate over long(er) period of time

R
s
< R
c
What is average end-end throughput?
R
s

bits/sec R
c

bits/sec
R
s
> R
c
What is average end-end throughput?
R
s

bits/sec
R
c

bits/sec
Multiple connections share
backbone bottleneck link
R bits/sec
R
s

R
s

R
s

R
c

R
c

R
c

R
Throughput: Internet Scenario
Questions
1. Consider two hosts, A and B, connected by a single link of rate R bps. Suppose that
the two hosts are separated by m meters, and the propagation speed along the link
is s meters/second. Host A is to send a packet of size L bits to Host B.

a) Express the propagation delay, d
prop
, in term of m and s.
b) Determine the transmission time of packet, d
trans
, in terms of L and R.
c) Ignoring processing and queuing delays, obtain an expression for the end-to-
end delay.
d) Suppose Host A begins to transmit the packet at time t = 0. At time t = d
trans
,
where is the last bit of the packet?
e) Suppose d
prop
is greater than d
trans
. At time t = d
trans
, where is the first bit of the
packet?
f) Suppose d
prop
is less than d
trans
. At time t = d
trans
, where is the first bit of the
packet?
g) Suppose s = 2.5 x 10
8
, L = 100, and R = 28 kbps. Find the distance m so that
d
prop
equals d
trans
.
Questions
2. Suppose two hosts, A and B, are separated by 10,000 km and are connected by a
direct link of R = 2Mbps. Suppose the propagation speed over the link is 2.5 x 10
8

m/s.
a) Calculate the bandwidth-delay product, R d
prop
.
b) Consider sending a file of 400,000 bits from A to B. Suppose the file is sent
continuously as one large message. What is the maximum number of bits that
will be in the link at any given time?
c) Provide an interpretation of the bandwidth-delay product.
d) What is the width (in meters) of a bit in the link?
e) Derive a general expression for the width of a bit in terms of propagation
speed s, the transmission rate R and the length of the link m.
f) How long does it take to send the file in (b)?
g) Suppose now the file is broken into 10 packets of equal file size and suppose
that each packet is acknowledged by the receiver and transmission time of an
acknowledgement packet is negligible. Finally, assume that the sender cannot
send a packet until the preceding one is acknowledged. How long does it take
to send the file?

3. Consider Q2 with R = 1 Gbps, and repeat the calculation for a, b and d.