i

ELECTRONIC HARDWARE WORKSHOP

ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROJECT
SCR TESTER
MICROCONTROLLER BASED BOTTLE MONITORING SYSTEM



Final Report
October 2013

SUBMITTED BY

DARPAN DAMANI
60002128004
T.E. EXTC

AISHWARYA KARNIK
60002128008
T.E. EXTC

HARSHIL SHETH
60002128018
T.E. EXTC

A report from
D.J.Sanghvi College of Engineering
Plot No. U-15, J.V.P.D Scheme,
Bhaktivedanta Swami Marg,
Vile Parle (West),Mumbai 400 056.
ii

CERTIFICATE


This is to certify that the following students

Darpan Damani
Aishwarya Karnik
Harshil Sheth


Have successfully completed the digital project titled Microcontroller Based Bottle monitoring
System and the analog project titled SCR Tester towards the partial fulfillment of Degree of
Bachelor of Engineering in Electronics and Telecommunications of the University of Mumbai
during academic year 2013-2014.






__________________ _______________________
Prof. Pooja Jain Dr Amit Deshmukh
INTERNAL GUIDE HEAD OF DEPARTMENT



_____________________ _______________________
INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER
iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT


First and foremost, we would like to thank to our supervisor of this project, Mrs. Pooja Jain for the
valuable guidance and advice. She inspired us greatly to work in this project. Her willingness to
motivate us contributed tremendously to our project. We also would like to thank her for showing
us some example that related to the topic of our project.

Besides, we would like to thank our Head of Department Dr. Amit Deshmukh, our Principal Dr.
Hari Vasudevan and the lab assistants of D. J. Sanghvi College for providing us with a good
environment and facilities to complete this project.

Finally, an honorable mention goes to our families and friends for their understanding and support
with us in completing this project. Without help of the particular that are mentioned above, we
would face many difficulties while doing this project.








iv


CONTENTS
DIGITAL PROJECT
1. Chapter: Introduction...........7
2. Chapter: Project concept......8
3. Chapter: Circuit diagram.10
4. Chapter: Block diagram and block description .................................................................11
4.1 Block Diagram ...11
4.2 Block description...12
4.2.1: Microcontroller 89s51...13
4.2.2: 16X2 LCD display....14
4.2.3 Power Supply.15
4.2.4 IR Sensor19
5. Chapter: software and programming details......20
5.1 algorithm .20
5.2 source code...21
6. Chapter: future scope..26
6.1 advantages and disadvantage26
6.2 application26
7. Chapter: References...27
8.1 books....27
8.2 websites....28
8. Chapter: Datasheet.............29
9.1 Microcontroller 89s51..29
9.2 IC 7805 Voltage Regulator...35
v



ANALOG PROJECT
1. Chapter: PCB Designing......40
2. Chapter: Introduction and Project concept.43
3. Chapter: Component Overview 44
4. Chapter:Circuit Diagram..49
5. Chapter: Applications.50

6








Digital
Project

7

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION




An engineer is always focused towards challenges of bringing ideas and concepts
to life. Therefore sophisticated machines and modern techniques have been constantly
developed and implemented for economical manufacturing of products. At the same time,
we should take care that there should be no compromise in quality and accuracy.
When security is concerned, machine becomes an integral part of human being.
By the use of automation, machine proves itself that it gives a higher security.

8

CHAPTER 2
PROJECT CONCEPT















This system can be used in industries, where a counting system is needed to be installed. It can be used
in companies where products entering or leaving the company has to be counted and displayed
accordingly. This project basically counts the no. of raw bottles entering the company and displays it,
without any human assistance. It is an automated system which can be installed in industries.





9

Major components in our project:
MICROCONTROLLER AT89S51
It is heart of the system. It controls all the actions of the system components.
LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY
Because of LCD display user will get each and every indication.
DC MOTOR
To drive the conveyer belt.
CONVEYER BELT
The moving belt on which bottles are placed.
IR SENSOR
To detect the obstacle(bottles here)













10

CHAPTER 3
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM






















11



CHAPTER 4
BLOCK DIAGRAM AND BLOCK DESCRIPTION

Fig 4.1 Block diagram
12



4.2 Block Description:
This section will give description of
1. ATMEL AT89S51 Microcontroller
2. Liquid Crystal Display (16X2)
3. IR sensor
4. Power supply
Figure 4.1 shows the constructional and functional working block diagram of Bottle
monitering System. It contains main parts such as Microcontroller AT89s51, 16X2 LCD
display, IR sensor, Power supply.












13


4.2.1: Microcontroller 89s51:


Fig: 4.2.1.1: 89c51

A microcontroller in this project is the heart of the whole system. A microcontroller is a
true computer on a chip. The design incorporates all the features found in a microprocessor CPU,
ALU, SP and the registers. It also has added features needed to make a complete computer.
Some features of This IC are as follows:-
The 89V51 consists of these specific features:
Eight bit CPU with registers A(the accumulator)and B
Sixteen bit program counter(PC)
Eight bit program status word(PSW)
Internal ROM or EPROM(4k)
128 bytes of internal RAM
Four register banks each containing eight registers.
32 Programmable I/O lines arranged as four 8-bit ports: P0-P3.
Two 16 bit timers/counters T0 and T1.
Full duplex serial data receiver/transmitter:SBUF
Control register TCON,TMOD,PCON,IP and IE
14

Two external and three internal interrupt sources
Power control modes
4,0V to 5.5V operating range. Oscillator and clock circuits
4.2.2: 16X2 LCD display

Fig: 4.2.2.1: 16X2 LCD display

This display contains two internal byte-wide registers, one for command and second for
characters to be displayed. There are three control signals called R/W, DI/RS and En. The table
given below will tell you what is the use of these three signals.
Control Signals It's function
R/W
= 0 Writes character in display
= 1 Reads from display
RS/DI = 0 Selects command register
15

= 1 Selects Data register to display character
En
= 0 Disables the display
= 1 Enables the display
Table: 4.2.2.1: LCD Control signals
By making RS/DI signal 0 you can send different commands to display. These commands
are used to initialize LCD, to select display pattern, to shift cursor or screen etc. The different
commands and their functions are as given below
Bits
Function
RS/DI R/W D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Clear LCD memory, Home cursor
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 Clear and Home cursor only
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 I/O s
s = 1/0 : Shift screen/cursor, I/O = 1/0 :
shift R/L
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 D C B
D = 1/0 : Screen On/Off. C = 1/0 : cursor
On/Off. B = 1/0 : Cursor blink/no blink
0 0 0 0 0 1 S/C R/L 0 0
S/C = 1/0 : Screen / Cursor. R/L = 1/0 :
Shift one space right / left
0 0 0 0 1 DL N F 0 0
D/L = 1/0 : 8/4 bits per character. N =
1/0 : 2/1 rows of char. F = 1/0 : 510/57
dots/char.
0 0 0 1 Char address Write to char. RAM address after this
0 0 1 Display data address Writes to display RAM address after this
1 BF Current address BF = 1/0 : display is busy/not busy
1 0 Character type Write byte to last RAM chosen
1 1 Character type Read byte from last RAM chosen
Table: 4.2.2.2: LCD Control signals
16


4.2.3: Power supply

A power supply can by broken down into a series of blocks, each of which performs a
particular function.
For example a 5V regulated supply:

Fig: 4.2.3.1: Regulated power supply
TRANSFORMER:
Transformers convert AC electricity from one voltage to another with little loss of power.
Transformers work only with AC and this is one of the reasons why mains electricity is AC.
Step-up transformers increase voltage, step-down transformers reduce voltage. Most
power supplies use a step-down transformer to reduce the dangerously high mains voltage to a
safer low voltage.
RECTIFIER:
There are several ways of connecting diodes to make a rectifier to convert AC to DC. The
bridge rectifier is the most important and it produces full-wave varying DC. A full-wave rectifier
can also be made from just two diodes if a center-tap transformer is used, but this method is
rarely used now that diodes are cheaper.
17

A single diode can be used as a rectifier but it only uses the positive (+) parts of the AC
wave to produce half-wave varying DC.
BRIDGE RECTIFIER
A bridge rectifier can be made using four individual diodes, but it is also available in
special packages containing the four diodes required. It is called a full-wave rectifier because it
uses all the AC wave (both positive and negative sections). 1.4V is used up in the bridge rectifier
because each diode uses 0.7V when conducting and there are always two diodes conducting, as
shown in the diagram below.
The maximum current they can pass rates bridge rectifiers and the maximum reverse
voltage they can withstand (this must be at least three times the supply RMS voltage so the
rectifier can withstand the peak voltages).

Fig: 4.2.3.2: Bridge rectifier

18


Fig: 4.2.3.3: Bridge Rectifier Output waveform
SMOOTHING
Smoothing is performed by a large value electrolytic capacitor connected across the DC
supply to act as a reservoir, supplying current to the output when the varying DC voltage from
the rectifier is falling. The diagram shows the unsmoothed varying DC (dotted line) and the
smoothed DC (solid line).
The capacitor charges quickly near the peak of the varying DC, and then discharges as it
supplies current to the output.


Fig: 4.2.3.4: Smoothing Output waveform
REGULATOR
Voltage regulator ICs is available with fixed (typically 5, 12 and 15V) or variable output
voltages. Negative voltage regulators are available, mainly for use in dual supplies. Most
regulators include some automatic protection from excessive current ('overload protection') and
overheating ('thermal protection').
19


Fig: 4.2.3.4: Regulator 7805
IR SENSOR MODULE





Principle :
IR LED emits infrared radiation. This radiation illuminates the surface in front of LED. Surface
reflects the infrared light. Depending on reflectivity of the surface, amount of light reflected
varies. This reflected light is made incident on reverse biased IR sensor. When photons are
incident on reverse biased junction of this diode, electron-hole pairs are generated, which results
in reverse leakage current. Amount of electron-hole pairs generated depends on intensity of
incident IR radiation. More intense radiation results in more reverse leakage current. This current
can be passed through a resistor so as to get proportional voltage. Thus as intensity of incident
rays varies, voltage across resistor will vary accordingly.
When there is no obstacle, in that case, no light is reflected back, and the output voltage of the
module is +5V. When the obstacle is detected, that is light is reflected back via obstacle, the
output voltage of the module is 0V
20

CHAPTER 5
SOFTWARE AND PROGRAMMING DETAILS

Every automatic system, software is considered as essential part of the system. All the
operations, which are going to be performed by system components are decided by the
microcontroller, PLC, SCADA etc. the devices stated are all used in automation, but similarity
between all of them is that they require programming.
Microcontroller cannot work only when correct program is burnt in the memory of
microcontroller. For this purpose, various software development tools are available.
Microcontroller can be programmed in assembly language, C language or JAVA language.

5.1 ALORITHM:
1. START
2. INITIALIZE THE LCD AND C=00;.
3.DISPLAY BOTTLE SYSTEM ON THE LCD.
4.WAIT TILL THE OBSTACLE(BOTTLE) IS DETECTED
5. AS OBSTACLE IS DETECTED INCREMENT C.
6. DISPLAY THE COUNT VALUE C ON THE LCD.
7. THEN WAIT TILL RESET SIGNAL IS APPLIED
8. STOP


21

SOURCE CODE:
#include<reg51.h>
#define cmdport P3
#define dataport P2
sbit rs = cmdport^0; //register select pin
sbit rw = cmdport^1; // read write pin
sbit e = cmdport^6; //enable pin
void counter();
void disp();
int c;
c=0X30;
sbit P1_0= P1^0;
sbit P1_1= P1^1;
void delay(unsigned int msec) // Function to provide time delay in msec.
{
int i,j ;
for(i=0;i<msec;i++)
for(j=0;j<1275;j++);
}

void lcdcmd(unsigned char item) //Function to send command to LCD
22

{
dataport = item;
rs= 0;
rw=0;
e=1;
delay(1);
e=0;
}
void lcd_data(int item) //Function to send data to LCD
{
dataport = item;
rs= 1;
rw=0;
e=1;
delay(1);
e=0;
}
void lcddata(unsigned char item) //Function to send data to LCD
{
dataport = item;
rs= 1;
23

rw=0;
e=1;
delay(1);
e=0;
}
lcd_dataa(unsigned char *disp) // function to send string to LCD
{
int x;
for(x=0;disp[x]!=0;x++)
{
lcddata(disp[x]);

}
}

void lcd_ini() //Function to inisialize the LCD
{
lcdcmd(0x38);
delay(5);
lcdcmd(0x01);
delay(5);
24

lcdcmd(0x0F);
delay(5);
lcdcmd(0x80);
delay(5);


}
void main()
{
lcd_ini();
lcd_dataa("Bottle System");
while(1)
{
if(P1_0==0)
{

P1_1=1;
delay(100);
P1_1=0;
delay(100);
c++;
25

lcd_ini();
lcd_data(c);
delay(500);
}
}
}















26



Future Scope

Advantages :
Makes work simpler as counting of bottles is automatic.
Easily displays the output on the LCD.
Operates on basic principle of IR which is simple and highly accurate.

Disadvantages :
IR operates only for a limited distance i.e a few meters.
Display cannot be kept at a distance from the system. Hence monitoring is difficult.
Empty bottles are not recognized.

Future Scope :

Further advancement in this project can be made such that it should calculate the number of
bottles as well as ring an alarm when a half filled bottle is detected on the belt. This will avoid
packaging of error samples thus reducing human labour of verifying each sample.






27

CHAPTER 7
REFRENCES



8.1 books:
The 8051 microcontroller, Ajay Deshmukh
The 8051 Microcontroller and Embedded System, M. A. Mazidi and
J. G. Mazidi
Electronics For You, February 2010, Volume 22
Other PDF documents


8.2 web sites:
http://www.final-yearprojects.co.cc/2011/02/security -access-control -system.html
28

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Security
http:/www.atmel.com
http:/www.alldatasheets.com
http://www.piclist.com/images/www/hobby_elec/e_srm.htm
http://www.electronicspoint.com/door-security- t231731.html
http://www.howstuffworks.com/security-systemsinfo.htm












29


CHAPTER 8
DATA SHEET

9.1: Microcontroller 89s51:



30





A microcontroller in this project is the heart of the whole system. A microcontroller is a
true computer on a chip. The design incorporates all the features found in a microprocessor CPU,
ALU, SP and the registers. It also has added features needed to make a complete computer.
Some features of This IC are as follows:-
The 89V51 consists of these specific features:
Eight bit CPU with registers A(the accumulator)and B
Sixteen bit program counter(PC)
Eight bit program status word(PSW)
Internal ROM or EPROM(4k)
128 bytes of internal RAM
Four register banks each containing eight registers.
Sixteen bytes which may be addressed at bit level. Eighty bytes of general purpose data
memory.
32 Programmable I/O lines arranged as four 8-bit ports: P0-P3.
Two 16 bit timers/counters T0 and T1.
Full duplex serial data receiver/transmitter:SBUF
Control register TCON,TMOD,PCON,IP and IE
Two external and three internal interrupt sources
Power control modes
4,0V to 5.5V operating range. Oscillator and clock circuits
Like a microprocessor, a microcontroller is a general purpose device, but one that Is
meant to read data, perform limited calculations on that data and control its environment based
on those calculations. The prime use of a microcontroller is to control the operation of a machine
31

using a fixed program that is stored in ROM and that goes not change over the lifetime of the
system.
The microcontroller design uses a much
more limited set of single and double byte
instructions that are used to move code and data
from internal memory to the ALU. Many
instructions are coupled with pins on the
integrated circuit package; the pins are
programmable that is, capable of having several
different functions depending on the wishes of the
programmer. The micro controller is concerned
with getting the data from and to its pins; the
architecture and instruction set are optimized to
handle in bit and bit size.


Brief Description:
The AT89S51 is a low-power; high performance CMOS 8-bit microcomputer with 4K
bytes of Flash programmable and erasable read only memory (EPROM). The device is
manufactured using Atmels high-density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with
the industry-standard MCS-51 instruction set and pinout. The on-chip Flash allows the program
memory to be reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory programmer.
By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89CS51 is a
powerful microcomputer which provides a highly-flexible and cost-effective solution to many
embedded control applications.

32

Pin Description:
VCC : Supply voltage
GND : Ground
PORT 0 :
Port 0 is an 8-bit open drain bi-directional I/O port. As an output port, each pin can sink
eight TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 0 pins, the pins can be used as high impedance
inputs. Port 0may also be configured to be the multiplexed low order address/data bus during
accesses to external program and data memory. In this mode PO has internal pull-ups. Port 0 also
receives the code bytes during Flash programming, and outputs the code bytes during program
verification. External pull-ups are required during program verification.

PORT 1 :
Port 1 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port-1 output buffers
can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 1 pins they are pulled high by the
internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 1 pins that are externally being pulled
low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pull-ups. Port 1 also receives the low-order
address bytes during Flash programming and verification.
PORT 2 :
Port 2 is an 8 bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 2 output buffers can
sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 2 pins they are pulled high by the
internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 2 pins that are externally being pulled
low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pull-ups. Port 2 emits the high-order address
byte during fetches from external program memory and during accesses to external data memory
that uses 16-bit addresses) MOVX@ DPTR). In this application, it uses strong internal pull-ups
33

when emitting 1s. During to external data memory that uses 8-bit addresses (MOVX@R1) Port2
emits the contents of the P2 Special Function Register. Port 2 also receives the high-order
address bits and some control signals during Flash programming and verification.
PORT 3 :
The port 3 output ports can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to, port 3 pins
they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 3 pins that
are externally being pulled low will source Current (IIL) because of the pull-ups. Port 3 also
serves the functions of various special features of the AT89C51 as listed below:








Port 3 also receives some control signals for Flash programming and verification.
RST
Reset input. A high on this pin for two machine cycles while the oscillator is running resets the
device.

34

ALE (PROG at low)
Address Latch Enable output pulse for latching the low byte of the address during accesses
to external memory. This pin is also the program pulse input (PROG) during Flash programming.
In normal operation ALE is emitted at constant rate of 1/6 the oscillator frequency, and may be
used for external timing or clocking purposes. Note, however, that one ALE pulse is skipped
during each access to external Data Memory. If desired, ALE operation can be disabled by
setting bit 0 of SFR location 8EH. With the bit set, ALE is active only during MOVC
instructions. Otherwise, the pin is weakly pulled high. Setting the ALE-disable bit has no effect
if the microcontroller is in external execution mode.
PSEN (at low)
Program Store Enable is the read strobe to external program memory. When the AT89V51
is executing code from external program memory, PSEN is activated twice each machine cycle,
except that two PSEN activations are skipped during each access to external data memory.
EA (at low)/VPP
External Access Enable. EA must be strapped to END in order to enable the device to
fetch code from external program memory location starting at 0000H up to FFFFH. Note,
however, that if lock bit 1 is programmed, EA will be internally latched on reset. EA should be
strapped to VCC for internal program executions. This pin also receives the 12-volt
programming enable voltage (VPP) during Flash programming, for parts require 12-volt VPP.
XTAL1
Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit.
XTAL2
Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier

35

9.2 IC 7805 Voltage Regulator
Description:
The KA78XX/KA78XXA series of three-terminal positive regulator are available
in the TO-220/D-PAK package and with several fixed output voltages, making them useful in a
wide range of applications. Each type employs internal current limiting, thermal shut down and
safe operating area protection, making it essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is
provided, they can deliver over 1A output current.
` Although designed primarily as fixed voltage regulators, these devices can be
used with external components to obtain adjustable voltages and currents.
Features:
The following are the features of IC 7805:
Output Current up to 1A.
Output Voltages of 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 24V.
Thermal Overload Protection.
Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Protection.

Pin Out:

Fig: 9.1: Pin out

36

Internal Block Diagram:

Fig: 9.2:Internal Block Diagram


Absolute Maximum Rating:

Input Voltage
(For VO = 5V to 18V) = 35V
(For VO = 24V) = 40V
Thermal Resistance Junction-Cases (TO-220) (RJC) = 5C/W
Thermal Resistance Junction-Air (TO-220) (RJA) = 65C/W
Operating Temperature Range (KA78XX/A/R) (TOPR) = 0 ~ +125 C
Storage Temperature Range (TSTG)= -65 ~ +15C

Electrical Characteristics (KA7805/KA7805R):

37

(Refer to test circuit, 0C < TJ < 125C, IO = 500mA, VI =10V, CI= 0.33F,
CO=0.1F, unless otherwise specified)
Parameter
Symbol
Conditions
KA7805
Unit
Min. Typ. Max
Output Voltage VO TJ =+25 C 4.8 5.0 5.2 V
5.0mA Io 1.0A, PO
15W
VI = 7V to 20V
4.75 5.0 5.25
Line Regulation
(Note1)
Reg
line
TJ=
+25 C
VO = 7V to 25V - 4.0 100 mV
VI = 8V to 12V - 1.6 50 mV
Load
Regulation
(Note1)
Reg
load
TJ=+25
C
IO = 5.0mA
to1.5A
- 9 100 mA
IO =250mA to
750mA
- 4 50 MA
Quiescent
Current
Change
IQ IO = 5mA to 1.0A - 0.03 0.5 mA
VI= 7V to 25V - 0.3 1.3
Output Voltage
Drift
VO/T IO= 5mA - -0.8 - mV/ C
Output Noise
Voltage
VN f = 10Hz to 100KHz,
TA=+25 C
- 42 - V/VO
Ripple
Rejection
RR f = 120Hz 62 73 - dB
38

VO = 8V to 18V
Dropout
Voltage
VDrop IO = 1A, TJ =+25 C 2 V
Output
Resistance
RO f = 1KHz - 15 - m
Short Circuit
Current
ISC VI = 35V, TA =+25 C - 230 - mA
Peak Current IPK TJ =+25 C - 2.2 - A
Table: 8.3.1: Electrical characteristics








39



ANALOG
PROJECT
















40

CHAPTER 1

PCB designing


Introduction:

A printed circuit board, or PCB, is used to mechanically support and electrically
connect electronic components using conductive pathways, tracks or signal
traces etched from copper sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate. It is also referred to
as printed wire board or etched wiring board. A PCB populated with electronic components is
a printed circuit assembly, also known as a PCB assembly . Printed circuit boards are used in
virtually all but the simplest commercially produced electronic devices.
PCBs are inexpensive, and can be highly reliable. They require much more layout effort and
higher initial cost than either wire wrap or point-to-point construction but are much cheaper and
faster for high-volume production; the production and soldering of PCBs can be done by
automated equipment. Much of the electronics industry's PCB design, assembly, and quality
control needs are set by standards that are published by the IPC organization.

Material:
Conducting layers are typically made of thin copper foil. Insulating layers dielectric are typically
laminated together with epoxy resin prepreg. The board is typically coated with a solder mask
that is green in color. Other colors that are normally available are blue, black, white and red.
There are quite a few different dielectrics that can be chosen to provide different insulating
values depending on the requirements of the circuit.




41

Etching:
The vast majority of printed circuit boards are made by bonding a layer of copper over the entire
substrate, sometimes on both sides, (creating a "blank PCB") then removing unwanted copper
after applying a temporary mask (e.g., by etching), leaving only the desired copper traces.
A few PCBs are made by adding traces to the bare substrate (or a substrate with a very thin layer
of copper) usually by a complex process of multiple electroplating steps.
Chemical Itching:
Chemical etching is done with ferric chloride, ammonium persulfate, or sometimes
hydrochloric acid. For PTH (plated-through holes), additional steps of electroless deposition are
done after the holes are drilled, then copper is electroplated to build up the thickness, the boards
are screened, and plated with tin/lead. The tin/lead becomes the resist leaving the bare copper to
be etched away.

Lamination:
Some PCBs have trace layers inside the PCB and are called multi-layer PCBs. These are formed
by bonding together separately etched thin boards.

Drilling:
Holes through a PCB are typically drilled with small-diameter drill bits made of solid
coated tungsten carbide. Coated tungsten carbide is recommended since many board materials
are very abrasive and drilling must be high RPM and high feed to be cost effective. Drill bits
must also remain sharp to not mar or tear the traces. Drilling with high-speed-steel is simply not
feasible since the drill bits will dull quickly and thus tear the copper and ruin the boards.



42

The drilling is performed by automated drilling machines with placement controlled by a drill
tape or drill file. The drill file describes the location and size of each drilled hole. These holes
are often filled with annular rings (hollow rivets) to create vias. Vias allow the electrical and
thermal connection of conductors on opposite sides of the PCB.

Soldering:
The components are then mounted according to layout and soldered. Soldering is a process in
which two or more metal items are joined together by melting and flowing a filler metal (solder)
into the joint, the filler metal having a lower melting point than the workpiece. Soldering differs
from welding in that soldering does not involve melting the work pieces.
There are three forms of soldering, each requiring progressively higher temperatures and
producing an increasingly stronger joint strength:

1.soft soldering, which originally used a tin-lead alloys the filler metal,
2.silver soldering, which uses an alloy containing silver,
3.Brazing which uses a brass alloy for the filler.
In the soldering process, heat is applied to the parts to be joined, causing the solder to melt and to
bond to the workpieces in an alloying process called wetting. In stranded wire, the solder is
drawn up into the wire by capillary action in a process called 'wicking'. Capillary action also
takes place when the workpieces are very close together or touching. The joint strength is
dependent on the filler metal used, where soft solder is the weakest and the brass alloy used for
brazing is the strongest.



43

CHAPTER 2
INTRODUCTION


This handy tester will provide a visual "on" or "off" switching and latching indication. When
finished, you can test all different SCRs. If the scr is latching and can hold the latch it is most
likely okay.
Project Concept
This Project focuses on making a SCR Tester.SCR is a very useful component although it is not
used in all electronic devices and circuits but in some electronic circuits it performs essential
tasks. We can also use a multimeter for SCR tester however using a tester circuit is much more
easier compared to multimeter. Instead of using a lamp for indication we have used a BUZZER
Driver Circuit.




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CHAPTER 3
COMPONENT OVERVIEW

Fig : project components
SCR:

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A silicon-controlled rectifier (or semiconductor-controlled rectifier) is a four-layer solid state
current controlling device. The name "silicon controlled rectifier" is General Electric's trade
name for a type of thyristor. The SCR was developed by a team of power engineers led by
Robert N. Hall and commercialized by Frank W. "Bill" Gutzwiller in 1957.
Some sources define silicon controlled rectifiers and thyristors as synonymous, other sources
define silicon controlled rectifiers as a subset of a larger family of devices with at least four
layers of alternating N and P-type material, this entire family being referred to as thyristors.
SCRs are unidirectional devices (i.e. can conduct current only in one direction) as opposed to
TRIACs which are bidirectional (i.e. current can flow through them in either direction). SCRs
can be triggered normally only by currents going into the gate as opposed to TRIACs which can
be triggered normally by either a positive or a negative current applied to its gate electrode.
Modes of Operation:
This device is generally used in switching applications. In the normal "off" state, the device
restricts current to the leakage current. When the gate-to-cathode voltage exceeds a certain
threshold, the device turns "on" and conducts current. The device will remain in the "on" state
even after gate current is removed as long as current through the device remains above the
holding current.
Once current falls below the holding current for an appropriate period of time, the device will
switch "off". If the gate is pulsed and the current through the device is below the latching current,
the device will remain in the "off" state.
If the applied voltage increases rapidly enough, capacitive coupling may induce enough charge
into the gate to trigger the device into the "on" state; this is referred to as "dv/dt triggering." This
is usually prevented by limiting the rate of voltage rise across the device, perhaps by using a
snubber. "dv/dt triggering" may not switch the SCR into full conduction rapidly, and the partially
triggered SCR may dissipate more power than is usual, possibly harming the device.
SCRs can also be triggered by increasing the forward voltage beyond their rated breakdown
voltage (also called as break over voltage), but again, this does not rapidly switch the entire
device into conduction and so may be harmful; therefore this mode of operation is also usually
avoided.
Reversed Biased:
SCR are available with or without reverse blocking capability. Reverse blocking capability adds
to the forward voltage drop because of the need to have a long, low doped P1 region. Usually,
the reverse blocking voltage rating and forward blocking voltage rating are the same. The typical
application for reverse blocking SCR is in current source inverters.
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SCR incapable of blocking reverse voltage are known as asymmetrical SCR, abbreviated
ASCR. They typically have a reverse breakdown rating in the 10's of volts. ASCR are used
where either a reverse conducting diode is applied in parallel (for example, in voltage source
inverters) or where reverse voltage would never occur (for example, in switching power supplies
or DC traction choppers).
Asymmetrical SCR can be fabricated with a reverse conducting diode in the same package.
These are known as RCT, for reverse conducting thyristor.
Thyristor TURN ON methods:
1. forward voltage triggering
2. gate triggering
3. dv/dt triggering
4. temperature triggering
5. light triggering
Forward voltage triggering occurs when the anode-cathode forward voltage is increased with the
gate circuit opened. This is known as avalanche breakdown, during which junction j2 will
breakdown. At sufficient voltages, the thyristor changes to its on state with low voltage drop and
large forward current. In this case, J1 and J3 are already forward biased.

BUZZER:
A buzzer or beeper is an audio signalling device, which may be mechanical, electromechanical,
or piezoelectric. Typical uses of buzzers and beepers include alarm devices, timers and
confirmation of user input such as a mouse click or keystroke.
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We are using piezoelectric BUZZER. A piezoelectric element may be driven by an oscillating
electronic circuit or other audio signal source, driven with a piezoelectric audio amplifier.
Sounds commonly used to indicate that a button has been pressed are a click, a ring or a beep.




SWITCH:
Push to on switches have been used here. A push switch is a momentary or non-latching switch
which causes a temporary change in the state of an electrical circuit only while the switch is
physically actuated.
An automatic mechanism (ie a spring) returns the switch to its default position immediately
afterwards, restoring the initial circuit condition.
There are two types:
A push to make switch allows electricity to flow between its two contacts when held in. When
the button is released, the circuit is broken.
A push to break switch does the opposite, i.e when the button is not pressed, electricity can
flow, but when it is pressed the circuit is broken.


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CHAPTER 4
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM


Look at the circuit diagram, it shows a 3-amp, 50-volt SCR (under test) and a test circuit. A 12V
supply is given to this circuit. 270 omhs resistor is connected as shown. Instead of LAMP in the
original circuit we are using a BUZZER DRIVER circuit instead.Points "Gate" and "Kathode"
are temporary connections, so that they can easily be opened. I used toggle switches for each, but
use whatever you feel comfortable with, a simple jumper wire would do the trick.

When "Kathode" is closed, the buzzer does not buzz. When "Gate" is also closed, the buzzer
buzzes with its full intensity. The buzzer buzzes even if "Gate" is opened again. But when
"Kathode" is opened, even momentarily, the buzzer does not stop again when "Kathode" is
closed. That illustrates the "ON" and "OFF" operation of the SCR.

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CHAPTER 5

APPLICATIONS

It can be used for testing of SCR in laboratories.
Can be used in industries which use SCR as one of the essential component
for product manufacturing.
This device can also be used to Test triac and diac and hence can be used in
all application related to it.