1111111111111TH Physics PDF

225-A, JAWAHAR NAGAR, NEAR PILI KOTHI, HISSAR
MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION

Mechanics :- It is the branch of science in which we deals with the study of material objects.
Statics:- A part of mechanics which deals with the study of objects under the action of force in
equilibrium.
Dynamics:- A part of mechanics which deals with the study of object in motion.
Kinematics:- it is a branch of mechanics which deals with the quantitativ
body without considering the cause of motion.
Dynamics proper:- IT is the branch of mechanics
2.1 Position.
Any object is situated at point O and three observers from three differe
same object, then all three observers will have different observations about the position
and no one will be wrong. Because they are observing the object from their different positions.
Observer A says : Point O is 3 m away in west direction.
Observer B says : Point O is 4 m away in south direction.
Observer C says : Point O is 5 m away in east direction.
Therefore position of any point is completely expressed
by two factors: Its distance from the observer and its direction
with respect to observer.
That is why position is characterised by a vector known
Let point P is in a xy plane and its coordinates are (x, y). Then position vector (r)
r
of point will be ix jy
+ and if the point P is in a space and its coordinates are (x, y, z) then position vector can be
expressed as
Rest and Motion
Dynamics
Kinematics
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A, JAWAHAR NAGAR, NEAR PILI KOTHI, HISSAR
MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION
It is the branch of science in which we deals with the study of material objects.
A part of mechanics which deals with the study of objects under the action of force in
A part of mechanics which deals with the study of object in motion.
it is a branch of mechanics which deals with the quantitative description of motion of
considering the cause of motion.
IT is the branch of mechanics
Any object is situated at point O and three observers from three different places are looking for
three observers will have different observations about the position
wrong. Because they are observing the object from their different positions.
Observer A says : Point O is 3 m away in west direction.
oint O is 4 m away in south direction.
Observer C says : Point O is 5 m away in east direction.
Therefore position of any point is completely expressed
by two factors: Its distance from the observer and its direction
haracterised by a vector known as position vector.
and if the point P is in a space and its coordinates are (x, y, z) then position vector can be
Mechanics
Dynamics
Dynamics
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It is the branch of science in which we deals with the study of material objects.
A part of mechanics which deals with the study of objects under the action of force in
A part of mechanics which deals with the study of object in motion.
e description of motion of
nt places are looking for
three observers will have different observations about the position of point O
wrong. Because they are observing the object from their different positions.
and if the point P is in a space and its coordinates are (x, y, z) then position vector can be
Statics
Rest:- a body is said to be in rest when it does not changes its position w.r.t its surrounding with
time. Example
A book lying on the table.
Motion:- a body is said to be in motion when it change its position w.r.t its surrounding with
time. Example a moving car, bus etc
Rest and motion are relative terms
two state of motion w.r.t outside from bus while they are in rest w.r.t each other
A passenger standing on platform observes that tree on a platform is at rest. But when the same passenger
is passing away in a train through station, observes that tree is in motion. In both conditions observer is
right. But observations are different because in first situation observer stands on a platform, which is
reference frame at rest and in second situation observer moving in train,
motion.
So rest and motion are relative terms. It depends upon the frame of references.
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a body is said to be in rest when it does not changes its position w.r.t its surrounding with
a body is said to be in motion when it change its position w.r.t its surrounding with
time. Example a moving car, bus etc
Rest and motion are relative terms. For example two passengers sitting in a moving bus are in
two state of motion w.r.t outside from bus while they are in rest w.r.t each other
ough station, observes that tree is in motion. In both conditions observer is
reference frame at rest and in second situation observer moving in train, which is reference frame in
So rest and motion are relative terms. It depends upon the frame of references.
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a body is said to be in rest when it does not changes its position w.r.t its surrounding with
a body is said to be in motion when it change its position w.r.t its surrounding with
sitting in a moving bus are in
two state of motion w.r.t outside from bus while they are in rest w.r.t each other.
ough station, observes that tree is in motion. In both conditions observer is
which is reference frame in
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Point object:- when the distance travelled by an object is much greater than its size then that
object can considered as a point object. Example 1) a bus travelling a few kms may be regarded as a
point object.
2) Earth can be considered as a point object as compare to its revolution around the sun.
Types of Motion.
Motion in one dimensions:- the motion of an object is said to be in one dimension, if only one of
the three co-ordinates can describe the changes in position with time
Ex.1) a bus moving along a st. line (road)
2) A falling object from height.
Motion in two dimention:- the motion of an object is said to be in two dimension, if two of three
co-ordinates are required to describe the change in position with time.
Ex 1) A boat sailing in the river.
2) motion of projectile.
Motion in three dimension:- the motion of an object is said to be in three dimension, if all three
co-ordinates are required to describe the changes in position with time.
Ex. 1) a flying kite or bird.
2) Random motion of gas molecule.
One dimensional Two dimensional Three dimensional
Motion of a body in a straight
line is called one dimensional
motion
Motion of body in a plane is
called two dimensional motion.
Motion of body in a space is
called three dimensional
motion.
When only one coordinate of
the position of a body changes
with time then it is said to be
moving one dimensionally.
When two coordinates of the
position of a body changes with
time then it is said to be
moving two dimensionally.
When all three coordinates of
the position of a body changes
with time then it is said to be
moving three dimensionally.
e.g.. Motion of car on a straight
road. Motion of freely falling
body.
e.g. Motion of car on a circular
turn. Motion of billiards ball.
e.g.. Motion of flying kite.
Motion of flying insect.
Particle or Point Mass
The smallest part of matter with zero dimension which can be described by its mass and position is
defined as a particle. If the size of a body is negligible in comparison to its range of motion then that
body is known as a particle.
A body (Group of particles) to be known as a particle depends upon types of motion. For example in
a planetary motion around the sun the different planets can be presumed to be the particles.
In above consideration when we treat body as particle, all parts of the body undergo same
displacement
and have same velocity and acceleration.
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Motion in straight line:- the study of motion of body along a st. line involves measurement of
both the postion and time. Hence this study required the origin, unit and sense of passage of time
and direction of position.
Scalers quantities:-Scalars quantities are those quantities which have magnitude only. Ex. Mass,
volume, density, speed, work, power, heat, temp. etc
Vector quantities:- Vector quantities are those quantities which have magnitude as well as
direction and which can be add according to triangle rule. Ex. Force, linear momentum, electric
field, magnetic field etc.
Distance and Displacement.
Distance : It is the actual path length covered by a moving particle in a given interval of time.
(i) If a particle starts from A and reach to C through point B as shown in the figure.
Then distance travelled by particle = AB + BC = 7 m
(ii) Distance is a scalar quantity.
(iii) Dimension : [M0L1T0]
(iv) Unit :metre (S.I.)
(2) Displacement : Displacement is the change in position vector i.e., A vector joining initial to
final
position.
(i) Displacement is a vector quantity
(ii) Dimension : [M0L1T0]
(iii) Unit :metre (S.I.)
(iv) In the above figure the displacement of the particle AC = AB + BC
V e c t o r
A vector can be represented by a st. line with arrow head on it. The st.line represents magnitude
and arrow head represent direction of the vector.
In writing, a vector can be represented by a single letter with arrow head on it. For example force is
a vector quantity can be represented by F.
Various types of vectors:-
(a) Polar vectors: vector having starting point or point of application are polar vectors.
(b) Axial vectors: vector representing rotational effects and are always along the axis of rotation.
Ccdddsnegative vector ( j) Equal vector (g) coplanar vector (i)
Axial vector (b)
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(c) Negative vectors: a vectors having the same magnitude as that of the given vector but directed in
the opposite sense is called the negative of the given vector
(d) Equal vector: two vectors are called equal vectors if they have equal magnitude same or parallel
supports and same sense.
(e) Zero vector: a vector with zero magnitude is called Zero vector.
(f) Proper vector: a vector with non-zero magnitude is called Proper vector.
(g) Like vector:Two vectors are called like vectors if their support are some or parallel and in the
same sense.
(h) Unlike vectors: two vectors are called unlike vectors if their supports are same or parallel and are
in opposite sense.
(i) Collinear vectors: two vectors are called collinear vector if they have same or parallel supports.
(j) Coplanar vectors: three vectors are called coplanar vectors if they lie in same plane..
(k) Unit vectors: a vector with magnitude of unity is called unit vector.
Position vector and displacement vector in plane
Let us consider the motion of an object in X-Y plane with origin at O. let at any time t, the object be
at point A. then vector OA is called the position vector of the object at point A and is generally
represented by r. this vector tells the direction of the position of the object w.r.t to origin and
straight line distance of the object from origin.
Y
Displacement vector
Position A
Vector
B
Position vector
X
Displacement vector is that vector which tells how much and in which direction an object an object
has changed its position in given interval of time.
Representation of vector
There are two methods for representation of vector:-
a) Graphical method.
b) Mathematical method.
Graphical method:- the length of arrow shows the magnitude and head of arrow shows the
direction.
Mathematical representation:-
In the form of components:- if aX is a component of any vector in X-direction, aY is a component in Y-
direction andaZ is a component in Z-direction then
a =axi + ayj + azk
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Where ax, ay,az, may be co-ordinates of point a
a = ax + ay + az
Unit vector method: if we want to represent any vector in mathematical form then we will
multiply the magnitude of that vector with unit vector of direction.
If a= magnitude of vector
And a = unit vector
Then a=aa
Q1= if a particle moves 5m in +x direction. Show the displacement of particle
Sol. magnitude of vector = 5,
Unit vector in +x ,
Direction is I,
Displacement = 5i,
Important point:
I. If we multiply a vector with negative sign. Then
the magnitude will not changed only direction will change.
BA= -AB
ii. Two vectors are called equal if their magnitudes and direction are same. So we can transfer any
vector parallel to it.
iii. If two vectors has same direction then unit vector of both of them will be similar because
magnitude of unit vector is unity.
Vector addition
There are two methods for addition of vector
i) Graphical method
ii) mathematical method
Graphical method
triangle rule ( used to add two vectors only)
if a and b are the two vectors to added, a diagrama+b=R
is drawn in which the tail of b coincides with the
head of a. the vector joining the tail of a with the
head of b is vector sum of a and b.
a
polygon method (used to add more than two vectors)
We use this method for more then two vector.
Suppose a, b, c, are three vectors to be addedc R = a + b + c c
. A diagram is drawn in which the tail of b coincides b
with the head of a and tail of c coincides with head
ofb. The vector joining the tail of a and head o
f c is called the resultant vector and this is the a
Vector sum of three given vector a
Mathematical method
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For two vector: - if two vectors a and b makes angle to each other then the magnitude of their
vector addition.
R = a + b = o2 +b2 +2obcos0
If the resultant vector makes the angle with the vector a then it is given by
tan=
bsn0
u+b cos0
proof:- parallelogram law of vector let the two vectors A and B inclined an angle be represented
in magnitude and direction by adjacent sides OA and OB drawn from the point O of parallelogram
OACB.
Magnitude of the resultant vector R,
Draw CD perpendicular OA
In OCD,
OC =oJ +cJ
= (oo +oJ) +cJ b c
oo +oJ + 2oo. oJ +cJ
=oo +(oJ +cJ) + 2. oo . oJ
=oo +oc +2. oo. oJ B R
In acd
ud
uc
= cos
= ad = as cos-----------(2)
Putting the value O A a d
Oc= oo +oc +2oo. occos0
R = A +B + 2ABcos0------------------(3)
Direction of resultant vector R
Let be the angle which R makes with OA
In ocd
Tan=
cd
od
=
cd
ou+ud
---------------------------(4)
In ACD
Cd= acsin-------------------------------(5)
Putting the (2) & (5) in (4)
Tan=
ucsn0
A+Bcos0
----------------------------(6)
Special case
When two vectors act along the same direction
= 0,
R = A +B + 2ABcosu
R= A +B +2AB
R= A + B
Tan = 0
When two vectors act at right angle to each other ( =90)
R = A + B +2ABcos9u
R = A
2
+ B
2
Tan=
Bsn90
A+bcos90
=
B
A
= tan
-1
B
A
when two vector act along opposite direction
R = A +B +2ABcos18u
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R= A +B 2AB
R = A B
Tan=
Bsn180
A+Bcos180
=0
= tan0 or tan180,
= =0 or= 0,
= R = B A or = 180,
Triangle law of vector:-
Let the two vector A and B inclined at angle be represented in magnitude and direction by the two
sides OA and OB of a triangle OAB then OB represented the resultant R.
The magnitude of R
R = oJ +cJ
=(oo +oJ) +cJ
R= A +B +2ABcos0
The direction of resultant vector R
Tan=
cd
od
=
cd
ou+ud
=
ucsn0
ou+uccos0
Tan=
Bsn0
A+Bcos0
Important result
If= 0 then a b,
If= n, then a anti b,
Then R = a b = Rmin
If =
n
2
, a is perpendicular b, R = a2 + b2
If three vectors of equal magnitudes makes an angle of 120 with each other then the resultant vector
will be zero.
If an n vector of equal magnitude makes the angle of equal measure with each other then the resultant
vector will be zero.
Properties of vectors
Vector addition is commutative:- vector addition is said to be commutative, if the sum of two vectors
remains the same in whatever manner they are add.
A+B=B+A
Proof:- in OAC,
From triangle law of forces
A + B = R,
In triangle law of forces
B + A = R,
We get
A + B = B + A
Vector addition is associative:- vector addition is said to be associative, if sum of the vector
remains the same in whatever grouping they are added.
(A + B) + C = A + (B + C )
Proof:- to prove it, considered a polygon oabc as shown,
In oab, by triangle law of forces c
ob= oa + ab = A + B
In obc, by triangle law of forces
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Oc = ob + bc = (A + B) + C --------(3) b
In abc, by triangle law of force
ac=ab + bc = B + C
inoac, triangle law of forces
oc = oa + ac = A + (B +C) ---------------(4)
from (3) & (4) o A a
(A+B) +C = A +(B + C)
Subtraction of vectorlet a and b be two vectors. We define
a b as the sum of vectors a and the vector (-b). to subtract b
b from a, invert the direction of b and add to a . The a
Triangle law and parallelogram law of vector is equally
Applicable, figure shows the process. b a-b
Relative velocity as subtraction of two vectors:- the relative velocity of an object A w.r.t another
object B when both are in motion is defined as the rate at which object A changes its position w.r.t
object B
VAB= vA -vB
Where vA and vB the velocity of the object A and Object B respectively. As we can see that relative
velocity involves the subtraction of two vectors. Hence it can be determined by making use of
parallelogram law of vectors.
Let vA and vB represent the velocities of bodies A & B inclined at an angle as shown.
For finding the velocity of A w.r.t B we superimpose vB on both sides or we can say that body B will
came in rest while body A will possess two velocities vA and -vBinclined at an angle (180 ). Thus
the magnitude of resultant velocity.
VAB=vA+(-vB) = vA-vB
VAB = : +: +2 : :cos(18u 0)
vAB=: +: 2::cos0
& the direction of vAB
Tan=-
vBsIn(180-)
-cos0
Special case
When two objects are moving along a straight line in the same directioni.e=0
VAB = vA vB
Tan=0
=o
same in direction
when are in opposite direction i.e =180
Then vAB=vA +vB
Therefore when the two bodies are moving in the opposite direction then the magnitude of their relative
velocity is given by the sum of their magnitude of those two velocities.
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Resolution of vector:-the process of splitting a single vector, alone is called resolution of vector. It is
inverse the process for addition. The vector into which the given single vector is spitted are called
component vectors.
Let a vector R be represented by OQ. Let A and B be represented by OP and PQ so that
OQ = OP + PQ or
R = A + B
Then A and B are component vectors of R
R B Resolution of a vector into two components vectors along given directions
Let we have to split a vector in two given direction. Let us resolve a given vector into components along
the direction of two vectors. OQ is representing R in magnitude and direction. From point O, draw a line
parallel to the vector A and from Q, draw a line parallel to the vector B. from triangle law of vector
addition
OQ = OP + PQ
Therefore OP and PQ are the two component vectors of R in direction of A and B.
Q S Q
R B R nB R
Op O P
A mA
Rectangular components:- when a single vector is splited into two components along two mutually
perpendicular direction, then these component are called rectangular components vectors or simply
rectangular component of single vector.
Expression: - here a vector A is resolved into two components Ax& AY. A is making angle with x-axis.
To find the magnitude of Ax & Ay
In OML,
0M
0L
= cos
OM = OLcos, Ax = Acos------------------- (1)
ML
0L
=
0N
0L
=sin
ON=OLcos, Asin------------------------------- (2)
Therefore the original vector A can be replace by two rectangularcomponents Ax and Ay to produce
the same effect as that of A.
Mag. Of A = A +A
2
y
& direction of A = tan=
LM
0M
Tan=AY/AX
Aapplication of resolution of vectors
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Show that how the walking of a man is an example of resolution of vectors.
The man while walking an the ground, he presses the ground
with his feet at same angle . This acts as an action. The reactionRsin R
R has two components i.eRcos&Rsin.Thevertical component
Rsin balances the weight of the man &horizontal component
Rcoshelps the man to walk forwards, if it is greater than the Rcos
Force of friction.
Weight
Show that It is earier to pull a lawn roller than to push it
Consider a lawn roller of weight W. Let it pulled or pushed by a force F making an angle with
horizontal direction. Resolving F into two rectangular components, we get horizontal component
Fcos and vertical component Fsin.Fsin
In pulling,
the weight of roller =W-Fsin, F
The effective horizontal pulling force = Fcos.
It makes the roller to move forward.
Fcos
In pushing
The effective weight of roller = W+ Fsin, F
The effective horizontal pushing force = Fcos.
It makes the roller to move forward
Fcos
FFsin
The effective weight of body is less in pulling than in pushing, hence lesser force is required in
pulling in pushing because the force required to move a body ( F) weight of a body. Therefore it is
easy to pull a lawn roller than to push it.
Problems on vector
Q.1 A child pulls a box with a force of 200 N at an angle of 60 above the horizontal. Then the horizontal and
vertical components of the force are
(1) 100 N, 175 N (2) 86.6 N, 100 N
(3) 100 N, 86.6 N (4) 100 N, 0 N
Q.2 which of the sets given below may represent themagnitude of three vectors adding to zero
(1) 2,4,8, (2) 4,8,16
(3) 1,2,1 (4) .5,1,2
Q.3 A force of (10.5N) acts on the particle along a direction making an angle of 37 will be the vertical find the
component of the force in the vertical direction
(1) 7.3 N (2) 8 N
(3) 8.4 N (4) 6 N
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Q.4 two equal force have their resultant equal to either. At what angle are they inclined?
(1) 45 (2) 0
(3) 120 (4) 90
Question bank
Q 1.What do you mean by (1) position vector (2) displacement vector? Distinguish them with
illustration.
Q 2. It is easier to pull than push a lawn roller. Explain.
Q 3. Write the properties of vectors.
Q 4. What do you understand by resolution of a vector? Show that there is only one way in which a
vector can be resolved into two component vectors along the direction of two given vectors.
Q 5. Explain the subtraction of two vectors.
Q 6. State parallelogramlaw and triangle law of vector addition.
Q 7. Rest and motion are relative terms. Explain
Q 8. What do u mean by motion in one dimension and motion in three dimension ?
Q 9.Differentiate between scalars and vector quantity with examples.
Q 10.Can a flight of bird be an example of composition of vectors?
Q 11. Can three vectors not in one plane given a zero resultant ?can four vectors do?
Q 12. Explain that working of man is an example of resolution of forces.
Distance: it is the actual length of the path. It is a scalar quantity.
BW
A
Displacement: it is the shortest distance b/w two points. It depends only on final and initial
position.
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B
A
I. Characteristics: it may be +ve ,-ve or zero.
II. It doesnt depend upon choice of origin.
III. It has unit of length
IV. Actual distance travelled by object may be equal or greater than displacement
V. It is a unique path.
Speed: the time rate of change of position of an object is called speed
Speed =
dIstancc
tImc
It is a scalar quantity. Dimensional formula = M
0
LT
-1
, S.I UNIT MS
-1
Velocity: the time rate of change of position of an object along a particular direction is called
velocity.
Velocity=
dpIuccmcnt
tmc
, it is vector quantity and its dimensional formula & units are same as of
speed.
Uniform velocity: an object is said to be have Uniform velocity if it covers equal displacement in
equal interval of time.
Variable or non Uniform velocity: an object is said to be have Uniform velocity if it covers
unequal displacement in equal interval of time.
Average velocity: it me be defined as that uniform velocity with which the object will cover the
same displacement in the given interval of time as the object does while moving.
Av. Velocity
totuI dspIuccmcnt
totuI tmc
Instantaneous velocity: Instantaneous velocity of a body is the velocity of that moving object at a
particular point of its path or at a particular instant of time.
Mathematically
Inst. Velocity at any instant t =
Ax
At
=
dx
dt
,
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Graphically representation (position- time graph)
X xx
(a) t (b) t (c)
t
X where x represent the distance travelled by object and t is the time taken
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Graph (a) represent that time Is changing but distance travelled by
object is Constant. It means that object is in rest. Its position is not
Changing w.r.t Time.
(d) t
Graph (b) represent that object changing is position in equal interval of time. there is slope in the
graph. It means that x is changing w.r.t time.
Graph (c) represent that there is a non uniform motion. Means object changes its position w.r.t
time but distance travelled by object is unequal w.r.t equal time.
Graph(d) represent that there is a decrease in x w.r.t time.
Relative velocity :- the relative velocity of an object A w.r.t another object B, when both are in
motion is defined as the rate at which object A changes its position w.r.t object B.
Mathematically vAB= vA-VB,
Example
1. A book placed on the table in a room is at rest, if it is viewed from the room but it is in motion, if it
is viewed from moon (another frame o reference) .the moon is moving w.r.t the book and book
w.r.t the moon.
2. A robber enters a train moving at great speed w.r.t to the ground, bring out his pistol and says
Dont move, stand still. The passengers stand still. The passengers are at rest w.r.t robber but are
moving with respect to rail track.
Relative velocity means, the motion of a body with respect to another.
Expression:- let two objects A and B moving with uniform velocities vA and vB.along parallel
straight tracks in the same direction. Let xAand xB represent their position co-ordinates at time t.
XA(t) = xA(0) + vA(t)
XB(t) = xB(0) + vB(t)
Where x & at t=0 & if x(0) & x(t) are the distance between A & B at t = 0 & t = t then relative velocity
VAB
VAB =
X(t) x(0)
t
________________(1)
Now X(0) = xA(0) - xB(0)
X(t) = xA(t) xB(t)
=xA(0) + vA(t) - xB(0) + vB(t)
= xA(0) - xB(0) + vA- vB
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Acceleration:- the time rate of change of velocity of an object is called acc. Of the object.
Acceleration =
cungc n cIoct
tmc
,
It is a vector quantity. Dimension formula=M
0
L T
-2
,
Retardation:- the negative acceleration is called retardation. When velocity of object decreases with
time then retardation takes places.
Uniform Acceleration:- Uniform Acceleration is said to be take place when velocity changes by
equal amount in equal interval of time.
Variable Acceleration:- . Variable Acceleration is said to be take place when velocity changes by
unequal amount in equal interval of time.
Average Acceleration:- average Acceleration of a moving object is defined as the ratio of the
total change in velocity of the object during motion to the during time taken.
Average Acceleration =
totaI changc In vcIocIty oI thc ob]cct
totuI tmc tukcn
Instantaneous Acceleration:- Instantaneous Acceleration of an object at any instant is defined as
the acc. of moving object at a particular point of its path or at a particular instant of time.
Mathematically
Instantaneous Acceleration at any instant t
= Lt
A
At
=
d
dt
Important point of views in relative velocity
1. If two bodies are moving along the same line in same direction with velocities VA and VB relative to
earth, the velocity of B relative to A will be given by VBA=VB VA., IF It is positive the direction of VBA
is that of B and if negative the direction of VBA is opposite to that of B.
2. However, if the bodies are moving towards or away from each other, as direction of VA and VB are
opposite, velocity of B relative to A will have magnitude VBA= VB (-VA) = VB + VA . And directed
towards A or away from A respectively.
3. In dealing the motion of two bodies relative to each otherVrel.is the difference of velocities of two
bodies, if they are moving in same direction and is the sum of two velocities if they are moving in
opposite direction.
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Problems on relative speed/velocity
Ex 1) two trains along the same straight rails moving wiyh constant speed 60 km/hr and 30 km/h
respectively towards each other. If at time t= 0, the distance between them is 90 km, the time when
they collide
Sol. The relative velocity vrel.= 60 (-30) = 90 km/hr
Distance between the train
Srel= 90 km
So time they collide
= 1 hr
Pointsto remember
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1. If body starts from rest or falls freely or is dropped then u= 0.
2. If body is thrown upward then it will rise until its vertical becomes zero. Maximum height attained
is h =
u2
2g
.
3. The straight line inclined to the time axis at an angle greater than 90 degree shows negative
velocity.
4. The straight line inclined to time axis in x-t graph represents constant velocity.
5. If x-t graph is a curve whose slope decreases continuously with time, then the velocity of the body
goes on decreasing continuously and the motion of body is retarded.
6. If v-t graph is a straight line parallel to time axis, then the acceleration of the body is zero.
7. if the graph is a straight line inclined to time axis with positive slope, then that body is moving
with constant acceleration.
8. If v-t graph is a straight line inclined to time axis with negative slope, then the body is retarded.
9. Velocity and acceleration need not be zero simultaneously.
10. A body in equilibrium has zero acceleration only. All other quantities need not be zero.
Question bank
Q 1.Define uniform velocity of an object moving along a straight line. What will be shapes of
position time and velocity time graphs of such a motion?
Q 2. Discuss the important of graphical study of the uniform motion of an object in one dimension.
Q 3. Differentiate between speed & velocity.
Q 4.Draw velocity time graph of uniformly accelerated motion.
Q 5 .deduce the following relation analytically for uniform motion along st. line, where the terms
have their usual meanings
1. V = u + at 2. s = ut +
1
2
at
2
3. v
2
= u
2
+ 2as
Q 5.Deduce the equations of motions by calculus method.
Q 6. What do you understand by relative velocity of an object w.r.t another? Obtain an expression
for the relative position of the two objects at time t in terms of their velocity and position, when
motion takes place along a st. line.
Q 7. Define non-uniformmotion. And explain variable velocity.
Q 8. Is the rate of change of acceleration with time important to mechanics? Comment.
Q 9. Can a body have constant speed but variable velocity?
Q 10. Can a body have constant velocity but variable speed?
Q 11. Can position time graph have negative slope?
Q 12. What does slope of velocity time graph represent?
Physics Wor m 19
Q 13. A ball is thrown vertically upwards. Draw its velocity- time curve.
Q 14. What is mean by point object?
Q 15.Distinguish between displacement and distance.
Q 16. Which speed is measured by the speedometer of your bike?
Q 17.can speed of a body be negative?
Q 18. Give the examples of vector quantity.
Equations of uniformly accelerated motion by calculus method.
1. Velocity- tome relation
V = u + at
2. Distance time relation
S= ut + at
2
3. Velocity displacement relation
v
2
- u
2
= 2aS
Derivation the equations of motion
Consider an object moving with a uniform velocity u in a straight line. Let it be, given a uniform acceleration
at time, t = 0 when its initial velocity is u. As a result of the acceleration, its velocity increases to v (final
velocity) in time t and s is the distance covered by the object in time t.
1.
Slope of the v - t graph gives the acceleration of the moving ob
Thus, acceleration = slope = AB = BCAC
v-u=at
v = u + at
2.
Let u be the initial velocity of an object and 'a' the acceleration produced in the body. The distance traveled s
in time t is given by the area enclosed by the velocity
Distance traveled s = area of the trapezium ABDO
=area of rectangle ACDO + area of ABC
= OD x OA + BC x AC
t x u + (v - u) x t
ut + (v - u) x t

S = ut + at x t
4. v
2
- u
2
= 2as
Let 'u' be the initial velocity of an object and a be the acceleration produced in the body. The distance
travelled 's' in time 't' is given by the area enclosed by the v
S = area of the trapezium OABD
= (b1 + b2)h
(OA + BD) AC
(u + v)t ....(1)
Physics Wor m
time, t = 0 when its initial velocity is u. As a result of the acceleration, its velocity increases to v (final
velocity) in time t and s is the distance covered by the object in time t.
t graph gives the acceleration of the moving object.
in time t is given by the area enclosed by the velocity-time graph for the time interval 0 to t.
Distance traveled s = area of the trapezium ABDO
=area of rectangle ACDO + area of ABC
(v = u + at I eqn of motion; v - u = at)
in time 't' is given by the area enclosed by the v - t graph.
Physics Wor m 20
time, t = 0 when its initial velocity is u. As a result of the acceleration, its velocity increases to v (final
for the time interval 0 to t.
Physics Wor m 21
But we know that a =
Or t =
Substituting the value of t in eq. (1) we get,
s = =
2as = (v + u)(v - u)
(v + u)(v - u) = 2as [using the identity a
2
- b
2
= (a + b) (a - b)]
Projectile Motion
1 Introduction.
A hunter aims his gun and fires a bullet directly towards a monkey sitting on a distant tree. If the
monkey remains in his position, he will be safe but at the instant the bullet leaves the barrel of gun,
if the monkey drops from the tree, the bullet will hit the monkey because the bullet will not follow
the linear path.
Projectile Motion:- any particle, which once thrown moves freely in gravitational field of the earth,
is defined as a projectile. The path followed by projectile is called its trajectory.
Example of projectile are :
1. A body dropped from the window of a moving train.
2. A bomb released from aero plane in flight.
3. A piece of stone thrown in any direction.
4. A bullet fired from a rifle.
5. A javelin or hammer thrown by an athlete.
Projectile moves under the combined effect of two velocities:
a) A uniform velocity in the horizontal direction, which would not change provided there is no air resistance.
b) A uniformly changing velocity in the vertical direction due to gravity
Physics Wor m 22
Projectile thrown from the ground level ( fired horizontally)
Let us considered a projectile thrown horizontally with velocity v from a height h. let P(x,y) is the
position of the projectile at time t where point of projectile is consider as origin.
Horizontal velocity u remains constant throughout themotion.
Vertical velocity increase dur to gravity. Initial value of this
Velocity at O is zero.
X = horizontal distance travelled by object in time t.
y= verticaldistance travelled by object in time t.
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Motion alone horizontal direction OX
x= x0 + uxt+ axt
2
, here x0= 0,ux= u,
and ax=0,
Putting these values and we get,
x= 0 + ut + (0)t
2
t= x/u, ___________(1)
motion along vertical direction OY
Here y axis is taken downward. Since the vertical velocity of object is increasing downwards due to
gravity, hence acceleration of the object ay along vertical downward direction is +g.
y=y0+ uyt + ayt
2
,
y0= 0, uy=0, and ay =+g,
Putting these values in equation and we get,
y= g
y= x
2________________
(2)
This equation is first degree in y & second degree in x and therefore a parabola. Hence path of
aprojectile is a parabola.
The horizontal component of velocity (ucos) remains constant where as the vertical component
changes constantly due to acceleration bue to gravity g.
Time of flight:- it is the total time for which the projectile is in flight.
y0= 0, uy=0, and ay =+g, t= T, y=h,
so y = y0 + uyt + gT
2
h= 0+0 + gT
2
T=
Horizontal rang:-it is the horizontal distance travelled by projectile during its flight
x0= 0, ux= u,ax=0, x=R,
Physics Wor m 24
as x= x0 + uxt+ axt
2
,
putting these values in equation and we get,
R= 0 + u + 0 T
2
= u
Velocity of the object at any instant:- horizontal velocity vx=u, vertical velocity vy
V(t) =
In horizontal direction:-
a) initial velocity ux = u cos
b)Acceleration = 0
c) Velocity after time t vx = u cos
d) Horizontal displacement after time t x = uxt = u cos o t
In vertical diection:-
Initial velocity uy= u sin
Acceleration a = g ( downward)
Velocity after time t, vy= uy gt= u sin gt
Vertical displacement after time t y = uysin t 2gh
Projectile fired at angle let us consider that a projectile is fired at an angle with the horizontal
with velocity v as shown in figure. Resolve v in the horizontal and vertical direction. We get ucos
along OX and usin along OY.
the horizontal direction ucos is constant throughout the motion as there is no any accelerating
force in the horizontal direction. The vertical component usin decrease continuously with height ,
from 0 to H. due to downward force of gravity. And become zero at H.AH is referred to as max.
height and OB is called horizontal rang.
Y
Usin - gt
V =u
2
+
g2
t
2
2ugtsin
ucos x = horizontal distance travelled by object in time t.
y = vertical distance travelled by object in time t.
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Range
Motion alone horizontal direction OXhorizontal velocity is constant so acceleration ax along
horizontal direction is 0.
The position of object at any time t along the horizontal direction is given by
x= x0 + uxt+
1
2
axt
2
Here, x0= 0, ux= ucos, and ax=0,
Putting these value and we get,
x= 0 + ucost +
1
2
0t
2
t =
x
ucux0
motion alone vertical direction OY:- vertical velocity of object is decrease from o to p due to gravity
hence acceleration ay is g.
y = y0 + uyt +
1
2
aYt
2
here y0= 0, uY= usin, aY= -g,
putting values in above and we get
y= 0 + usin+
1
2
(-g)t
2
y = usint -
1
2
gt
2
putting the value of t in above
y = usin
x
ucos0
-
1
2
g(
x
ucos0
)
2
y = x tan -
1
2
g(
x
ucos0
)
2
This is equation of parabola hence the path of projectile projected at some angle with the horizontal
direction from ground is parabolic path.
Time of flight. It is the total time for which the object is in flight while going from O to B. it is denoted
by T. Total time of flight consists of two parts
1. Time taken by object to go from the point O to the highest point H. it is called time of ascent.
2. Time taken by the object to go from the highest point H to the point B in level of point O. it is called
time descent.
Motion of the object from O to H is symmetrical to that from H to B.
Time of ascent = time of decent
T = t + t
t=
1
2
at the highest point H, the vertical component velocity of object becomes zero. Taking vertical upward
motion of the object from O to H. we have
uY=usin, aY= -g, t =
1
2
andvY= 0
since
Point to Remember
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1. Projectile is the given name to a body which is thrown with some initial velocity with horizontal direction and
then it is allowed to move under the effect og gravity alone, without being propelled by any engine or fuel.
2. T =
2usn0
g
3. H = u
2
sin
2
/2g
4. R =u
2
sin2/
5. There are two angles of projection( and) for which the horizontal range will be the same provided
6. + =90
Question bank
Q 1.what is projectile? Give its examples.
Q 2. Show that the path pf projectile is a parabolic path when projected horizontally from a certain
height.
Q 3. Show that there are two angle of projection for which the horizontal range is same.
Q 4. Find the magnitude and direction of velocity of an object at any instant during the oblique
projection of projectile.
Q 5. Discuss the projectile motion when fired at an angle 1. With horizontal 2. With vertical
Q 6. A body of mass m is thrown with velocity v at an angle 30 to the horizontal and another body
B of same mass is thrown with velocity v at an angle 60 to horizontal, find the ratio of horizontal
range and max. height of A and B.
Q 7. A particle is projected at an angle from the horizontal with kinetic energy T. what is the
kinetic energy of the particle at the highest point?
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Laws of motion
Interia:- it is the property of a body by which the body does not want to change its state of rest or
of uniform motion by itself. Inertia of a body is measured by mass. More is the mass of a body more
is its inertia and less is the mass of a body less is its inertia.Newtons first law defines inertia and is
called the law of inertia.
Three types of inertia
1) Inertia of rest
2) Inertia of motion
3) Inertia of direction
1)Inertia of rest
:- if a body is in rest remains to be in restand cant start moving on its own.
For examples:-1) a passenger in a stationary but experiences a backward push if bus suddenly
starts moving.
2) When we shake a branch of mango tree, the mangoes fall down. This is because the branch
comes in motion and mangoes tend to remain at rest.
Inertia of motion:- a body in motion remains to be in motion due to inertia of motion. A body in
uniform motion can neither accelerate nor retard on its own and come to rest .for example A
passenger move/ get pushed in forward direction if brakes are applied to moving bus.
a person jumping out of speeding train may fall forward. This is because his feet come to rest on
touching the ground and remaining body continues to move due to inertia of motion.
Inertia of direction:- a body continues to move in the same direction due to inertia of direction. It
cant change its direction of motion by itself. For example
A person feels an outward push if a bus turns suddenly.
Force:- A pull or push which changes or tends to change the state of rest or uniform motion or
direction of motion of any object is called force. Force is the interaction between the object and the
source. It is a vector quantity.
Physics Wor m 28
Effect of resultant force:-
1. May change only speed.
2. May change only direction of the motion.
3. May change both the speed and direction of motion.
4. May change size and shape of body.
Unit of force : Newton and kgm/s
2
Dimensional formula MLT
2
Fundamental forces
All the forces observed in nature such as muscular force, tension , reaction, friction , elastic,
weight, electric, magnetic, nuclear etc can be explained in the terms of only following fur basic
interaction;
Gravitational forces
The forces of interaction which exists between two particle of mass m1& m2 due to their masses
is called gravitational force.
F = -Gm1m2/r
3
Physics Wor m 29
Forces are mainly of two types:
1. Balanced Forces
2. Unbalanced Forces
Balanced ForcesIf the resultant of applied forces is equal to zero, it is called balanced forces.
Forces which do not cause any change in state of rest or of uniform motion along a straight line are
called balanced forces.
Physics Wor m 30
Unbalanced Forces
The forces acting on a body produce any change in state of rest or motion, then the forces are said to
be unbalanced Force.
If the resultant of applied forces are greater than zero the forces are called unbalanced forces.
Unbalanced forces can do the following:
Move a stationary object.
Increase the speed of a moving object.
Decrease the speed of a moving object.
Stop a moving object.
Change the shape and size of an object.
Newtons laws of motion
Newton's First Law of Motion - Any object remains in the state of rest or in uniform motion along a
straight line, until it is compelled to change the state by applying external force.
Newton's Second Law of Motion - The rate of change of momentum is directly proportional to the
force applied in the direction of force.
Newton's Third Law of Motion - There is an equal and opposite reaction for evrey action
Newtons First Law of Motion:
Any object remains in the state of rest or in uniform motion along a straight line, until it is
compelled to change the state by applying external force.
Explanation: If any object is in the state of rest, then it will remain in rest untillaexernal force is
applied to change its state. Similarly an object will remain in motion untill any exeternal force is applied
over it to change its state.
Physics Wor m 31
First law of motion- according to this law, a body continues to be in its state of rest or uniform
motion along a straight line unless it is acted upon by some external stat. Newtons first law is
sometimes called the law of inertia. If no net force acts on a body, then the velocity of the body
cannot change i.e the body cannot accelerate.
Examples of this law:
1. A bullet fired on glass window makes a clean hole through it while a stone breaks the whole of it.
2. A passenger sitting in bus gets jerk when the bus starts or stops suddenly.
a. A person standing in a bus falls backward when bus is start moving suddenly. This happens because the
person and bus both are in rest while bus is not moving, but as the bus starts moving the legs of the
person start moving along with bus but rest portion of his body has tendency to remain in rest. Because
of this person falls backward; if he is not alert.
b. A person standing in a moving bus falls forward if driver applies brakes suddenly. This happens because
when bus is moving, the person standing in it is also in motion along with bus. But when driver applies
brakes the speed of bus comes in the state of rest suddenly, in this condition the legs of the person
which are in the contact with bus come in rest while the rest parts of his body have tendency to remain
in motion. Because of this person falls forward if he is not alert.
c. Before hanging the wet clothes over laundry line, usually many jerks are given to the cloths to get them
dried quickly. Because of jerks droplets of water from the pores of the cloth falls on the ground and
reduced amount of water in clothes dried them quickly. This happens because, when suddenly cloth are
made in motion by giving jerks, the water droplets in it have tendency to remain in rest and they are
separated from cloths and fall on the ground.
d. When the pile of coin on the carom-board hit by a striker; coin only at the bottom moves away leaving
rest of the pile of coin at same place. This happens because when the pile is struck with a striker, the
coin at the bottomcomes in motion while rest of the coin in the pile has tendency to remain in the rest
and they vertically falls the carom board and remain at same place.
e. Seat belts are used in car and other vehicles, to prevent the passengers being thrown in the condition of
sudden braking or other emergency. In the condition of sudden braking of the vehicles or any other
emergency such as accident, the speed of vehicle would decrease or vehicle may stop suddenly, in that
Physics Wor m 32
condition passengers may be thrown in the direction of the motion of vehicle because of the tendency
to remain in the state of motion.
Second law of motion:- the rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to applied
force and takes place in direction in which the force acts. The net force on the body is equal to
the product of mass of the body and acceleration of the body.
Mathematically
F =
Or F = ma
Where p =mv, p = linear momentum,
For example; when acceleration is applied on a moving vehicle, the momentum of the vehicle
increases and the increase is in the direction of motion because the force is being applied in the
direction of motion. On the other hand, when brake is applied on the moving vehicle, the momentum
of the vehicle decreases and the decrease is in the opposite direction of motion because the force is
being applied in the opposite direction of motion.
Important points about second law,
1. The second law is obviously consistent with the first law as F = 0 implies a = 0.
2. The second law of motion is a vector law. It is actually a combination of three
equation, ne for each component of vectors
Mathematical formulation of Newtons Second Law of Motion:
Let mass of an moving object =m,Initial velocity of the object =u, Final velocity of the object =v
We know that momentum (p) =Mass x velocity
Therefore,Momentum (p) of the object at its initial velocity u =m x u =mu,
Momentum (p) of the object at its final velocity v =m x v =mv
The change in momentum =mv mu
According to the Newtons Second Law of motion force is directly proportional to the rate of change
of momentum.
This means, Force Rate of change of moentum
Physics Wor m 33
After substituting the value of rate of change of momentum from equation (i) we get.
Where,
a =acceleration, u =initial velocity, v =final velocity, and t =time taken to change in velocity
By substituting the value from equation (iii) in equation (ii) we get
F m.a
Since, 1 unit force is defined as the mass of 1kg object produces the acceleration of 1m/s
2
F = m.a----------(v)
Force =mass acceleration
Thus Newtons Second Law of Motion gives the relation between force, mass and acceleration of an
object.
According to the relation obtained above, Newtons Second Law can be modified as follows:
The product of mass and acceleration is the force acting on the object.
Examples of 2
nd
law of motion
(a) A fielder pulls his hand backward; while catching acricket ball coming with a great speed, to
reduce the momentum of the ball with a little delay. According to Newtons Second Law of
Motion; rate of change of momentum is directly proportional to the force applied in the
direction.
Physics Wor m 34
While catching a cricket ball the momentum of ball is reduced to zero when it is stopped after coming
in the hands of fielder. If the ball is stopped suddenly, its momentum will be reduced to zero instantly.
The rate of change in momentum is very quick and as a result, the players hand may get injured.
Therefore, by pulling the hand backward a fielder gives more time to the change of momentum to
become zero. This prevents the hands of fielder from getting hurt.
(b) For athletes of long and high jump sand bed or cushioned bed is provided to allow a delayed
change of momentum to zero because of jumping of athlete.
When an athlete falls on the ground after performing a high or long jump, the momentum because of
the velocity and mass of the athlete is reduced to zero. If the momentum of an athlete will be reduced
to zero instantly, the force because of momentum may hurt the player. By providing a cushioned bed,
the reduction of the momentum of the athlete to zero is delayed. This prevents the athlete from getting
hurt.
Momentum:- momentum of a body is equal to product of mass and velocity.
Linear momentum (p) = mass. Velocity
P = mv
Momentum is a vector physical quantity whose direction is that of velocity (v)
Dimension = M
1
L
1
T
-!
Unit kgms
-1
( in S.I)
gcms
-1
(in c.g.s)
mathematical form of newtons scond law :-
Physics Wor m 35
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m = mass of body
u = initial velocity, v= final velocity
f = applied force,dt= time for which force is applied
Initial momentum p1= mu
Finalmomentum p2= mv
Change in momentum dp = p2-p1 = mv-mu
Time taken for this change = dt
rate of change of momentum =
changc In momcntum
tmc tukcn
dp
dt
=
mu-mu
dt
From 2
nd
law
Force rate of change of momentum
f
dp
dt
or f
(mv mu)
dt
f
m(v-u)
dt
f m .a
Or f = k.m.a
But k= 1
Force= mass. Acceleration
Unit and dimension
UnitNewton in S.I
dyne in c.g.s
Dimension M
1
LT
-2
Principal of conservation of momentum:-
According to this principal, the total momentum of a system remains constant till no external
force is applied on the system. The total momentum of an isolated system is conserved.
Let a system is made of n-particle of masses m1,m2,m3 ..mn and having velocities v1,v2,v3
..vn.
Momentum of 1
st
particle = p1 =m1v1
Momentum of 2
nd
particle =p2=m2v2
Momentum of 3rd particle =p3=m3v3
Momentum of nth particle =pn=mnvn
Total momentum of the system
p= p1 +p2+pn
acc. to this principle of conservation of momentum, p will remains constant if F = 0.
Proof of principle of conservation of momentum from Newton 2
nd
law:
From 2nd law F =
dp
dt
Suppose F = 0 ( no force is applied)
0=
dp
dt
Physics Wor m 36
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But dt = time, cannot ne zero.
So dp = 0
Where dp = change in momentum.
So dp= 0
ItMeans no change in momentum. Therefore it is verified that there will be no change in
momentum or momentum of a body/ system if external force on the body is zero.
Example on the conservation on of momentum:-
1. Recoil of gun:-when a bullet is fired from a gun, the gun recoils( movesin a direction opposite to
bullet) to conserve the momentum.
m1 = mass of bullet,
m2= mass of gun,
v1= velocity of bullet,
v2= velocity of recoil of gun,
before firing
Velocity of gun: 0,
momentum of gun = 0,
Velocity of bullet = 0
momentumof bullet = 0
the gun and bullet both, are at rest. Therefore total linear momentum before firing = m1v1 +m2v2
=0,
after firing:-
velocity of bullet =v
velocity of gun = V
momentum of bullet =mv
momentumof gun = MV
total momentum = mv + MV -----------------(2)
from the principal of conservation of momentum
momentum before firing = momentum after firing
0 = mv +MV
V=
-mv
M
velocity of recoil of gun,
The negative sign shows that the direction of V is opposite to the direction of v.
V
1
M
It means that a heavier gun will recoil with a smaller velocity & vice-verse
2. While firing, the gun must be held tightly to shoulder:- this would save hurting the shoulder.
When the gun is held tightly, the body of the shooter and gun behaves as one body. Total mass
becomes larger and therefore, recoil velocity of the body and gun becomes too small.
3. When a man jumps out of a boat to the shore, the boat is pushed slightly away from the shore.
The momentum of the boat is equal and opposite to that of man in accordance with the law of
conservation of linear momentum.
Impulse it is equal to product of force and time for which force is applied.
The forces which act on bodies for short time are called impulsive force.
For example:
1. In hitting a ball with a bat,
2.In firing a gun.
Physics Wor m 37
An impulsive force does not remain constant but changes first from zero to max. and max. to zero.
the total effect of the force called impulse.
Let f = force applied
t= time for which force is applied
Impulse = force. Time
I= F .t
Impulse is a vector quantity whose direction is the direction of applied force.
Applications of impulse
1) A cricket player lowers his hands while catching a cricket ball to avoid injury. He allows a longer
time for his hands to stop the ball. He increase the time for catching so he has to apply a smaller
force against the ball in order to stop it
2) When a person falls from a certain height on a cemented flour gets injured as compare to sandy
floor.The time in which change in momentum of the person takes place is more in case of sandy
floor involved in reduced?
3) The vehicles like scooter, car, bus, truck etc are provided with shockers. The function of the
shocker is to increase the time. This would reduce the force experienced by rider of any vehicle.
4) It is difficult to catch a cricket ball than to catch a tennis ball. Cricket ball is heavier so it has much
larger momentum and thus exerts larger force on the hands during catch.
Newtons third law:- according to this law, to every action, there is always an equal and opposite
reaction i.e the forces of action and reaction are always equal and opposite. When two bodies
interact, the forces on the bodies from each other are always equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction. The term action means the force exerted by one body on the other body while term
reaction means the force exerted by second body on the first.
For example:- when we press a coiled spring , the spring is compressed by the force of our hand.
The compressed spring exerts a force on our hand.
Explanation: Whenever a force is applied over a body, that body also applies same force of equal
magnitude and in opposite direction.
3
rd
law of motion
Look at the picture given above. The book applies a force because of its weight, and the table shows a
reaction to this action.
These force pairs are same in magnitude but as you see their directions are opposite.
Example
(a) Walking of a person - A person is able to walk because of the Newtons Third Law of Motion.
During walking, a person pushes the ground in backward direction and in the reaction the ground also
pushes the person with equal magnitude of force but in opposite direction. This enables h
forward direction against the push.
Physics Wor m
rson is able to walk because of the Newtons Third Law of Motion.
pushes the person with equal magnitude of force but in opposite direction. This enables h
Physics Wor m 38
rson is able to walk because of the Newtons Third Law of Motion.
pushes the person with equal magnitude of force but in opposite direction. This enables him to move in
Physics Wor m 39
(b) Recoil of gun - When bullet is fired from a gun, the bullet also pushes the gun in opposite
direction, with equal magnitude of force. This results in gunman feeling a backward push from the butt
of gun.
(c) Propulsion of a boat in forward direction Sailor pushes water with oar in backward direction;
resulting water pushing the oar in forward direction. Consequently, the boat is pushed in forward
direction. Force applied by oar and water are of equal magnitude but in opposite directions.
.
1. Flight of jet planes and rockets: the burnt fuel which appears in the form of hot and
compressed gases escapes through the nozzle in the backward direction. The escaping gases push
the jet plane or rocket forward.
2. It is difficult to walk on sand or ice:- because on pushing, sand gets displaced and reaction from
sand ground is very little. In case ice, force of reaction is again is small, because friction between
our feet and ice is very little.
3. Rebounding of ball: when a ball is struck against a wall or floor, it exerts a force on wall. The ball
rebounds with an equal force exerted by wall or floor on the ball.
Show that second law is the real law of motion:-
To prove it, we will show that
1. The first law is contained in the second law.
2. The third law is contained in the second in the second law.
1. First law is contained in the second law:-
Physics Wor m 40
According to Newtons second law of motion,
F = ma
If no external force is applied on body
F = 0
ma = 0
as m 0 , therefore a = 0
Thus there will be no acceleration in the body if no external force is applied. This means that a
body at rest will remain at rest and a body in uniform motion will remain in uniform motion
continues until in the absence of external force. Which is nothing but Newtons first law?
2. Third law is contained in 2
nd
law:-
t is time for which FA is acting on B.
Change in linear momentum of B
= F1 t
Change in linear momentum of A,
=F2 t
Total change in linear momentum of A & B,
= F1 t + F2 t
If no external force s acting on system of A & B
F=0
Acc. to 2
nd
law
= F1 t + F2 t = 0
F1 + F2=0
F1 = -F2
Which is the statement of 3
rd
law.Hence proved.
Horse and cart problem
The various forces acting on the system of horse and cart are shown in below.
The weight (W1) of cart c is balanced by reaction (R1) of the ground on cart. The weight (W2) of horse H
is balanced by the reaction R2 of ground on the horse. The horse pulls the cart with a force T in the
Physics Wor m 41
forward direction. The cart pulls the horse with the same force T in the backward direction. There two
forces are also balanced.
The horse pushes the ground backward by a force F inclined at an angle with horizontal direction.
R can be resolved into two rectangular components
Rsin vertically upwards and Rcos along the horizontal direction. The component Rcos tends to
move cart forward. the cart will move only when Rcos> f. where f is the friction.
Apparent weight of a man in lift/ elevator
Let a person of mass m is standing weighting machine placed on left. The actual weight of the person =
mg. this acts on weighting machine which offers a reaction R known as apparent weight of man. If a
body is on accelerated, the weight of the body appears changed and this new weight is called apparent
weight.
Case(A) when the lift is unaccelerated or at rest (v = 0 or constant)
In this case there is reaction R = mg
Hence apparent weight = actual weight
R=mg
Case(B) when the lift is accelerated upward( when a = constant)
Physics Wor m 42
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The net forces acting on the man are
R mg = ma
Apparent weight
R = mg + ma
Apparentweight(W)>actuaweight(mg)
case if the lift is accelerated downward W
Here weight mg acts downwards while the reaction, R acts upwards
Apparent weight W = Ra
mg R=ma
R = mg ma R
R> mg W
If g = a , w =0. Thus in freely falling lift, the man will experience a state of weightlessness.
When downward acceleration is greater than g. then R = m(g-a), R become negative i.e apparent
weight of the person becomes negative. The man will rise from the floor of the lift and sticks to the
ceiling of the lift.
Physics Wor m 43
Connected motion:-consider two mass m1& m2 tied with a inextensible string on a frictionless
pulley as shown in below . let m1>m2. The heavier body will move downwards and lighter body
will move upwards.
T is the tension in the string shall be same on both sides of pulley.
The various forces acts are
1) Weight m1g acting downwards
2) The tension T in the string acting upwards.
On heavier body
m1g T =m1a,----------------(1)
T m2g = m2a----------------(2)
(1) + (2), we get
m1g-m2g=(m1+m2)a
a= g
now we have to find out the value of T
dividing (1) & (2), we get,
T = 2 T
Physics Wor m 44
Hence tension and acceleration can be calculated.
Rocket propulsion: equation of motion
of rocket
Rocket is used for carrying a satellite to a suitable height from the ground.
Principle: it is based upon the principle of conservation of linear momentum. According to this, the
linear momentum of mass m of the rocket at instant t must be equal to vector sum of linear
momentum of rocket mass ( m dm) moving with velocity ( v + dv) and linear momentum of mass
(dm) of exhaust gases moving downwards with velocity (-vg)
The fuel in the rocket is burnt and the exhaust gases are made to escape in the downward direction
which causes the rocket to move in the forward direction.
vgvg
t=0 t=t t=t+dt
Considered the flight of rocket directed vertically upwards from the surface of earth.
At t = 0,
m0= initial mass of the rocket
v0= initial velocity of the rocket
Physics Wor m 45
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at any time t, ( as shown in fig)
m =mass of rocket left
v = velocity acquired by rocket
as the exhaust gases are escaping
m< m0, and v >v0
Suppose dm = a small decrease in mass of the rocket= mass of exhaust gases that escape.
dv= corresponding small increase in velocity of rocket.
vg= velocity of exhaust gases w.r.t earth.
The velocity vg is taken as negative because these gases move in a direction opposite to that of rocket.
Acc. to principal,
mv= (m-dm)(v+dv)+dm(-vg)----------(1)
mv = mv = m(dv) (dm)v-dmdv-(dm)vg
asdm and dv are small so their product is negligibly small
mdv=dm(v+vg)-------------(2)
let v + vg =-u ( relative velocity of gases w.r.t rocket)
dv = -u
dm
m
Integrating both sides
J:
=
dm
m
m
m
= - u
dm
m
m
m
|:] = -u|log
c
m]
v-v0 = - u|log
c
m log
c
m]
-ujlog
c
m
m
[ = +ujlog
c
m
m
[
V = v0 + u log
c
m
m
This eq. gives the velocity of the rocket at any time + when its mass is m
Usually initial velocity of rocket at t=0
v= ulog
c
m
m
Thrust on the rocket:-i.e force with which the rocket moves upwards.
m.dv = -udm
m.
d
dt
= -u
dm
dt
m.a = - u
dm
dt
f=-u
dm
dt
Negative sign indicate that thrust on the rocket is in a direction opposite to direction of escaping gases.
Thrust on the rocket at any instant is product of velocity of escaped of fuel gases w.r.t the rocket and
the rate of combustion of fuel at that instant.
Point s t o r emember
1. Newtons law of motion states that everybody has tendency to oppose any changes in its state of
motion.
This property of objects is called inertia.
2. Inertia is of three 1. Inertia of rest 2. Inertia of motion 3. Inertia of direction.
Physics Wor m 46
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3. Inertia mass.
4. Linear momentum P = mv
5. Newtons 2nd law of motion states that rate of change of momentum is equal to applied force.
6. Newtons 1st and 3rd can be derived from second law therefore 2
nd
law is the most fundamental law
out of three law.
7. Impulse = Ft = P = (p1 p2).
8. According to law of conversation of linear momentum
Initial momentum = final momentum
m1u1 + m2 u2 = m1v1 +m2 v2
9. Thrust on rocket
F=
AM
At
v mg
F =
AM
At

m
10. Acceleration of rocket
a =
AM
At
.
v
M
g
or a =
AM
Av
.
v
M
According as gravity is present or absent.
11. For equilibrium of a body under the action of concurrent forces
F1 +F2 +F3 +.Fn = 0
12. Apparent weight of a body in the lift accelerated up is W = m(g + a)
13. Apparent weight of a body in the lift accelerated down is W = m(g a).
14. If the downward acceleration of the lift is a = g, then
W= 0 i.e. the body will enjoy weightlessness.
15. If the downward acceleration of the body is a>g, then W is negative, the body will rise up to the
ceiling of lift.
Problems on motion
Q 1. A block of mass 10 kg is sliding on a surface inclined at an angle of 30 with the horizontal. What
will be the acceleration? = 0.5
1. 1.65 ms
-2
3. 0.657 ms
-2
2. 0 4. 1.67 ms
-2
Physics Wor m 47
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Q.2 A man fired the bullets of mass m each with the velocity v with the help of machine gun, if he
fires n bullets every sec, the reaction force per second on the man will be
(1)
m
n (2) m n v
(3)
m
n
(4)
n
m
Q.3 A body of mass 15 kg moving with a velocity of 10 m/s is to be stopped by resistive force in 15
sec, the force will be
(1) 10 N (2) 5 N
(3) 100 N (4) 50 N
Q.4 a cricket ball of mass 250 gm moving with velocity of 24 m/s is hit by a bat so that it acquires a
velocity of 28 m/s in opposite direction. The force acting on the ball, if the contact time is 1/100 of a
second, will be
(1) 1300 N in the final direction of ball
(2) 13 N in the initial direction of ball
(4) 1.3 N in the initial direction of bal
Fr ict ion
Friction: it is an opposing force that comes into play when one body moves or slides on the surface
of other body. 1) It always opposes the motion of the body.
2)The force of friction is parallel to the surface
3)It depends on the nature of material of the surface in contact
4)If the surface is rough, friction is more.
5)And less friction in smooth surface.
Physics Wor m 48
Graphical representation of friction variation with applied force
Limiting friction
Friction A
Dynamic friction
Static friction
o
Applied force
The graph shows how the force of friction depends on the values of applied force. As the applied
force is increase,f alsoincrease remaining equal and opposite to the applied force. O to A represent
static friction. The static friction is max. at this stage. When we increase the applied force slightly
beyond limiting friction, the actual motion starts. Hence kinetic friction
comes into the play when one body is actually moving over the
surfaces of another body. Beyond A,
the force of friction is seen to decrease slightly. The portion BC
curve represents the kinetics friction.
Kinetic friction is always slightly less than the limiting friction.
Types of friction
There are four types of frictional forces
1) Static friction.
2) Dynamic friction and sliding friction.
3) Rolling friction.
Physics Wor m 49
Static friction:-the opposite force that comes into play when one body tends to move over the
surface of another but actual motion has not yet started is called static friction. When there is no
applied force, there is no static friction. If a body is at rest and no pulling force is acting on it, force
of friction on it is zero. If the force of friction is increase the force of static friction also increase. if
the applied force exceeds a certain value, the body starts moving. The max.Force of friction of static
friction up to which body does not move is called limiting friction.
Dynamic friction:- if the applied force is increased further and sets the body in motion, the friction
opposing the motion is called dynamic or kinetic friction. It is lesser than limiting friction. The
curve OK represents this friction.Kinetic friction is always less than limiting friction.
The dynamic friction may be of two types
1. Sliding friction 2. Rolling friction
1. Sliding friction: - the opposing force that comes into play when one body is actually slides over
the surface of the other body is called sliding friction
2. Rolling friction:- the opposing force that comes into play when one body is actually rolling over
the surface of the other body is called sliding friction. Forexample: - a wheel, a circular disc, a ring
rolls over a surface, the force of friction that opposes it is the rolling friction.
Cause of friction:-
Old view:- according to this friction is considered to be due to interlocking of irregularities
between the two surfaces in contact.
Atomic view:- friction is found to increase when surface is highly polished. This fact cant be
explained in the basis of interlocking or irregularities. So it is suggested that friction is due to the
inter atomic interaction between the atoms of surfaces in contact. The interaction are cohesive
(similar atoms) or adhesive (dissimilar) .
Angle of friction:angle of frictionis the angle between the resultant (R1) of force of friction (f) and
normal reaction(R) & the normal reaction(R).

f
f
mg
Thus tan =
f= N
Thereforetan=
Tangent of angle of friction is equal to co
An object in inclined plane and moving downward then various force are shown in the figure. Where F is a
friction and w is the weight of object
Angle of repose:- Angle of repose or angle of sliding is defined as the minimum angle of inclination of plan
the horizontal such that a body placed on the plane just begins to slide down. Its value depends upon the nature
of two surfaces.it is represented by . Let m = mass of body lying on inclined plan OB as shown on fig below.
= angle of repose,

mgsin
mgcos
mg
A C
Following forces are acting on it
1) F = limiting friction (upwards).
2) Weight = mg (vertical downwards).
3) Force of friction F acting up the plan AB.
Weight can be resolved into two parts
1) mgcos which balances normal reaction R.
2) mgsin which balance limiting friction f.
in equilibrium,
F =mgsin
Physics Wor m
N
of angle of friction is equal to co-eff. Of friction.
Angle of repose or angle of sliding is defined as the minimum angle of inclination of plan
. Let m = mass of body lying on inclined plan OB as shown on fig below.
R
B
F
A C
Force of friction F acting up the plan AB.
Weight can be resolved into two parts
which balances normal reaction R.
which balance limiting friction f.
Physics Wor m 50
Angle of repose or angle of sliding is defined as the minimum angle of inclination of plan with
. Let m = mass of body lying on inclined plan OB as shown on fig below.
Physics Wor m 51
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R =mgcos
Dividing
P
R
=
mgsIn
mgcos
=tan
Hence coefficient of limiting friction between any two surfaces in contact is equal to tangent of angle of repose
between them.
=tan=tan
Angle of friction is equal to angle of response.
Work done against force of friction:-
1) body is moving uniformly on horizontal surface:-
R
P
Friction f
mg
Let P be the applied force to move an object of mass m in S distance. F is the force of friction.
=
P
R
, F =R
= co-eff. Of friction
for motion of the body to be uniform
P = F = R
Or P =R
Work done W = applied force distance
= PS
W = mgS
2) Body is moving uniformly down in inclined plan:- let m is the mass of body that is placed AB
inclined plane as shown in below.
R
P
Mgsin

mgcos
mg
the various forces acting on it are
1) Weight (mg) of the body acting vertically downwards
2) Normal reaction (R) acting perpendicular to the plane.
3) Force of friction acting doen the plane.
The weight mg can be resolved into two components:
Mgcos opposite to R and mgsin down the plan
Physics Wor m 52
In equilibrium,
R = mgcos
And P=mgsin + F
Where p is the force applied to the body
Work done = force distance
W = P S
(Mgsin + F)S
W = (mgsin + R) S
Where is coeff.Of friction between the two surfaces in contacts.
W = (mgsin + mg cos) S
W = mg(sin + cos) S
Body is moving uniformly up an inclined plan:-
Total downward force on the body = mgsin + F
Where F = force of friction
= R= mgcos
So downwards force
Mgsin +mgcos
Let P = applied force in upward direction
For motion to be uniform
P = mgsin + mgcos
=mg(cos+sin)
Work = ps
therefore
w = mg(cos +sin) s
Physics Wor m 53
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The friction is a necessary evil:
1) Working will not possible without friction
2) No two bodies will stuck to each other if there is no friction
3) Brakes of the vehicles will not work without friction
4) Nuts and bolts for holding the parts of machinery will not work.
5) Writing on black board or on paper will also not possible without friction.
The friction is an evil
1) Friction always opposes the relative motion between any two bodies in contact. Therefore extra
energy has to be spent in overcoming friction. Thus friction involves unnecessary expense of
energy.
2) Friction causes wear and tear of the parts of machinery in contact. Thus their life time reduces.
3) Frictional force results in the production of heat which causes damage to machinery.
Method of changing friction:-
1) By polishing: polishing makes the surfaces smoother. Therefore, friction reduces.
2) By lubrication: lubricant like oil, grease etc fill up the irregularities of the surfaces making them
smoother. Hence friction decreases.
3) By proper selection of material: friction depends on the nature of the material.
4) By using ball bearing: by using this friction can be reduces.
Point t o r emember
1. Friction is the opposing force that comes into play when one body is actually moving over the
surface of another body or one body id trying to move over the surface of the other. Two causes of
friction are: roughness of surface in contact; force of adhesion between the molecules of the
surfaces in contact.
2. Limiting friction is max. value of static friction. dynamic/ kinetic friction is somewhat less than the
force of limiting friction
3. Static friction is a self adjusting force.
4. Rolling friction is less than sliding friction.
5. Laws of limiting friction.
1
st
law: F R, where R is normal reaction.
2
nd
law: direction of F is opposite to the intended direction of motion.
3
rd
law: F does not depends upon actual area of contact.
4
th
law: F depends upon nature of material and nature of polish of the surface in contact.
6. Coefficient of friction
= F/R
Physics Wor m 54
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7. Angle of repose() is the min. angle of inclination of plan with horizontal, such that a body placed
on the plane just begins to slide down.
=tan
8. Acceleration of a body down a rough inclined plane
a = g(sin -cos)
9. Work done in moving a body over a rough horizontal surface
W=Rs
10. Work done in moving a body a rough inclined plan
W =mg ( sin +cos) s
11. Friction is a necessary evil. Some of the methods of reducing friction are polishing, lubrication, ball
bearing etc.
12. Some ways of increasing friction are
1. On rainy day
2. Sand is spread on the tracks covered with snow.
3. In the manufacture of tyres, synthetic rubber is preferred.
Pr obl ems on f r ict ion
Q.1 Two blocks of mass m = 1 kg and M = 2kg are contact on frictionless table. A horizontal forces
F = 3 N is applied to m. the forces of contact between the blocks will be
(1) 2N (2) 1 N
(2) 4 N (4) 5 N
Q.2 A body whose mass 6kg is acted upon by two forces (8i+10j)N and(4i+8j)N. The acceleration
produced will be (in m/s
2
).
(1) (3i+ 2j) (2) 12i + 18j
(3)
1
3
(I + j) (4) 2i + 3j
Q.3 A car of 1000kg moving with a velocity of 18km/hr is stopped by the brake force of 1000N.
The distance covered by it before coming to rest is
(1) 1m (2) 162m
(3) 12.5m (4) 144m
Q.4 A block of metal weighing 2kg is resting on a frictionless plane. It is struck by a jet releasing
water at a rate of 1kg/s and at a speed of 5m/s. The initial acceleration of the block will be
(1) 2.5m/s
2
(2) 5m/s
2
(3) 0.4m/s
2
(4) 0
Q.5 A man fired the bullets of mass m each with the velocity v with the help of machine gun, if he
fires n bullets every sec, the reaction force per second on the man will be
(1)
m
n (2) m n v
Physics Wor m 55
9017557576
(3)
m
n
(4)
n
m
Q.6 A body of mass 15 kg moving with a velocity of 10 m/s is to be stopped by resistive force in
15 sec, the force will be
(1) 10 N (2) 5 N
(3) 100 N (4) 50 N
Q.7 a cricket ball of mass 250 gm moving with velocity of 24 m/s is hit by a bat so that it acquires
a velocity of 28 m/s in opposite direction. The force acting on the ball, if the contact time is
1/100 of a second, will be
(2) 13 N in the initial direction of ball
(4) 1.3 N in the initial direction of ball
Q.8 A force of 2 N is applied on a particle for 2sec, the change in momentum will be
(1) 2NS (2) 4NS
(3) 6NS (4) 3 NS
Q.9 A Body of mass 2kg is moving along x direction with velocity 2m/sec. if force of 4 N is
applied on it along y direction for 1 sec , the final velocity of particle will be-
(1) 2
2
m/s (2) 2 m/s
(3) 1/2 m/s (4) 1/22
Q.10 A cricket ball of mass 150g is moving with a velocity of 12 m/s and is hit by a bat so that the
ball is turned back on the ball acts for 0.01 sec, the average force exerted by the bat on the ball.
(1) 48 N (2) 40 N
(3) 480 N (4) 400 N
Q.11 A man of mass 60 kg carries a bag of weight 60 N on his shoulder. The force with which the
floor pushes up his feet will be
(1) 588 N (2) 648 N
(3) 528 N (4) 708 N
Answers
1. Q 7. (1)
2. (4) 8. (1)
3. (3) 9. (2)
4. (2) 10. (1)
5. (1) 11. (3)
6. (2)
Centripetal force:- it is the force required to move a body uniformly in a circle. This force acts
along the radius and towards the centre of the circle. When a body moves in a circle, its direction of
motion at any instant is along the tangent to the circle at that instant.
A continuous change in the dirction of motion of the body,
there is a change in velocity of the body and hence it undergoes
Physics Wor m 56
an acceleration called centripetal acceleration or radial acc.
Centripetal force = mass acceleration
F = = mr
2
Centripetal force acts along the radius and towards the centre of the circle.
Centrifugal force: is a force that arises when a body is moving actually along a circular path
by virtue of tendency of the body to regain its natural straight line path.it is reaction of
centripetal force. A force of action & reaction are equal & opposite therefore magnitude of
centrifugal force is mr
2
. It always acts along the radius and away from the centre of the circle.
For example:- when a piece of stone tied to one end of string is rotated
in circle centripetal force f1 is applied on the stone by hand. In turn, the
hand is pulled outwards by centrifugal force f2 acting on it.
Rounding a level curvedwhen a vehicle goes round a curved road,
It required some centripetal force.While rounding the curve, the wheels
of the vehicle have a tendency to leave the curved path and regain
the straight line path. Force of friction between the wheels and road
opposes it and acts towards the centre of the circular track. It provides
Let m = mass of vehicle
r = radius of curved road
= co-eff. of friction between road &tyres.
mg = wt. of the vehicle acting vertically downward
the centripetal force.
Let m = mass of vehicle
r = radius of curved road
= co-eff. of friction between road &tyres.
mg = wt. of the vehicle acting vertically downward.
Three forces are acting on thevehicle
1. The weight of vehicle, mg acting vertically downwards.
2. Normal reaction R of the road on the
3. Frictional force F, along the surface of the road, towards the centre of the turn
As there is no acceleration in the vertical direction
R mg =0
R=mg
If v is the speed of the vechile, then the centripetal force required

The centripetal force is provided by the force of friction given by
F =R =mg
From (1) & (2)
Mv
2
/r = mg
V
2
=rg
V=
Hence the max.velocity with which a vehicle can g
. the value of v depends on the radius
tyres and road. And v is independent of mass of the ve
Banking of roads: the outer edge of the curved road is raised compare
to the inner edge to provide the centripetal
the method is called banking of roads.
Let h= height by which outer edge of road is raised compare to inner edge.
= angle of banking
Weight of the vehicle is acting vertically
Normal reaction can be resolved in Rsin
1. Rcos acting vertically upwards and in equilibrium balances mg
Rcos=mg
2. Rsin towards the centre of circular road it provides the centripetal
Rsin= mv
2
/r mg
So that
= mv
2
/r 1/mg
Physics Wor m
thevehicle
, mg acting vertically downwards.
Normal reaction R of the road on the vehicle acting vertically upwards.
Frictional force F, along the surface of the road, towards the centre of the turn
As there is no acceleration in the vertical direction
, then the centripetal force required
F=mv
2
/r------------------------------------------(1)
The centripetal force is provided by the force of friction given by
mg-------------------------------------------------------
Hence the max.velocity with which a vehicle can go around a level curve; without skidding is V=
radius r of the curve and on the co-efficient of friction between the
tyres and road. And v is independent of mass of the vehicle.
the outer edge of the curved road is raised compare
to the inner edge to provide the centripetal force to the vehicle and
edge of road is raised compare to inner edge.Rcos

Weight of the vehicle is acting vertically downwards
in Rsin
acting vertically upwards and in equilibrium balances mg
towards the centre of circular road it provides the centripetal to car
0
Physics Wor m 57
(1)
-------------------------------------------------------(2)
round a level curve; without skidding is V=
efficient of friction between the
R
in Rsin
Physics Wor m 58
9017557576
=v
2
/rg
Tan = v
2
/rg
= h/d
depends& r. for safe turn, should be small & r should be large.
This means, a safe turn should neither be fast nor sharp. Roads usually banked
for the average speed of vehicles passing over them. However, if the speed of
vehicle is somewhat less or more than this, the self adjusting friction will operate
between the tyres and road, and vehicle will not skid.
Applications of motion in vertical circle
1.
When a bucket containing water is rotated in vertical circle with a vertical circle with a velocity at lowest
point, vL 5gr. Water shall not spil even at highest point, when the bucket is upside. If the bucket is
whirled slowly, so that mg >
mH2
, then part of weight shall provibe the necessary centripetal force and rest
of weight of water mg mvH
2
/r causes some water to accelerate downwards and spil. Only this much water
shall leave the bucket.
2.
A pilot of an aircraft can successfully loop a vertical loop without falling at the top of loop, when its
velocity at bottom of loop is > 5gr
In a circus, a motor cyclist is able to perform the feat of driving the motor cycle along a vertical circle in a
cage. The motor cycle along a vertical circle in a cage. The motor cyclist does not fall even at the highest
point, when is velocity at the bottom of cage is > 5gr.
Point to remember
1. Centripetal force is a firce that arises when a body is moving actually along a circular path, by virtue of
tendency of the body to regain its natural st. line path. Centrifugal force can be treated as the reaction of
centripetal force. The magnitude of centrifugal force is same as that of centripetal force. The direction of
centrifugal force is alone the radius and away from the centre of the circle.
2. While rounding a level curved road, the necessary centripetal force is provided by the force of friction
between the tyres and the road. The max. velocity with which a vehicle can go round a level curve without
skidding is v =rg.
3. To avoid dependence on friction, curved roads are usually banked. Outer edge of the curved road is raised
suitably above the inner edge.

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MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION

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