Chapter 2: Socrates.

Plato & Aristotle

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Upon completion of this article, you should be able to:
describe briefly who is Socrates
explain Socrates views on education
briefly describe who is Plato
evaluate Platos views on education
explain Aristotles position on the goals of education
evaluate Aristotles views on curriculum and pedagogical strategies
Preamble
In this Chapter, we will examine the views of three ancient Greek philosopher on the
aims and goals of educations. Socrates, though he did not put into writing his thoughts,
contributed much to views on education. He placed ethical behaviour as the main aim of
education and proposed a curriculum in which students studied many different subjects
using the Socratic method. Plato, a student of Socrates documented his views and also
proposed his conception of education and the curriculum. Aristotle




Chapter Overview

o Who is Socrates?
o Goals of education
o Curriculum
o Teaching and learning
o Who is Plato?
o His works
o The Academy
o Goals of education
o Curriculum
o Who is Aristotle?
o His view on the goals of
education

Key Terms
Summary
References

Chapter 1:
Philosophy & the Malaysian Philosophy of
Education

Chapter 2:
Socrates, Plato & Aristotle

Chapter 3:
Al-Farabi and Ibnu Sina

Chapter 4:
Jean Rousseau and John Locke

Chapter 5:
Confucius and Mencius

Chapter 6:
Paulo Freire and Friedrich Froebel

Chapter 7:
John Dewey

Chapter 8:
Rabindranath Tagore and Vivekananda

Chapter 9:
Other Philosophical Traditions
Chapter 2: Socrates. Plato & Aristotle

2

Socrates
(470 399 B.C.)

WHO IS SOCRATES?

Socrates was born in Athens, Greece, in 470 BC.
His father was a stonemason and his mother was a mid-
wife. He was taught by his father how to make stone
sculptures. At a very young age Socrates was always
asking questions and that was what that made him
famous. He also studied drama, science, astronomy, and
geometry and he continued to ask "why" throughout his
studies. He especially enjoyed being able to debate with
his teachers and always asked questions about how to
determine what was right and what was wrong.
When his father died, he inherited the family
property and place in the government. Being a man of
property, he was also obligated to serve in the Athenian
army and fought in many wars, although he did not like
the fighting. When he returned from the wars, he was able
to do what he really enjoyed teaching. He would
wander the streets of Athens, asking questions, debating
issues, and seeking answers. Most of the other teachers charged for their knowledge,
but his lessons were free. All he wanted was to inspire others to think and reason.
Sometimes students would get frustrated with him because he would not simply give
lectures or answers. Instead, he insisted that they learn by asking questions, debating
issues, and finding a logical conclusion. Unfortunately, his teaching methods and his
desire to share knowledge turned out to be my downfall.
When he was 70 years old, he was brought to trial for worshipping strange
gods. His accusers said that he taught young men to think dangerous thoughts. He was
found guilty of these "crimes" and sentenced to death. Although his friends had a plan
to help him escape from prison, he refused. After spending his life searching for the
meaning of right and wrong, he felt it was wrong to run away from the government's
verdict. He told his friends, "No greater good can happen to a man than to discuss
virtue every day, and an unexamined life is not worth living."
So, in February, 399 BC, he chose to end his life quickly by drinking a potion
of poisoned Hemlock. His last words were, "The hour of departure has arrived.
We go our separate way I to die and you to live. Which is better is known to
God alone." One of his most famous students, Plato wrote many stories about his
life. Shortly after his death, Plato writing about Socrates said;









"A man, I think, who was, of all men of his time, the wisest
at best and most just."
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GOAL OF EDUCATION ACCORDING TO SOCRATES


Socrates did not commit to writing his ideas and thoughts on education. Fortunately,
his devoted student, Plato wrote extensively about Socrates in the Dialogues. Works
by other students such as Xenophon, Aristotle and Aristophanes also provided
insights into the thoughts of Socrates.


CURRICULUM


A) MUSIC EDUCATION
Socrates allowed only moderate and austere or solemn melodies. Melodies
imitating the sounds and accents of courageous men facing danger should be
allowed. Melodies about sadness and celebrations or revelry are forbidden.
Only simple instruments such as the lyre are permitted (399d). Most
importantly, Socrates insists that rhythm must follow speech, not the other
way around.

B) GYMNASTIC EDUCATION
Socrates advocated a gymnastic regimen because he believed that a healthy
intellect should be accompanied by a healthy body. Therefore, by eating and
drinking moderately and undertaking a simple physical exercise plan from
youth, the body will be as fit as is needed.
Gymnastics is mainly responsible for preventing illness and the need for
medicine.
Medicine should be used for curing easily-fixed illnesses and should never be
used to keep those unable to work alive.
Movement, sport and game teach a child how to coordinate the body with
harmony and grace. This is essential not only in itself but also to later learning
how to coordinate the desires of the soul with harmony and grace.
Children in the act of organized physical play learn moderation and grow in
self-knowledge. They learn when to push themselves and when to rest. Such
skills will serve them well as they learn how to moderate themselves in all
areas of life.

2.1 LEARNING ACTIVITY
a) What do you think Socrates meant by the phrase an
unexamined life is not worth living?
b) Socrates was prosecuted because he taught young
men to think dangerous thoughts. Explain.


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C) BALANCE BETWEEN GYMNASTIC EDUCATION AND MUSIC
EDUCATION
Education in music and gymnastics will be compulsory for youths, and their
progress and adaptability will be watched and tested throughout their development.
However, there should be a balance between music and gymnasium education to
produce moral persons. Overemphasis on gymnastic education causes savagery and
overemphasis on music education causes softness, the two must be balanced.


D) MATHEMATICS
As a child grows older, or she should begin to learn mathematics, first
counting, then arithmetic, then plane geometry and finally solid geometry.
Mathematical skill is essential, says Socrates.
A person can hardly run a business or a country if one cannot tell the
difference between a large number of people, money or resources and a small
number. Furthermore a strong leader must be able to plan the dimensions of a
battlefield, and organise an army.

E) SCIENCE
Socrates explains that science, like mathematics, is necessary for the everyday
tasks of running a country. Being able to navigate ships or predict the weather
has practical applications, as does the practical sciences of engineering and
medicine.
But more importantly, science teaches children about the beauty of the world.
Socrates suggests that as the astronomy student witnesses the beauty of the
stars obeying their orbits, he learns much about how human action is beautiful
when in accord with true justice.

D) POETRY
Socrates was serious when he said that poetry has the power to touch the soul. But,
poetry must only imitate what is good, going beyond the petty troubles of men to the
eternal pursuit of justice and philosophy. For example, he used the poetic images of
the sun and the cave to educate his pupils. Socrates considered the poems by Hesiod
and Homer as containing not only falsehoods, but falsehoods held up as models of
good behaviour. The young cannot judge well what is true and false; since a view of
things taken on at early age is very hard to eradicate or change, it is necessary to
ensure that they hear only myths that encourage true virtue (378d6-e3).













2.2 LEARNING ACTIVITY
a) What is Socrates conception of education as illustrated
by the analogy of the cave?
b) What should be considered when introducing music and
gymnastic education to children?
c) Why did Socrates regard mathematics and science as
Important?
d) Why should one be cautious when introducing poetry
to children?


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TEACHING AND LEARNING


A) STORY TELLING
Socrates was a great advocate of telling
stories to children. He was critical of the content of
stories or tales told. He felt that the stories should
not show the Gods as being unjust for fear the
children will think it is acceptable and honourable to
do injustice. For example, stories should not show
the Gods fighting among themselves so that youths
will learn the importance of unity and will be less
inclined to fight amongst themselves when they are
adults. Also the stories told to children should state
that all that is good and just comes from the Gods
and bad things do not come from the Gods.
The stories told should glorify justice and
moderation. For example, with regards to justice,
children should grow up fearing slavery more than
death. With regards to moderation excessive
displays of grief and happiness or laughter in the
stories told to children was considered undesirable.
The stories should display obedience to superiors and restraint in drinking, eating,
sex, love of money and possessions. Tales must also show bravery in the face of
danger.
Most existing stories, Socrates claims, send inappropriate messages and must
be outlawed. They show unjust men as happy, just men as unhappy, injustice as
profitable, and justice as being someone else's good and one's own loss. If children are
surrounded by tales of goodness and never exposed to bad tales, they will learn to
love what they know (goodness and justice) and hate what they do not know
(injustice).

B) SOCRATIC QUESTIONING
Story:
Socrates was late in arriving at a meeting. This occasionally happened because he
would stop along the way, to reflect on his own thoughts. When he arrived, his host
Agathon invites Socrates to sit next to them because he wanted to share a thought that
came to him when Socrates entered the room. At which point Socrates replied











I only wish that wisdom were the kind of
thing one could share by sitting next to
someone if it flowed, for instance, from
the one that was full to the one that was
empty, like the water in two cups finding
its level through a piece of worsted
(Symposium, 175d).

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The Socratic method is to be distinguished therefore from the traditional
method of teaching, in which teachers seek to transmit their knowledge to their pupils,
who are expected to assimilate it on the whole passively. The Socratic method is an
interactive method in which teacher and pupil co-operate in the pursuit of knowledge
through dialogue. The Socratic method of teaching has often been characterised as a
maieutic method, or one in which the teacher assumes the role of a midwife.
Socrates argues that there is no such thing as teaching, only recollection (Meno, 82a)
and maintains that teachers should play the role of midwife in order to deliver their
pupils of the knowledge they unconsciously possess.
By subtly directing the discussion through questions, learners unchain
themselves and see the truth. He does not try to tell his students what to think, as
though he were putting "sight into blind eyes," but instead helps them turn around and
focus on what is important and true. He leads them toward the light by means of
questions until they are able to make an account of their knowledge for themselves
(511c-d). By presenting them with numerous different points of view, he teaches them
to look beyond convention and their long-held convictions, and be open to new,
foreign ideas. Never telling them what to think, Socrates helps them realise their own,
natural potential.
To illustrate his method of questioning, Socrates conducts an educational
experiment: by questioning a young slave, he leads him to self-discovery of the
solution to a relatively complicated problem in geometry (Meno, 82b85b). From this
experiment Socrates concludes as follows:














C) PLAY
Besides story telling and questioning, Socrates states that the best education should be
more like play than work. The play which he advocates, however, is not without
responsibility. Play must have serious intentions. Socrates says, "Don't use force in
training the children in the studies, but rather play (537a).










So a man who does not know has in himself true opinions on a
subject without having knowledge. This knowledge will not come
from teaching but from questioning. He will recover it for himself.
And the spontaneous recovery of knowledge that is in him is
recollection. If then there are going to exist in him, both while he is
and while he is not a man, true opinions which can be aroused by
questioning and turned into knowledge, may we say that his soul has
been forever in a state of knowledge? Clearly he always either is or
is not a man (Meno, 85c-d; 86a).


2.3 LEARNING ACTIVITY
a) What are the merits of story telling according to Socrates?
Do you agree?
b) Describe the Socratic questioning method? To what
extent would you be able to adopt the method in your
teaching and learning?
c) Why did Socrates advocate play?


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Plato (482 348 B.C.)


WHO IS PLATO?


Plato was born in 428 B.C. in Athens, Greece
and came from an aristocratic family whose father
was a descendent from the last king of Athens,
Codrus. He had two uncles who held important
positions in the government as law-maker and
statesman. Despite, having an ancestry, Plato did not
get into politics but instead wrote extensively on
politics and founded a science of politics.
As a child, Plato attended private school in
Athens and studied reading, writing and arithmetic.
He also memorised the works of Homer and other
Greek poets and learned to play the lyre. Later, Plato
wrote in Protagoras (326b), that playing the lyre and
memorising poetry as two skills to familiarise the
minds of children with the rhythms and melodies by
which they become more civilised, more balanced and better adjusted. He also
attended the gymnasium for physical training, which he wrote later that it was
important a person has a good mind and a good body to serve it (Protagoras 326b).
At the young age of 20, Plato became a disciple of Socrates and stood by his
master until his death in 399 B.C. Plato was traumatised by the death of Socrates;
after which he left Athens and travelled widely as far as Egypt, Libya and southern
Italy. After years of travel and study, Plato founded the Academy in his native Athens
in 387 B.C (see Figure 3.2). It became a famous hotbed of philosophical and scientific
discussion, and is regarded by many as the first known university in the world

PLATOS WORKS


Plato expressed his views in the form of 28 Dialogues and 13 Letters. Dialogue cover
a range of subject such as duty, courage, virtue, justice, beauty, science, nature of
humankind, kingship, rhetoric, legislation an so forth (see Figure 3.3). Plato identified
himself so closely with Socrates and wrote a great deal about the ideas of his master.
Oftentimes, it is difficult to make a distinction between the ideas of Socrates and
those of Plato. Platos writings have had a significant influence on all aspects of
Western philosophy and many aspects of its culture. Plato's text The Republic, in
which he lays out his ideas on the perfect state, remains a staple of college reading
lists around the world (see Figure 2.1).








Chapter 2: Socrates. Plato & Aristotle

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Figure 2.1 Platos famous works


THE ACADEMY


When Plato founded the Academy around 385 B.C. he was just over 40 years
old. He set up his establishment not far from Athens. The Academy is often described
as the first university in history which may not be exactly true. It resembled the
medieval universitas more than the modern university. It was a centre of study and
research, but nothing is known of the details of its organisation. It was more of a
scientific community than a school.


















Figure 2.2 The Academy

Plato at the Academy founded Ruins of the Academy
founded in 387 BC

Chapter 2: Socrates. Plato & Aristotle

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Teachers and pupils lived
there in a community atmosphere
that was enhanced by a dialectical
method of teaching, in which
doctrinal presentations are followed
by discussion. Plato remained head
of the Academy for the rest of his
life. This meant that for some 40
years he was the driving force and
principal teacher of this intellectual
centre of Ancient Greece. The
Academy remained open until A.D.
529, that is, for almost 900 years
after Platos death.
Politics, the main subject of the Academy, was studied and taught on a regular
basis. The Academy owned a collection of the written constitutions of a large number
of states. Politicians, statesmen and specialists in constitutional law were educated at
the Academy; and the long list of its disciples who were called upon to act as political
and legal consultants in the Greek states is a good indicator of the extent of its
influence.

POLICY AND GOALS OF EDUCATION


THE CAVE ALLEGORY




Figure 2.3 The Story of the Cave

The story is about a group of prisoners chained together in a cave from birth
facing a wall (see Figure 2.1). In front of the prisoners is a wall and behind them is a
Chapter 2: Socrates. Plato & Aristotle

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fire which puppet-masters create shapes and figures which cast shadows onto the wall
in front of the prisoners. Because they know nothing else, the prisoners assume the
shadows to be the extent of reality not knowing that what they see and hear is actually
only a small segment of the real world.
One day a prisoner breaks the chains and escapes and gets out of the cave. He
returns to tell the other prisoners but they shunned him when he told them what he
saw outside. They did not believe him because all they had ever known is the cave
and the shadows cast on the wall. They refused to accept what he said and continued
to live in the cave. The story was originally written by Plato to demonstrate what had
happened to his teacher, Socrates. It is a metaphor for the ignorance of the people to
kill someone who thinks outside the cave.

Using the cave analogy, Plato suggests that:
Education should people from their false opinions and convictions, as opposed
to chaining them within the cave as did their earlier education.
The sun is seen as the truth which should be sought, possessed and understood
by humans. Education should seek to free the prisoners from their false
opinions and convictions.
Students should come to the truth on their own rather than by force.
All humans have within them the ability to know, but it should be focused on
knowing the truth.
Education should seek to teach children how to distinguish right from wrong
by showing the whole truth.
What one is born with is not as important but rather how a person is educated
to be somebody with the right training.
One should not selfishly stay outside of the cave; instead, the educated must
return to the cave to enlighten others.
Socrates still prefers that his students do not simply accept the truth, but come
to it on their own.

EDUCATION POLICY


Plato developed his concept of educational policy in his two largest works, the
Republic and the Laws. In the Republic Plato developed his concept of the ideal state,
which embodied justice. It was a sort of Utopia in which its inhabitants were divided
into four distinct classes:
o Philosopher-King head of the state
o Guardian responsible for the security and administration of
the state
o Craftsmen and Merchants
o Slaves

The aim of education is not personal growth but service of the state, which is
the guarantor of the happiness of its citizens for as long as they allow it to be
the embodiment of justice.

Chapter 2: Socrates. Plato & Aristotle

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One of the tasks of education in the Platonic state is to preserve the status quo.
All innovation is taboo. Contrary to most modern educational principles,
education must stand guard against all change and all forms of subversion.

The guardians must devote themselves entirely to the service of the state. They
may not possess material riches (which give rise to jealousy and conflict); they
may not indulge in frivolities (which could compromise their integrity); nor
may they entertain private ambitions.

Despite his extreme conservatism, however, Plato had some highly innovative
ideas. For example, he espoused equality of the sexes at a time when women,
were confined to the household. In the Platonic state girls, like boys, do their
gymnastics in the nude and are expected to go to war clad in the same armour
as the men. They share the boys education, with no discrimination between
them.

Plato prescribes compulsory education for all in the guardian class.
Compulsory schooling goes far beyond an elementary education; yet Plato has
very little to say about the education of craftsworkers and merchants, which
consists of no more than a simple apprenticeship, and slaves received no
mention at all.

Plato, indeed, was the first to formulate a complete education system, covering
every aspect from its administration to a detailed curriculum. In the Laws
Plato describes how education should be organized and administered.

The whole education system should be headed by a Supervisor of Education,
who would supervise all aspects of education for children of both sexes. He
should be a man of not less than 50 years, and the father of a legitimate family,
preferably of both sexes.

The Superintendent will have working under him superintendents of
gymnasiums and schools in charge of their attendances and accommodation
for children of both sexes, together with judges of performers contending in
both musical and athletic competitions (Laws, 764c-d).














2.4 LEARNING ACTIVITY
a) What is Platos conception of education as illustrated
in his books?
b) What is The Academy?
c) c) Describe the education system proposed by Plato.
d) d) What is the meaning of the analogy of the cave?




Chapter 2: Socrates. Plato & Aristotle

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CURRICULUM


Plato proposed the following for the curriculum:

MUSIC AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION
Since the health and beauty of both body and mind are essential goals of Platonic
education, in keeping with Greek custom, is divided into two parts: gymnastics and
music (i.e. culture). Physical education begins before birth. Pregnant women are
advised to walk around and move about as much as possible, for every sort of
movement is important to the unborn infant.

MATHEMATICS AND ASTRONOMY
Special stress is next placed on the study of the four disciplines that prepare the
student for philosophy: arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and harmony.
Mathematicsarithmetic and geometryliberate the mind from sensation,
familiarize it with the world of pure thought and turn the soul towards the
heights of the world of ideas.
Astronomy initiates the soul to the order and immutable harmony of the
cosmos.

PRE-SCHOOL
Pre-school education is the responsibility of parents who are to treat children with
careful discipline, because spoiling of children makes their tempers fretful, peevish
and easily upset by mere trifles. On the contrary treating children with severe
discipline makes them spiritless, servile, and sullen, renders them unfit for domestic
and civic life (Laws, 791c).

CULTURE
The teaching of culture begins very early on, through the stories parents tell their
children. Plato attaches the greatest importance to the content of these stories, for first
impressions shape the still malleable minds of children and determine their character.
Consequently, such stories must pass the censors scrutiny. Plato places a strong and
oft repeated stress on censorship, not sparing even Homer.

GAMES
Next to stories, games should contribute to the education of children. He who is to be
good at anything as a man must practise that thing from early childhood, in play as
well as in earnest [...] Thus, if a boy is to be a good [...] builder, he should play [...] at
building toy houses ... (Laws, 643b)


SCHOOL SYSTEM
From the ages of 3 to 6 children should play together under the supervision of
women assigned to that task.
Children enter school at the age of 6. They first learn to read, write and count.
For reading and writing three years or so, from the age of 10, are a fair
allowance of a boys time, and if the handling of the lyre is begun at 13, the
three following years are long enough to spend on it.
Chapter 2: Socrates. Plato & Aristotle

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At the age of 18, at the end of this basic education period during which they
will have undergone many contests and examinations of all sorts, young
peopleboth boys and girlsare required to devote themselves exclusively
for a period of two to three years to physical and military training.
At the age of 21 pupils selected on the basis of their past performance go on to
higher studies. It is this level of studies, which leads to philosophy.
At the age of 30, and not before, Platos students finally begin to study
philosophy or dialectics. After pursuing this course for five years they must
return and serve for 15 years in the army and the civil service, where they are
constantly put to the test.
At the age of 50 those they will then devote the rest of their lives alternately to
philosophy and public life.
When they retire, these state officials will have the leisure time to devote
themselves entirely to the delights of philosophythis being their sole reward.

































2.5 LEARNING ACTIVITY

a) What subjects should student learn?
b) Describe Platos school system.
c) How should young children be educated?




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WHO IS ARISTOTLE?



Aristotle is better known for his views on the
sciences and logic but less on education. At the age of 18
he entered one of the most renowned centres of learning,
Platos Academy. He became noted for the passion with
reading and was nicknamed reader. He built a library
which served as a model for the libraries of Alexandria
and Pergamon. He openly and passionately criticised the
doctrines of Plato, his master. Plato reportedly
commented: Aristotle has kicked me just as a colt kicks it
mother. After Platos death, Aristotle left Athens for
Assos in Asia Minor and three years later settled at
Mytilini on the island of Lesbos. There he engaged in
many types of research, particularly in biology.
Aristotle devoted much of his time to teaching as to
research. He is the prototype of the professor. In 342, at
the age of 41, he was invited by Philip of Macedon to his
court to become the tutor of the young Alexander who later became Alexander the
Great. In 334 Aristotle returned to Athens and established his own school, the
Lyceum (see Figure 2.4). This was a type of university where research was pursued as
an extension of higher education. Courses for the enrolled students were held in the
morning, while the school was probably open in the afternoon to a wider public and
thus performed the function of an open university. It seems that Aristotle entrusted the
running of the Lyceum to the various members of the teaching staff in turn, each
assuming this responsibility for ten days at a time.















Aristotle teaching at the Lyceum Excavated ruins of the Lyceum

Figure 2.4 The Lyceum



Aristotle
(384-322 B.C.)

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The two most famous books Aristotle wrote were (see Figure 2.5):
Politics
The Nichomachean Ethics













Figure 2.5 Famous writings of Aristotle


GOALS OF EDUCATION


According to Aristotle, the goal of education is identical with the goal of man
and all forms of education are directed towards the human ideal. Education is
essential for the complete self-realisation of man, that is; to be a happy man. For
Aristotle, the happy man is an educated man who is virtuous. Virtue is acquired
through education. In this book, The Nichomachean Ethics, Aristotle asks Whether
happiness is to be acquired by learning or by habituation or some other sort of
training, or divine providence or by chance?. He answers the question by stating that
happiness is acquired by virtuous activities.












Figure 2.6 What makes a human being good?



What makes a
human being good?
Nature
Habit
Rationality
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The Good Human Being and Happiness
In Book VII of the Politics, Aristotle argues that three things make men good
and virtuous: Nature, Habit and Rationality (see Figure 2.6). A human being is born
(nature) with certain qualities but habit can change the person to be good or bad. But
humans possess rationality and he or she can decide whether to be good or bad.
Animals on the other hand are mostly guided by nature, though some are to a small
extent influenced by habit as well.
Hence, nature, habit and rationality must be brought in harmony with one
another. Humans have a tendency to act contrary to habit and nature when he or she is
persuaded (rationality) to do so. When one is born, one possesses certain natural gifts
such as a healthy body, intelligence and a natural disposition towards virtue. But these
are not enough. It is only through education that a person can be good or virtuous
which will lead to happiness.
Some things are learned by habit and others by education and training.
Happiness depends on leisure. Hence, and one of the goals of education is education
for leisure. But, leisure should not be confused with idleness or not doing anything. It
is the ability to know how to use ones time freely.
The ultimate goal of education is freedom, for happiness is impossible without
education. The freedom Aristotle was talking about is achieved through
contemplation or the philosophical life. It is only through such acts that the mind is
relieved of all material constraints. Through leisure, which is an indication of
freedom, education should lead to mans ultimate goal, an intellectual life rooted in
the mind. That is the true business of man which it is the function of education to
teach. And man can only learn it through education. It is this form of freedom that
leads to wisdom: a life devoted to philosophy and contemplation that is true
happiness.










EDUCATION SYSTEM AND POLICY


Aristotle wrote a great deal about his conception of an ideal education system.
Unfortunately, only a small part of what he wrote has survived and so many questions
are left unanswered.

A) PRE-SCHOOL
Pre-School is the responsibility of the parents and interestingly Aristotle
suggested that it should be the main responsibility of the father because he is
responsible for the existence of his children, which is thought the greatest
good, and for their nurture and upbringing (Nichomachean Ethics, VIII, 13,
1161 a 17-18).
2.6 LEARNING ACTIVITY
a) Briefly discuss the autobiography of Aristotle
b) According to Aristotle, education should aim for the
happiness of the human being. Discuss.
c) What makes a human being good?

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He even suggested that during pregnancy pregnant women also must take
care of their bodies and they should take exercise and eat nourishing food
and keep their minds as tranquil as possible (Politics, VII, 16, 1335 b 12).
Children must exercise their bodies and become accustomed to the cold from
their earliest years. Up to the age of 5 they should be trained through games,
but they must not be vulgar or exhausting or effeminate (Politics, VII, 16,
1335 a 28).
Children should not be exposed to indecent language and improper pictures
which should be banned.
Between 5 to 7 years of age, children are required to observe lessons which
they will learn later.


B) SCHOOL
Children enter schools at the age of 7 and continue schooling until the age of
21.
It is divided into three periods of three years each. Unfortunately, there is a
lack of information on details of the three periods.

C) LIFELONG LEARNING











The statement above states clearly Aristotles commitment to lifelong learner.
This view was also shared by Plato who argued that education should not be
limited to youth. It should be a comprehensive process involving the whole
human being and lasting a lifetime.


D) DEMOCRATISATION OF EDUCATION
Aristotle believed strongly that education was the responsibility of the state so
that it did not become the exclusive right of a few. However, in the system
proposed by Aristotle, there was no access to children of agriculturalists,
artisans or retail traders. As for slaves, they are not considered as complete
human beings in any case. But it seems probable that Aristotle prescribed
some sort of vocational training for children of tradesmen as he often referred
to the importance of a good apprenticeship for the proper practice of a trade.
An in certain conditions, he even prescribed a form of education for slaves
because education shapes character.
In Aristotles view, women are not equal to men. They are destined to obey
and are therefore not free. Their bodily and moral virtues are not the same as
those of men. The education for girls remains an open. However, the
But it is surely not enough that when they are young they should get
the right nurture and attention: since they must, even when they are
grown up, practice and be habituated to them, we shall need laws for
this as well, and generally speaking to cover the whole of life
Nichomachean Ethics, X, 10, 1180 a 1-4.
Chapter 2: Socrates. Plato & Aristotle

18

community should make an effort to develop the physical and moral qualities
of both boys and girls. It thus seems that Aristotle also envisaged public
education for girls.











CURRICULUM


What should be taught? Aristotle indicated his preference for the subjects that should
be taught but he did not provide details (writings may have been lost). In general,
young people should be taught such useful acquirements as are really necessary
(Politics, VIII, 2, 1337 b 5). What did he mean by useful acquirements? According
to Aristotle, useful acquirements are subjects such as grammar, mathematics
(especially geometry), drawing, science, moral education, music and physical
training. Interestingly, manual work or anything that could lead to paid work was
described as menial. Also, young people should be taught to fill their leisure time
nobly. The following is a quote on what should be taught:











In Politics he elaborated his ideas on physical training and above all on music.
However, there is lack of information on the other subject. There is evidence to
suggest that he saw the importance of language and perhaps literature considering that
he prepared a commentary on the Iliad for the young Alexander and that his texts
contain several literary references.


A) MUSIC EDUCATION
In Book VIII of the Politics, Aristotle emphasised that music education should
be introduced only if it is for the sake of improving oneself. It is a means of
influencing moral character. He objected to the learning of music in which the
student entertains an audience which should be left to hired musicians. He stated that
There are branches of learning and education which must be
studied simply with a view to leisure spent in cultivating the
mind. It is likewise clear that these studies are to be valued for
their own sake, while those pursued for the sake of an
occupation must be looked upon as no more than necessary
means to other ends (Politics, VIII, 1338 a 10-13).

2.7 LEARNING ACTIVITY
a) What were Aristotles views on pre-school?
b) What evidence is there to suggest that Aristotle advocated
lifelong learning?
c) To what extent would you agree that Aristotle supported
democratisation of education?

Chapter 2: Socrates. Plato & Aristotle

19

neither the flute nor any other
instrument requiring abnormal skill
should be made part of the curriculum
(Politics, VIII, 6, 1341 a 17).
However, emphasis should be on
good music because certain melodies
and rhythms are harmful to character.
Aristotle expressed his preference for
music that was solemn. He also stated
that music education was of great value
because it taught students listening skills
as well brings them pleasure.


B) PHYSICAL EDUCATION
Physical education or physical training is important to keep the body healthy. But the
training should not be too rigorous or brutal. For Aristotle physical training is not
simply a matter for the body; it must also help to form character. The purpose of
physical training is not to produce champions but rather to bring pleasure.

TEACHING AND LEARNING ACCORDING TO ARISTOTLE


Students should not be asked to do more than their ability permits. For
example, students should be taught political science as they are too young and do not
have practical experience in the subject. It is important to take into account the level
of intellectual development of students as not all of them have equal abilities of
reasoning. In other words, education should be limited to what is appropriate for
students, taking into account their age, character, and so on.
According to Aristotle, teaching should emphasise reasoning and is
characterised by TWO methods:
Induction (Epagoge) it is a form of teaching which proceeds from example,
cases, principle, experiences to an understanding of the concepts, principles,
causes; i.e. from the examples to the universals.
Demonstration it is a form of teaching which proceeds from the concept,
principles to the examples; i.e. from the universals to the examples. Subject
such as mathematics, physics and theology are chiefly taught by
demonstration by means of syllogisms. The following is an example of a
syllogism:







Aristotle further suggested that teaching and learning should emphasise
habit. Habit does not mean that students merely repeat what is learned but rather to
actively involved. He stated that for things we have to learn before we can do them,
we learn by doing them, e.g. men become builders by building and lyre-players by
Socrates is a man
All men will die.
Socrates will die.
Figure 2.6 A student learning the
lyre in ancient Greece

Chapter 2: Socrates. Plato & Aristotle

20

playing the lyre (Nichomachean Ethics, II, 1, 1103 b 1-2). In moral education we
become just by doing just acts, temperate by doing temperate acts, brave by doing
brave acts Nichomachean Ethics, II, 1, 1103 b 1-2). In other words, students are not
passive but are actively involved in the teaching and learning process.
Complementing education by habit is education through reason. Education through
reason is when students understand the causes of things. Men of experience know
that a thing is, but they do not know why it is, whereas men of learning know the
reason and the cause (Metaphysics, A, 1, 981 a 28-29).












REFERENCES


Benson, Hugh C., 2000 Socratic Wisdom. New York: Oxford University Press
Dillon, A. (2004). Education in Plato's Republic. Paper presented at the Santa Clara
University Student Ethics Research Conference May 26, 2004
Hummel, C. (1994). Plato. PROSPECTS: the quarterly review of education (Paris,
UNESCO: International Bureau of Education), vol. 24, no. 1/2, 1994, p. 32942.


Hummel, C. (1993). PROSPECTS: the quarterly review of comparative education.
(Paris, UNESCO: International Bureau of Education), vol. 23, no. 1/2, 1993, p. 39-51.

Grube, G. M. A. Platos Republic. Indianapolis, Hackett, 1986.


Ross, W. (1954). the Nichomachean Ethics are from the translation by Sir in `The
World Classics series, London, Oxford University Press.

Warrington. J. (1959). Politics are taken from the translation by for Everymans
Library, London, Dent & Sons,

LEARNING ACTIVITY
a) What were Aristotles views on music and physical
education?
b) Differentiate between the two methods of teaching
suggested by Aristotle.
c) Have you used the two methods in your teaching?
democratisation of education?