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Wednesday, 24 October 2012
How Translucent Concrete Works
by Chris Opfer
Source: http://home.howstuffworks.com/home-improvement/construction/materials/translucent-
concrete.htm

Browse the article How Translucent Concrete Works

Image Gallery: Home Construction

Translucent concrete lines this interior of the Bank of Georgia building in Tbilisi, Georgia. Though the
lights are off, the room still appears luminous. See more home construction pictures.
LUCEM
How Translucent Concrete Works
No sun will shine in my day today;
The high yellow moon won't come out to play:
I said darkness has covered my light,
And has changed my day into night, yeah
Bob Marley, "Concrete Jungle"
Slum life, political strife, an absentee father; there's little that could keep reggae superstar and eternal
optimist Bob Marley down. That is, of course, except for a lack of sunlight. While Marley's short stint as
a factory worker yielded this gloomy look at life surrounded by concrete, the traditionally dim building
blocks are getting a makeover designed to finally let some light shine in.
Translucent concrete isn't exactly "see-through," but the new building material draws on optical fibers
to transmit light through it while retaining the density that has literally made concrete the cornerstone
of buildings around the world [source: Litracon].
The fiber strands, which attract and transmit both natural and artificial light, make up about 5 percent of
a translucent concrete block's surface volume. The fibers are mixed with traditional concrete
components -- water, sand and cement -- and are distributed evenly throughout the surface. Through
the resulting translucent panels, a viewer can clearly see the outline of an object on the opposite side of
the concrete. Despite this clarity, however, translucent concrete retains its stout, crack resistant, load-
bearing quality [sources: Kim, Portland Cement Association]
The light transmitting material is largely believed to have been invented by Hungarian architect Aron
Losonczi, who began developing pre-fabricated translucent concrete blocks he called LiTraCon (light
transmitting concrete) in 2004, just three years after graduating from Budapest's Technical University.
Here, the manufacturer hand-molds large pieces of concrete, embedding thousands of strands of optic
fiber in the material at the same time. The concrete is then cut into individual blocks (the smallest are
about 48 x 14 inches, or 1.22 x .35 meters). The parallel fiber strands create two distinct grain-type
surfaces: one bright and the other dark [sources: Litracon, Graydon, Hanlon].
Now you know what translucent concrete is, but how -- exactly -- is it used? Read on to find out.

Another example of translucent concrete.
LUCEM
How is Translucent Concrete Used?
Drab, dull and depressing, concrete has long been associated with penitentiary-like office buildings, ugly
patios and unfinished basements. With its light-transmitting properties, however, translucent concrete
has the power to potentially transform the interior of concrete buildings, making them appear fresh,
open and spacious. While the glass and plastic fibers imbedded in the material make it cost-prohibitive
in many large-scale construction projects, LiTraCon and other types of light transmitting concrete are
finding their way into a smattering of structures around the globe [sources: Inventables, Hanlon].
Since its development, translucent concrete has been used to create partition walls, stairs, decorative
tiles and even lamps. One of LiTraCon's first public uses, for example, was in a public square in
Stockholm, Sweden. By day, the square's sidewalk looks as though it were made of ordinary concrete,
but the translucent surface lights up at night when the colored lights beneath the surface illuminate
[sources: Inventables, Portland Cement Association]. Meanwhile over in eastern Europe, the newly
renovated Bank of Georgia headquarters building features almost 300 square meters (3,229 square feet)
of translucent concrete made by German manufacturer LUCEM, including LED-lit wall panels [sources:
Lucem, Kim].
While translucent concrete is one of the most interesting new takes on the historically stiff and
uninspiring building material, it's not the only one. In 2005, Michigan's Department of Transportation
used "bendable" concrete to retrofit a bridge in Ypsilanti. Featuring coated fibers that slide within the
cement, this reinforced building material is 500 times more resistant to cracks and about 40 percent
lighter than traditional concrete. At the same time, manufacturers have also developed "self-
reinforcing" concrete, which draws on steel fibers to make the material more resistant to cracks and
bridge those that occur [sources: Hanlon, Rao].
Concrete: It bends, fixes its own breaks and now it even lets some light in. Check out the links on the
next page for more information on concrete, how it works and how it can be used.
Author's Note
It's no small miracle that in my 30-plus years on this planet I've yet to walk into a closed glass or screen
door. I am, according to many who know me, a "dreamer." Or, according to some of the women I've
dated, "aloof." Either way, I'm often lost in my own thoughts, whether it be walking down the street
without a clue of my original destination or at a candle-lit dinner vaguely suspecting that the person
across from me just said something deep and compelling, but having not the faintest idea as to what it
was. So while I enjoy a hearty laugh at any unsuspecting dufus who -- so excited about being the first
person to the barbecue -- doesn't realize that semi-transparent door in front of him is closed before
walking into it, I also realize that it is only a matter of time until I am that dufus. Now that we have
translucent concrete to look forward to, my oblivion may be a bit more painful.
Related Articles
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Ultimate Guide to Concrete Countertops
How Concrete Roofs Work
Concrete Pavers for Patio
Green Concrete
How Fluid Concrete Works
Sources
Graydon, Oliver. "Concrete casts new light in dull rooms." Optics.org. March 11, 2004 (April 6, 2012)
http://optics.org/article/19184
Hanlon, Mike. "Bendable Concrete." Gizmag. May 6, 2005. (April 6, 2012)
http://www.gizmag.com/go/4019/
Hanlon, Mike. "Heavyweight transparency - Light Transmitting Concrete." Gizmag. Jan. 26, 2005. (April 6,
2012) http://www.gizmag.com/go/5093/
Inventables. "Translucent Concrete." (April 6, 2012)
https://www.inventables.com/technologies/translucent-concrete
Kim, Sun Joo. "Concrete you can see through." SmartPlanet. Oct. 24, 2011 (April 6, 2012)
http://www.smartplanet.com/blog/design-architecture/concrete-you-can-see-
through/1366?tag=content;siu-container
Kim, Sun Joo. "The Bank of Georgia's translucent concrete lined headquarters." SmartPlanet. Feb. 22,
2012 (April 6, 2012).
http://www.smartplanet.com/blog/design-architecture/the-bank-of-georgias-translucent-concrete-
lined-headquarters/4385
Litracon. "LiTraCon." (April 6, 2012) http://www.litracon.hu/product.php?id=7
Lucem. "Nbank of Beorgia, Tbilisi." (April 6, 2012) http://www.lucem.de/index.php?id=215&L=1
Portland Cement Association. "Casting Concrete in a Decorative Light." (April 6, 2012)
http://www.cement.org/decorative/translucent.asp
Rao, B. Krishna. "Steel Fiber Reinforced Self-Compacting Concrete Incorporating Class F Fly Ash."
International Journal of Engineering Science and Technology. 2010 (April 6, 2012)
http://www.ijest.info/docs/IJEST10-02-09-85.pdf

Posted by Syazli Fathi at 21:32 2 comments:
NEW MATERIALS IN CONSTRUCTION (CONCRETE)
Sunday, 19 February 2012
Source: http://constructionduniya.blogspot.com/2012/02/new-materials-in-construction-concrete.html
The development and application of new materials in construction continually adds to the choices and
decisions facing clients, designers and all responsible for building and construction. They continually
seek greater and more reliable information about the serviceability in order that they meet more
stringent design, safety and economic criteria.
Ever since Thomas Edison patented portland cement in 1907, it has been used for a variety of different
uses. Sidewalks, buildings, sinks, and furniture are but a few of the products made from cement in the
form of concrete. Cement is the dry powder that when mixed with other additives and water makes
concrete. Over the past decade, new types of concrete and cement have been formulated that do
everything from bend, to grow plants, and let light through.
In 2005, researchers at the University of Michigan created a bendable form of concrete that is "500
times more resistant to cracking and 40 percent lighter in weight." This new type of concrete has
substituted the gross aggregate normally used in the making of concrete, for thin fibers. Projects in
Japan, Korea, Switzerland, and Australia have already used this new bendable concrete. Unfortunately,
the country in which it was created has been slow to adopt its use.
BETO ORGNICO was created in 2005 by "Lisbon-based architects and designers e-studio." This
organic concrete blends organic and inorganic material together to create a living surface. Concrete
retains water, as such the concrete is used as a "battery" to provide water during dry spells for the plant
life growing on it. Rather than having grass growing between concrete slabs, it is now possible to have
the grass grow on the concrete slabs. These slabs could be added to outside walls to create living siding
and provide plants to soak up CO2.
LiTraCon is a Hungarian concrete product developed seven years ago by architect Ron Losonczi. By
impregnating the concrete with optical glass fibers, light can be transmitted from the outside in or inside
out. This concrete has the same strength as regular concrete and will continue to transmit light through
walls up to twenty meters (twenty-two feet) thick.
Finally, Tececo has developed an eco-cement that absorbs CO2 from the environment. By adding
reactive magnesia to the cement, water and CO2 are absorbed and harden. Other waste products, such
as "fly and bottom ash, slags, plastics, paper glass etc" can also be added to the cement without
affecting the CO2 absorption.
These new types of cement and concrete give architects and designers more choices for creating truly
different looks. Normally, you think of ugly concrete walls or slabs. Now concrete can not only be bent,
but used as a basis for plants and light effects.

Development of new types of concrete with improved performance is a very important issue for the
whole building industry. This development is based on the optimisation of the concrete mix design, with
an emphasis not only to the workability and mechanical properties but also to the durability and the
reliability of the concrete structures in general. Appearance of the new types of concrete requires a
revision and improvement of existing structural systems and actual building technologies. The
economical aspect are of importance as well.

BASIC CONCEPT ABOUT CONCRETE
Concrete is a construction material composed of cement (commonly Portland cement) as well as other
cementitious materials such as fly ash and slag cement, aggregate (generally a coarse aggregate such as
gravel limestone or granite, plus a fine aggregate such as sand), water, and chemical admixtures. The
word concrete comes from the Latin word "concretus", which means "hardened" or "hard".
Concrete solidifies and hardens after mixing with water and placement due to a chemical process known
as hydration. The water reacts with the cement, which bonds the other components together,
eventually creating a stone-like material. Concrete is used to make pavements, architectural structures,
foundations, motorways/roads, bridges/overpasses, parking structures, brick/block walls and footings
for gates, fences and poles.
More concrete is used than any other man-made material in the world.[1] As of 2006, about 7 cubic
kilometres of concrete are made each yearmore than one cubic metre for every person on Earth.[2]
Concrete powers a $US 35-billion industry which employs more than two million workers in the United
States alone.[citation needed] More than 55,000 miles (89,000 km) of highways in America are paved
with this material. The People's Republic of China currently consumes 40% of the world's
cement/concrete production.

A superplasticizer is one of a class of admixtures called water-reducers that are used to lower the mix
water requirement of concrete. Normal water-reducers based on lignosulphonic acids,
hydroxycarboxylic acids or processed carbohydrates are capable of reducing water requirements by
about 10 to 15 per cent. Incorporating larger amounts to produce higher water reductions results in
undesirable effects on setting, air content, bleeding, segregation and hardening characteristics.
Superplasticizers are chemically different from normal water-reducers, and are capable of reducing
water contents by about 30 per cent. They are variously known as superplasticizers, superfluidizers,
superfluidifiers, super water-reducers or high range water-reducers. Since they were first introduced in
Japan about 15 years ago they have been used to produce several million cubic metres of concrete; in
the construction of the Olympic stadium in Montreal alone, 5000 precast concrete units were produced
utilizing superplasticizers.
The basic advantages of superplasticizers include, (1) high workability of concrete, resulting in easy
placement without reduction in cement content and strength; (2) high strength concrete with normal
workability but lower water content; and (3) a concrete mix with less cement but normal strength and
workability.
Superplasticizers are broadly classified in four groups, viz, sulphonated melamine-formaldehyde
condensates (SMF), sulphonated naphthalene-formaldehyde condensates (SNF), modified
lignosulphonates (MLS), and others including sulphonic acid esters, carbohydrate esters, etc. variations
exist in each of these classes and some formulations may contain a second ingredient. Most available
data, however, pertain to SMF- and SNF-based admixtures. They are supplied either as solids or as
aqueous solutions. In this Digest the dosage refers to the solid as a percentage of the weight of cement.

TYPES OF CONCRETE

Ever since Thomas Edison patented Portland cement in 1907, it has been used for a variety of different
uses. Sidewalks, buildings, sinks, and furniture are but a few of the products made from cement in the
form of concrete. Cement is the dry powder that when mixed with other additives and water makes
concrete. Over the past decade, new types of concrete and cement have been formulated that do
everything from bend, to grow plants, and let light through.

BENDABLE CONCRETE :

The new concrete is 500 times more resistant to cracking and 40 percent lighter in weight. The
materials in the concrete itself are designed for maximum flexibility. The Engineered Cement
Composites technology has been used already on projects in Japan, Korea, Switzerland and Australia,
but has had slow adoption in the US. Traditional concrete presents many problems: lack of durability
and sustainability, failure under severe loading, and the resulting expenses of repair. ECC should address
most of those problems. The ductile, or bendable, concrete is made mainly of the same ingredients in
regular concrete minus the coarse aggregate. It looks exactly like regular concrete, but under excessive
strain, the ECC concrete gives because the network of fibers veining the cement is allowed to slide
within the cement, thus avoiding the inflexibility that causes brittleness and breakage.
The Michigan Department of Transportation (MDOT) used the ECC to replace part of a bridge
that crosses Interstate 94. The slab eliminated the need for expansion joints, which are moveable steel
teeth that separate sections of regular concrete. With the ECC, a longer continuous slab is possible.
The Mihara Bridge, a new structure in Hokkaido, Japan, has a deck of ECC that is a mere 2 inches
(5 centimeters) thick.
Studies suggest ECC should last twice as long as regular concrete, but the researchers said more
tests are needed to confirm that claim. Professor Victor Li estimates that over the course of 60 years,
with servicing and replacement costs considered, a bridge made of ECC could be cost 37 percent less
than a traditional span.







LITRACON :

LiTraCon ("light transmitting concrete") is a translucent concrete building material made of fine
concrete embedded with 5% by weight of optical glass fibers. It was developed in 2001 by Hungarian
architect Aron Losonczi working with scientists at the Technical University of Budapest.
The days of dull, grey concrete could be about to end. The Hungarian architect has combined
the world's most popular building material with optical fibre from Schott to create a new type of
concrete that transmits light.
A wall made of "LitraCon" allegedly has the strength of traditional concrete and an embedded
array of glass fibers that can display a view of the outside world, such as the silhouette of a tree, for
example. Thousands of optical glass fibres form a matrix and run parallel to each other between the two
main surfaces of every block. Shadows on the lighter side will appear with sharp outlines on the darker
one. Even the colours remain the same. This special effect creates the general impression that the
thickness and weight of a concrete wall will disappear. The hope is that the new material will transform
the interior appearance of concrete buildings by making them feel light and airy rather than dark and
heavy.
In theory, a wall structure built out of the light-transmitting concrete can be a couple of meters
thick as the fibers work without any loss in light up to 20 m. Load-bearing structures can also be built
from the blocks as glass fibers do not have a negative effect on the well-known high compressive
strength of concrete. The blocks can be produced in various sizes with embedded heat isolation too.
Thousands of optical glass fibers form a matrix and run parallel to each other between the two main
surfaces of each block. The proportion of the fibers is very small (4%) compared to the total volume of
the blocks. Moreover, these fibres mingle in the concrete because of their insignificant size, and they
become a structural component as a kind of modest aggregate. Therefore, the surface of blocks remains
homogeneous concrete. It can be produced as prefabricated building blocks and panels. Due to the
small size of the fibers, they blend into concrete becoming a component of the material like small pieces
of aggregates. In this manner, the result is not only two materials- glass in concrete- mixed, but a third
new material which is homogeneous in its inner structure and on its main surfaces as well.
The glass fibers lead light by points between the two sides of the blocks. Because of their
parallel position, the light-information on the brighter side of such a wall appears unchanged on the
darker side. The most interesting form of this phenomenon is probably the sharp display of shadows on
the opposing side of the wall.
If more and more buildings begin using this technology, more natural light can be used to light
offices and stores. This could lead to huge drops in the amount of electricity used to light buildings, since
they'd be naturally lit during the day. Also, people who get exposure to the sun are generally happier
and more productive, so that is another reason for businesses to use this light-transmitting concrete.







TECECO (porecocrete porous concrete) :
One particular eco-friendly product that is generating much attention is - Porecocrete Porous
Concrete from Asset Rehabilitation / TecEco. By adding reactive magnesia to the cement, water and CO2
are absorbed and harden. Other waste products, such as "fly and bottom ash, slag, plastics, paper glass
etc" can also be added to the cement without affecting the CO2 absorption. TecEco porecocretes
represent a large-scale market for eco-cement. Porecocrete porous pavements mimic nature. Eco-
cement sets by absorbing carbon dioxide, as by design it allows the entry of abundant quantities of the
gas through what is an open pore structure. Using recycled aggregates, concrete cannot get much more
sustainable. The main potential use for porecocretes is to make porous pavement in cities so that
people are less affected by drought. These are pavements with lots of holes in them, and with
subsurface drainage and usually a capacity to store water underneath or in a reservoir. Surface runoff
water either soaks into an aquifer in suitable terrain or is captured above an impervious layer and
drained preferably to underground storage for further use. Before infiltrating into the subsoil or sub-
surface drainage the process improves water quality by providing surface area and aerobic conditions
for cleansing. Some of the main advantages of Porecocrete Porous Concrete are that water penetrates
through quickly leaving drier and safer surfaces with no standing water, and a reduction in noise
pollution as porous pavements also absorb noise. Then it leads to less maintenance on nearby buildings
and superstructure, as aquifers would be more regularly replenished resulting in less variable ground
moisture content, reduced ground movement with wet dry cycles. Porous pavements made with TecEco
Eco-Cements would not be attacked by salts and would last considerably longer than conventional
binders such as bitumen (or asphalt) and Portland cement.
Heat is absorbed by pavements during hot, sunny days and due to the fact that we have paved all the
ground, large cities just get hotter and hotter. The solution is to let the ground breathe and porous
pavements do just that.
In Australia, some parts of the US and several other places in the world, it has been noted that
subdivisions made with porous pavements that also have street trees can be several degrees cooler than
surrounding suburbs.
How do Eco-Cements Work?
Eco-Cements are made by blending reactive magnesia with conventional hydraulic cements like Portland
cement. It is not recommended that large amounts of pozzolan are added to an Eco-Cement as the
pozzolan will compete with the carbonation reaction of lime and tend to block the carbonation affect
slowing it down. Eco-Cements are environmentally friendly because in permeable substrates the
magnesium oxide will first hydrate using mix water and then carbonate forming significant amounts of
strength giving minerals in a low alkali matrix. Many different wastes can be used as aggregates and
fillers without reaction problems. The reactive magnesium oxide used in Eco-Cements is currently made
from magnesite (a carbonate compound of magnesium) found in abundance. In future TecEco hope to
make it from abundant magnesium in sea water using the Greensols process.
When added to concrete magnesia hydrates to magnesium hydroxide, but only in permeable materials
like bricks, blocks, pavers and pervious pavements will it absorb CO2 and carbonate. The greater
proportion of the elongated minerals that form is water and carbon dioxide. These minerals bond
aggregates such as sand and gravel and wastes such as saw dust, slag, bottom ash, plastics, paper etc.
Eco-Cement can include more waste than other hydraulic cements like Portland cement because it is
much less alkaline, reducing the incidence of delayed reactions that would reduce the strength of the
concrete. Portland cement concretes on the other hand can't include large amounts of waste because
the alkaline lime that forms causes delayed and disruptive reactions
Eco-Cement Carbonation
The more magnesia added to Eco-Cement and the more permeable it is, the more CO2 that is absorbed.
The rate of absorption of CO2 varies with the degree of permeability. Carbonation occurs quickly at first
and more slowly towards completion. A typical Eco-Cement concrete block would be expected to fully
carbonate within a year. Eco-Cement also has the ability to be almost fully recycled back into cement,
should the concrete structure become obsolete. .
Steps involved in making Eco-Cement
1. Magnesite (a compound of magnesium) is heated in a kiln to around 600 to 750 degrees C.
The lower firing temperature of the Tec-Kiln makes it easier to use free energy such as wind or solar or
even waste energy and TecEco plan to make a kiln that does not use fossil fuels and in which the CO2
gases produced from the magnesium carbonate as it decomposes is captured and contained for further
use or safe disposal.
2. Grinding in the hot area of the Tec-Kiln will result in increased efficiency.
3. The heating process produces reactive magnesium oxide (magnesia).
4. The reactive magnesia powder is added to a pre-determined, but variable amount of hydraulic
cement such as Portland cement, and if desired, supplementary cementitious materials like fly ash.
5. The resulting blended powder is Eco-Cement.
6. When mixed with water and aggregates such as sand, gravel and wastes, Eco-Cement concretes are
ready for pouring into concrete, pressing into blocks or other uses.
BETAO ORGANICO :
This type of concrete was created in 2005 by "Lisbon-based architects and designers e-
studio." This organic concrete blends organic and inorganic material together to create a living
surface. Concrete retains water, as such the concrete is used as a "battery" to provide water during dry
spells for the plant life growing on it. Rather than having grass growing between concrete slabs, it is
now possible to have the grass grow on the concrete slabs. These slabs could be added to outside walls
to create living siding and provide plants to soak up CO2.


SPRAYED CONCRETE :
The technique of sprayed concrete has been in use for over 50 years in construction,
structural repairs and a variety of other applications. The use of properly applied sprayed concrete is
now recognised as being a technically sound and economic method of applying concrete both for
effective repairs and for new constructions. The sprayed concrete forms and excellent bond with itself,
concrete and masonry. The material is compacted onto the substrate under its own momentum,
resulting in a strong, dense product with good resistance to abrasion and weathering. Sprayed concrete
is extremely versatile and as a free forming material lends itself to use in the construction industry. This
imperviousness and low water cement ratio gives a durable concrete with a host of proven applications.
In many cases sprayed concrete will out-perform traditional concrete both in strength and permeability.
The elimination of form work, the speed of application, the small access required and the ability to have
the spraying machine and materials over 200 metres from the point of application, result in a large cost
saving over other techniques. With the ever-increasing structural loadings, the technique has proven
particularly suitable for the strengthening of bridges, tunnels and culverts.



The Phaeno Science Center, designed by Zaha Hadid, is the largest building in Europe constructed from
self-consolidating concrete, which requires no vibration to eliminate air pockets and even out
distribution of aggregates. SCC can be placed at a faster rate with no mechanical vibration and less
screeding, allows shorter construction periods, permits structural and architectural shapes and surface,
not achievable with conventional concrete.

Emmanuel Combarel and Dominique Marrec, two French architects, used Ductal, a high-performance
concrete created by Lafarge in 2001, to build the RATP Bus Center in Thiais,

HIGH PERFORMANCE CONCRETE:
It is a relatively new term used to describe concrete that conforms to a set of standards above those of
the most common applications, but not limited to strength. While all high-strength concrete is also high-
performance, not all high-performance concrete is high-strength. Some examples of such standards
currently used in relation to HPC are:
Ease of placement
Compaction without segregation
Early age strength
Long-term mechanical properties
Permeability
Density
Heat of hydration
Toughness
Volume stability
Long life in severe environments



SHOTCRETE :
Shotcrete uses compressed air to shoot (cast) concrete onto (or into) a frame or structure.
Shotcrete is frequently used against vertical soil or rock surfaces, as it eliminates the need for formwork.
It is sometimes used for rock support, especially in tunnelling. Today there are two application methods
for shotcrete: the dry-mix and the wet-mix procedure. In dry-mix the dry mixture of cement and
aggregates is filled into the machine and conveyed with compressed air through the hoses. The water
needed for the hydration is added at the nozzle. In wet-mix, the mixes are prepared with all necessary
water for hydration. The mixes are pumped through the hoses. At the nozzle compressed air is added
for spraying. For both methods additives such as accelerators and fiber reinforcement may be used.
The term Gunite is occasionally used for shotcrete, but properly refers only to dry-mix shotcrete, and
once was a proprietary name.


PERVIOUS CONCRETE:
Pervious concrete is sometimes specified by engineers and architects when porosity is required
to allow some air movement or to facillitate the drainage and flow of water through structures. Pervious
concrete is referred to as "no fines" concrete because it is manufactured by leaving out the sand or "fine
aggregate". A pervious concrete mixture contains little or no sand (fines), creating a substantial void
content. Using sufficient paste to coat and bind the aggregate particles together creates a system of
highly permeable, interconnected voids that drains quickly. Typically, between 15% and 25% voids are
achieved in the hardened concrete, and flow rates for water through pervious concrete are typically
around 480 in./hr (0.34 cm/s, which is 5 gal/ft/ min or 200 L/m/min), although they can be much
higher.


Both the low mortar content and high porosity also reduce strength compared to conventional concrete
mixtures, but sufficient strength for many applications is readily achieved. Pervious concrete pavement
is a unique and effective means to address important environmental issues and support sustainable
growth. By capturing rainwater and allowing it to seep into the ground, porous concrete is instrumental
in recharging groundwater, reducing stormwater runoff, and meeting US Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) stormwater regulations. The use of pervious concrete is among the Best Management
Practices (BMPs) recommended by the EPA, and by other agencies and geotechnical engineers across
the country, for the management of stormwater runoff on a regional and local basis. This pavement
technology creates more efficient land use by eliminating the need for retention ponds, swales, and
other stormwater management devices. In doing so, pervious concrete has the ability to lower overall
project costs on a first-cost basis.
ROLLER-COMPACTED CONCRETE :
It is sometimes called rollcrete, is a low-cement-content stiff concrete placed using techniques
borrowed from earthmoving and paving work. The concrete is placed on the surface to be covered, and
is compacted in place using large heavy rollers typically used in earthwork. The concrete mix achieves a
high density and cures over time into a strong monolithic block. Roller-compacted concrete is typically
used for concrete pavement, but has also been used to build concrete dams, as the low cement content
causes less heat to be generated while curing than typical for conventionally placed massive concrete
pours.



GLASS CONCRETE:
The use of recycled glass as aggregate in concrete has become popular in modern times, with large scale
research being carried out at Columbia University in New York. This greatly enhances the aesthetic
appeal of the concrete.

ASPHALT CONCRETE
Strictly speaking, asphalt is a form of concrete as well, with bituminous materials replacing cement as
the binder.



Base layer of asphalt concrete in a road under construction

RAPID STRENGTH CONCRETE
This type of concrete is able to develop high resistance within few hours after been manufactured.
This feature has advantages such as removing the formwork early and to move forward in the building
process at record time, repair road surfaces that become fully operational in just few hours.
RUBBERIZED CONCRETE
While " rubberised concrete" is common, rubberized Portland cement concrete ("rubberized PCC") is
still undergoing experimental tests, as of 2007 .



POLYMER CONCRETE
Polymer concrete is concrete which uses polymers to bind the aggregate. Polymer concrete can gain
a lot of strength in a short amount of time. For example, a polymer mix may reach 5000 psi in only four
hours. Polymer concrete is generally more expensive than conventional concretes.

Polymer concrete coating

High-Strength Concrete
A concrete of high strength can be made without admixtures provided it is mixed with low amounts of
water and has desirable workability characteristics. At low water. cement ratios however, it is not easy
to achieve good workability. As water reductions of about 25 to 30 per cent can be achieved by using
superplasticizers without loss in workability characteristics, significantly higher initial and ultimate
strengths are realized. Although high cement content may also be used to obtain high initial strengths in
concrete, the higher heat developed by the chemical reactions produces undesirable cracks and
shrinkage.
High early strength development, a characteristic of concrete made using superplasticizers at low
water:cement ratios, is particularly advantageous in the production of precast units. For prestressed
beams and units, which need overnight heat-curing, use of superplasticizers allows reduction in curing
time and curing temperatures. High early strengths are particularly useful for placing concrete in traffic
areas such as city roads and airport runways. Pumping at reduced water content is also facilitated by the
use of superplasticizers.

In the early 1970s, experts predicted that the practical limit of ready-mixed concrete would be unlikely
to exceed a compressive strength greater than 11,000 psi (76 MPa). Over the past two decades, the
development of high-strength concrete has enabled builders to easily meet and surpass this estimate.
Two buildings in Seattle, Washington, contain concrete with a compressive strength of 19,000 psi (131
MPa).
The primary difference between high-strength concrete and normal-strength concrete relates to the
compressive strength that refers to the maximum resistance of a concrete sample to applied pressure.
Although there is no precise point of separation between high-strength concrete and normal-strength
concrete, the American Concrete Institute defines high-strength concrete as concrete with a
compressive strength greater than 6000 psi (41 MPa).
Manufacture of high-strength concrete involves making optimal use of the basic ingredients that
constitute normal-strength concrete. Producers of high-strength concrete know what factors affect
compressive strength and know how to manipulate those factors to achieve the required strength. In
addition to selecting a high-quality portland cement, producers optimize aggregates, then optimize the
combination of materials by varying the proportions of cement, water, aggregates, and admixtures.
When selecting aggregates for high-strength concrete, producers consider the strength of the aggregate,
the optimum size of the aggregate, the bond between the cement paste and the aggregate, and the
surface characteristics of the aggregate. Any of these properties could limit the ultimate strength of
high-strength concrete.
Admixtures

Pozzolans, such as fly ash and silica fume, are the most commonly used mineral admixtures in high-
strength concrete. These materials impart additional strength to the concrete by reacting with portland
cement hydration products to create additional C-S-H gel, the part of the paste responsible for concrete
strength.
It would be difficult to produce high-strength concrete mixtures without using chemical admixtures. A
common practice is to use a superplasticizer in combination with a water-reducing retarder. The
superplasticizer gives the concrete adequate workability at low water-cement ratios, leading to concrete
with greater strength. The water-reducing retarder slows the hydration of the cement and allows
workers more time to place the concrete.
High-strength concrete is specified where reduced weight is important or where architectural
considerations call for small support elements. By carrying loads more efficiently than normal-strength
concrete, high-strength concrete also reduces the total amount of material placed and lowers the
overall cost of the structure.
The most common use of high-strength concrete is for construction of high-rise
buildings. At 969 ft (295 m), Chicago's 311 South Wacker Drive uses concrete with compressive
strengths up to 12,000 psi (83 MPa) and is the tallest concrete building in the United States.







HIGH SRENGTH LIGHT WEIGHT CONCRETE
Lightweight concrete has been used successfully for many years for structural members in high-rise
buildings. In addition to its lighter weight, which permits saving in dead load and this concrete provides
better heat insulation than normal weight concrete. In recent years, the applications of high-strength
concrete have increased, and high-strength concrete has now been used in many part of the world.
However, not enough significant data of high-strength lightweight concrete with compressive strength
in excess of 60 N/mm2 have been obtained. This report summarizes results of an experimental study of
the properties of hardened high-strength lightweight concrete such as strength, drying shrinkage,
durability and porosity, and provides important new information on the mix proportion and curing
method of this concrete. These results are as follows; (a) In regard to porosity of lightweight aggregate,
it was observed the tendency that expanded shale type has a lager radius than that of sintered fly ash
type, it depends on aggregate characteristics, surface texture and void connection. (b) Different water
content of lightweight aggregate gives influence to porosity of mortar matrix under drying condition. (c)
Resistance of freezing and thawing or fire of light weight aggregate concrete is not necessary to advance
under moisture condition, because of light weight aggregates, due to their cellular structure, capable of
containing more water than normal weight aggregate. (d) As the consideration of the porosities and
water content of hardened concrete, it was evaluated the properties of high-strength lightweight
concrete. (author abst.)

Part of the results of an ongoing laboratory work carried out to design a structural lightweight high
strength concrete ( SLWHSC ) made with and without mineral admixtures is presented. Basaltic-pumice (
scoria ) was used as lightweight aggregate.
A control lightweight concrete mixture made with lightweight basaltic-pumice (scoria) containing normal
Portland cement as the binder was prepared. The control lightweight concrete mixture was modified by
replacing 20% of the cement with fly ash and by replacing 10% of the cement with silica fume. A ternary
lightweight concrete mixture was also prepared modifying the control lightweight concrete by replacing
20% of cement with fly ash and 10% of cement with silica fume. Two normal weight concretes (NWC)
were also prepared for comparison purpose.
Fly ash and silica fume are used for economical and environmental concerns. Cylinder specimens were
cast from the fresh mixtures to measure compressive and flexural tensile strength. The concrete
samples were cured at 65% relative humidity with 20 C temperature. The density and slump workability
of fresh concrete mixtures were also measured.

Laboratory test results showed that structural lightweight concrete (SLWC) can be produced by the use
of scoria. However, the use of mineral additives seems to be mandatory for production of SLWHSC. The
use of ternary mixture was recommended due to its satisfactory strength development and
environmental friendliness.

Future construction of concrete floating platforms for offshore oil exploration off the east coast of
Canada will lead to a substantial increase in the use of high-strength lightweight (HSLW) concrete. HSLW
concrete has been extensively used in Norway and other parts of Europe. HSLW concrete with its high
durability and lightweight characteristics is a very much sought after material in the construction of
concrete floating platforms.

SELF CONSOLIDATING CONCRETE
Self-consolidating concrete, also known as self-compacting concrete and SCC, is a highly flowable, non-
segregating concrete that can spread into place, fill formwork and encapsulate even the most congested
reinforcement, all without any mechanical vibration. As a high-performance concrete, SCC delivers these
attractive benefits while maintaining all of concrete's customary mechanical properties and durability
characteristics.

SCC is defined as a concrete mixture that can be placed purely by means of its own weight, with little
or no vibration. Adjustments to traditional mix designs and the use of superplasticizers creates flowing
concrete that meets tough performance requirements. If needed, low dosages of viscosity modifier can
be used to eliminate unwanted bleeding and segregation.

Since its inception in the 1980s, the use of SCC has grown tremendously. The
development of high performance polycarboxylate polymers and viscosity modifiers have made it
possible to create "flowing" concrete without compromising durability, cohesiveness, or compressive
strength. The flowability of SCC is measured in terms of spread when using a modified version of the
slump test (ASTM C 143). The spread (slump flow) of SCC typically ranges from 18 to 32 inches (455 to
810 mm) depending on the requirements for the project. The viscosity, as visually observed by the rate
at which concrete spreads, is an important characteristic of plastic SCC and can be controlled when
designing the mix to suit the type of application being constructed.

SCC's unique properties give it significant economic, constructability, aesthetic and engineering
advantages. SCC is an increasingly attractive choice for optimizing site manpower (through reduction of
labor and possibly skill level), lowering noise levels, and allowing for a safer working environment. SCC
allows easier pumping (even from bottom up), flows into complex shapes, transitions through
inaccessible spots, and minimizes voids around embedded items to produce a high degree of
homogeneity and uniformity. That's why SCC allows for denser reinforcement, optimized concrete
sections and shapes, and greater freedom of design while producing superior surface finishes and
textures.


HIGH PERFORMANCE CONCRETE
In recent years, the terminology "High-Performance Concrete" has been introduced into the
construction industry. This edition of Technical Talk explains high-performance concrete and how it
differs from conventional concrete.
The American Concrete Institute (ACI) defines high-performance concrete as concrete meeting special
combinations of performance and uniformity requirements that cannot always be achieved routinely
when using conventional constituents and normal mixing, placing and curing practices. A commentary to
the definition states that a high-performance concrete is one in which certain characteristics are
developed for a particular application and environment. Examples of characteristics that may be
considered critical for an application are:
* Ease of placement
* Compaction without segregation
* Early age strength
* Long-term mechanical properties
* Permeability
* Density
* Heat of hydration
* Toughness
* Volume stability
* Long life in severe environments
Because many characteristics of high-performance concrete are interrelated, a change in one usually
results in changes in one or more of the other characteristics. Consequently, if several characteristics
have to be taken into account in producing a concrete for the intended application, each must be clearly
specified in the contract documents.
A high-performance concrete is something more than is achieved on a routine basis and involves a
specification that often requires the concrete to meet several criteria. For example, on the Lacey V.
Murrow floating bridge in Washington State, the concrete was specified to meet compressive strength,
shrinkage and permeability requirements. The latter two requirements controlled the mix proportions
so that the actual strength was well in excess of the specified strength. This occurred because of the
interrelation between the three characteristics. Other recent commercial examples where more than
one characteristic was required are given in Table 1.
High-strength concrete A high-strength concrete is always a high-performance concrete, but a high-
performance concrete is not always a high-strength concrete. ACI defines a high-strength concrete as
concrete that has a specified compressive strength for design of 6,000 psi (41 MPa) or greater.
According to a paper(1) by Paul Zia of North Carolina State University, other countries use a higher
compressive strength in their definitions of high-strength concrete with 7,000 psi (48 MPa) minimum.
Other countries also specify a maximum compressive strength, whereas the ACI definition is open-
ended.
The specification of high-strength concrete generally results in a true performance specification in which
the performance is specified for the intended application, and the performance can be measured using a
well-accepted standard test procedure. The same is not always true for a concrete whose primary
requirement is durability.
Durable concrete Specifying a high-strength concrete does not ensure that a durable concrete will be
achieved. In addition to requiring a minimum strength, concrete that needs to be durable must have
other characteristics specified to ensure durability. In the past, durable concrete was obtained by
specifying air content, minimum cement content and maximum water-cement ratio. Today,
performance characteristics may include permeability, deicer scaling resistance, freeze-thaw resistance,
abrasion resistance or any combination of these characteristics. Given that the required durability
characteristics are more difficult to define than strength characteristics, specifications often use a
combination of performance and prescriptive requirements, such as permeability and a maximum
water-cementitious material ratio to achieve a durable concrete. The end result may be a high-strength
concrete, but this only comes as a by-product of requiring a durable concrete.
Concrete materials Most high-performance concretes produced today contain materials in addition to
portland cement to help achieve the compressive strength or durability performance. These materials
include fly ash, silica fume and ground-granulated blast furnace slag used separately or in combination.
At the same time, chemical admixtures such as high-range water-reducers are needed to ensure that the
concrete is easy to transport, place and finish. For high-strength concretes, a combination of mineral
and chemical admixtures is nearly always essential to ensure achievement of the required strength.
Examples of concrete mixes for durable and high-strength concrete are shown in Table 2.
Most high-performance concretes have a high cementitious content and a water-cementitious material
ratio of 0.40 or less. However, the proportions of the individual constituents vary depending on local
preferences and local materials. Mix proportions developed in one part of the country do not necessarily
work in a different location. Many trial batches are usually necessary before a successful mix is
developed.
High-performance concretes are also more sensitive to changes in constituent material properties than
conventional concretes. Variations in the chemical and physical properties of the cementitious materials
and chemical admixtures need to be carefully monitored. Substitutions of alternate materials can result
in changes in the performance characteristics that may not be acceptable for high-performance
concrete. This means that a greater degree of quality control is required for the successful production of
high-performance concrete.



HIGH VOLUME FLY ASH CONCRETE

What is fly ash?
Fly ash is a by-product from coal-fired electricity generating power plants. The coal used in these power
plants is mainly composed of combustible elements such as carbon, hydrogen and oxygen (nitrogen and
sulfur being minor elements), and non-combustible impurities (10 to 40%) usually present in the form of
clay, shale, quartz, feldspar and limestone. As the coal travels through the high-temperature zone in the
furnace, the combustible elements of the coal are burnt off, whereas the mineral impurities of the coal
fuse and chemically recombine to produce various crystalline phases of the molten ash. The molten ash
is entrained in the flue gas and cools rapidly, when leaving the combustion zone (e.g. from 1500C to
200C in few seconds), into spherical, glassy particles. Most of these particles fly out with the flue gas
stream and are therefore called fly ash. The fly ash is then collected in electrostatic precipitators or bag
houses and the fineness of the fly ash can be controlled by how and where the particles are collected.
Top
The use of fly ash in concrete
Fly ash can be used in concrete as a partial replacement for ordinary portland cement (opc). Fly ash can
be introduced in concrete directly, as a separate ingredient at the concrete batch plant or, can be
blended with the opc to produce blended cement, usually called portland-pozzolana cement (ppc) in
India. Fly ash blended cements are produced by several cement companies in India.
Generally speaking, currently in the concrete industry, the percentage of fly ash as part of the total
cementing materials in concrete normally ranges from 15 to 25%, although it can go up to 30-35% in
some applications. The use of fly ash in concrete will improve some aspects of the performance of the
concrete provided the concrete is properly designed. The main aspects of the concrete performance
that will be improved by the use of fly ash are increased long-term strength and reduced permeability of
the concrete resulting in potentially better durability. The use of fly ash in concrete can also address
some specific durability issues such as sulphate attack and alkali silica reaction. However, a few
additional precautions have to be taken to insure that the fly ash concrete will meet all the performance
criteria.
The table given below is a paper presented by Dr Wilbert Langley and Dr Gordon Leaman at the sixth
CANMET/ ACI / JCI International Conference, held May 31 - June 5, 1998. These are the actual mixes
used in demonstration projects throughout Canada to prove the practicality of using high-volume fly ash
concrete for a variety of projects. The Parklane Development in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada is a seven
story structure and was built with 55% high-volume fly ash concrete (high strength mix given in the table
below) . Cast-in-place columns and beams were poured with concrete specified to meet design
strengths of between 4,350 psi at 28 days and 7,250 psi at 120 days. Actual strengths developed
exceeded required strengths by 30%-40% on an average

HIGH VOLUME FLY ASH CONCRETE
All mixes contained air entraining admixtures and superplasticizers

Conventional
Mix
Low
Strength 55%
Replacement
Medium
Strength 55%
Replacement
High
Strength 55%
Replacement
Total Cementitious Content (c+fa)
(lb/cu.yd)
483 374 566 660
Cement (lb) 483 166 250 300
Class F Fly Ash (lb) 0 208 316 360
Sand (lb) 1334 1467 1250 1266
Stone (lb) 1700 1834 1834 1850
Water (lb) 220 185 198 185
Water to Cement Ratio 0.46 0.49 0.35 0.28




Compressive Strength (psi)


3 day 4,600 1,250 2,320 3,190
7 day 5,000 1,750 3,040 4,900
28 day 6,500 3,350 5,500 8,300
91 day 7,100 4,050 7,700 10,900
365 day 7,550 7,400 10,000 -

Set Time (hours:minutes)
Initial 6:25 8:25 5:35 -
Final 7:50 11:15 7:40 -
In the US, the State of Wisconsin has been using a 60% Class F fly ash in concrete mix since 1989. HVFA
concrete has now found a commercial niche in the Sydney construction market and is being trialed for
the Sydney Olympic facilities. For the Crown Casino project, Connell Wagner required highly durable and
low drying shrinkage concrete for the construction of the 55,000 square meter basement that was
located below the water table
Another benefit of using fly ash in concrete is that fly ash makes beautiful, "architectural" concrete. Fly
ash of today is light in color and its extreme workability ensures smoother finishes. That most famous of
architecturally exposed concrete buildings, the Jonas Salk Institute, was built with fly ash concrete. I
have seen the NCCBM building located at Ballabhgarh & it still looks beautiful even after having
weathered so many years.
Addition of fly ash in plaster virtually eliminates defects like crazing, map cracking, drying shrinkage
cracks, debonding, grinning, expansion & popping.

SHRINKAGE COMPENSATION CONCRETE

Use of Shrinkage Compensating Concrete (SCC) In Pre-Stressed Concrete

PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE:

There are characteristics of shrinkage compensating concrete (SCC) that are similar to the objectives and
methodology behind pre-stressed concrete. Pre-stressed concrete is defined as a concrete member with
a pre-determined compressive force, or moment, built into the member so that the internal stresses,
designed as a result of the members intended use, will be equal to or less then the pre-stressing stresses
built into the member. Post-tensioning and pre-tensioning are methods of achieving pre-stressed
concrete.

The objectives and methodology of using SCC to enhance the properties of concrete is very similar to the
objectives and methodology of using pre-stressed to accommodate structural loadings. Shrinkage
cracking control, combined with the other inherent advantages of SCC, make SCC a better material for
pre-stressed concrete members.

SHRINKAGE COMPENSATING COMPONENT

ACI recognizes two methods of achieving SCC, ettringite crystal development or calcium hydroxide
platelet crystal development. The inherent characteristics of the calcium hydroxide platelet system,
developed by the use of CONEX, is the better system of the two due to its inherent likeness of chemical
action during hydration of the cement in use. The advantages of the platelet SCC method makes it well
suited for use in pre-stressed concrete in general and in post-tensioned concrete in particular.

DESIGN CRITERIA:

The primary design objective of pre-stressed concrete is to place a compressive force in the concrete
member that would prevent the concrete from going into tension and failing under design load
conditions. Failure usually being defined as tension or stress cracking occurring in the concrete member.
The primary objective for using pre-stressed concrete is economic. This is due to the fact that a pre-
stressed member, of the same physical dimensions as a conventional reinforced concrete member, will
have a greater load carrying capability. Conversely, for a given design loading, a pre-stressed member
will be smaller in dimension and weight then a conventional concrete reinforced member.

SCC - HOW IT WORKS:

Shrinkage compensating concrete (SCC) has a case history of placements free of shrinkage cracks due to
the "pre-stressing" action (restrained expansion or RE) created within the concrete during hydration and
curing. During this period several phenomena are taking place simultaneously within the concrete. The
most important being expansion of the concrete matrix due to the chemical reaction of CONEX creating
development of calcium hydroxide crystals, and bonding of the concrete to the reinforcing. While this is
occurring, the RE created causes the concrete to go into compression. The calcium hydroxide system of
expansion, that is the formation of the platelets that create the expansion, is approximately at the same
rate as the curing of the concrete. As long as compressive stresses within the concrete are greater then
the tensile stresses the concrete will remain in compression, and tension cracks will not appear. This
characteristic is taken advantage of by using SCC in the construction of cast in place slabs on grade
(warehouse floors, pavements, secondary containment structures for hazardous materials) and
structural members (bridge decks, primary containment structures, buildings, etc.). The benefit of SCC in
slabs on grade is the ability to place larger sections (i.e. 20,000 ft2 / 2,000 m2) without contraction joints
and with a reduction, and often elimination, of edge curling. The advantage of using SCC in bridge deck
and containment structures is the increase in imperviousness of the concrete as well as the lack of
shrinkage cracking.

SCC AS APPLIED TO PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE:

Currently the use of SCC is expanding into the pre-cast industry and also into pre-stressed concrete
applications. While there are examples of cast in place pre-stressed applications of SCC, it is still a long
way off from being in general use. This is perhaps due to the lack of published data detailing the use of
SCC in post-tensioned applications. Tests should be done to establish the required expansion for desired
results. These tests would establish the amount of compressive stress in the member resulting from
different dosages of CONEX and related degrees of post-tensioning. This would allow other member
characteristics to be adjusted accordingly. An obvious goal of using CONEX is to increase the quality of
an existing concrete product and/or reduce the production cost of that concrete product. The addition
of CONEX will increase the internal compressive stresses in the post-tensioned concrete member(s) if
the proper restraint is provided. How this will impact the member design and/or production methods
will need to be developed, but it presents a different look at the potential of shrinkage compensation in
pre-stressed concrete.


In general, CONEX SCC is similar to and compatible with pre-stressed concrete, and acts
interdependently with the cement in use, developing the following advantages:

1. A pre-stressed member with a higher degree of internal compression to assure greater crack control.
2. More impermeable concrete.
3. Better edge finishing.
4. Possibly a way to reduce production costs through less breakage and discard.



FIBER REINFORCEMENTS


NON-STEEL REINFORCEMENT :

Some construction cannot tolerate the use of steel. For example, MRI machines have huge magnets, and
require nonmagnetic buildings. Another example are toll-booths that read radio tags, and need
reinforced concrete that is transparent to radio.
In some instances, the lifetime of the concrete structure is more important than its strength. Since
corrosion is the main cause of failure of reinforced concrete, a corrosion-proof reinforcement can
extend a structure's life substantially.
For these purposes some structures have been constructed using fiber-reinforced plastic rebar, grids or
fibers. The "plastic" reinforcement can be as strong as steel. Because it resists corrosion, it does not
need a protective concrete cover of 30 to 50 mm or more as steel reinforcement does. This means that
FRP-reinforced structures can be lighter, have longer lifetime and for some applications be price-
competitive to steel-reinforced concrete.
The main barrier to use of FRP reinforcement is the fact that it is neither ductile nor fire resistant.
Structures employing FRP rebars may therefore exhibit a less ductile structural response, and decreased
fire resistance.
However, the addition of short monofilament polypropylene fibers to the concrete during mixing may
have the beneficial effect of reducing spalling during a fire. In a severe fire, such as the Channel Tunnel
fire, conventionally reinforced concrete can suffer severe spalling leading to failure. This is in part due to
the pore water remaining within the concrete boiling explosively; the steam pressure then causes the
spalling





HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE:
The concept of using fibers as reinforcement is not new. Fibers have been used as reinforcement since
ancient times. Historically, horsehair was used in mortar and straw in mud bricks. In the early 1900s,
asbestos fibers were used in concrete, and in the 1950s the concept of composite materials came into
being and fiber reinforced concrete was one of the topics of interest. There was a need to find a
replacement for the asbestos used in concrete and other building materials once the health risks
associated with the substance were discovered. By the 1960s, steel, glass (GFRC), and synthetic fibers
such as polypropylene fibers were used in concrete, and research into new fiber reinforced concretes
continues today.

EFFECTS OF FIBER IN CONCRETE:
Fibers are usually used in concrete to control plastic shrinkage cracking and drying shrinkage cracking.
They also lower the permeability of concrete and thus reduce bleeding of water. Some types of fibers
produce greater impact, abrasion and shatter resistance in concrete. Generally fibers do not increase
the flexural strength of concrete, so it can not replace moment resisting or structural steel
reinforcement. Some fibers reduce the strength of concrete.
The amount of fibers added to a concrete mix is measured as a percentage of the total volume of the
composite (concrete and fibers) termed volume fraction (Vf). Vf typically ranges from 0.1 to 3%. Aspect
ratio (l/d) is calculated by dividing fiber length (l) by its diameter (d). Fibers with a non-circular cross
section use an equivalent diameter for the calculation of aspect ratio. If the modulus of elasticity of the
fiber is higher than the matrix (concrete or mortar binder), they help to carry the load by increasing the
tensile strength of the material. Increase in the aspect ratio of the fiber usually segments the flexural
strength and toughness of the matrix. However, fibers which are too long tend to "ball" in the mix and
create workability problems.
Some recent research indicated that using fibers in concrete has limited effect on the impact resistance
of concrete materials. This finding is very important since traditionally people think the ductility
increases when concrete is reinforced with fibers. The results also pointed out that the micro fibers is
better in impact resistance compared with the longer fibers.



The High Speed tunnel linings incorporated concrete containing 1 kg/m of polypropylene fibers, of
diameter 18 & 32 m, giving the benefits noted below.
Polypropylene fibers can:
Improve mix cohesion, improving pumpability over long distances
Improve freeze-thaw resistance
Improve resistance to explosive spalling in case of a severe fire
Improve impact resistance
Increase resistance to plastic

DEVELOPMENTS IN FIBER REINFORCED CONCRETE:
A new kind of natural fiber reinforced concrete (NFRC) made of cellulose fibers processed from
genetically modified slash pine trees is giving good results. The cellulose fibers are longer and greater in
diameter than other timber sources. Some studies were performed using waste carpet fibers in concrete
as an environmentally friendly use of recycled carpet waste. A carpet typically consists of two layers of
backing (usually fabric from polypropylene tape yarns), joined by CaCO3 filled styrene-butadiene latex
rubber (SBR), and face fibers (majority being nylon 6 and nylon 66 textured yarns). Such nylon and
polypropylene fibers can be used for concrete reinforcement







High performance fiber reinforced cementitious composites (HPFRCCs):
This particular class of concrete was developed with the goal of solving the structural problems
inherent with today's typical concrete, such as its tendency to fail in a brittle manner under excessive
loading and its lack of long term durability. The two important properties of HPFRCC's are

The remarkable ability to strain harden under excessive loading.
In layman's terms, this means they have the ability to flex or deform before fracturing, a
behavior similar to that exhibited by most metals under tensile or bending stresses. Because of this
capability, HPFRCCs are more resistant to cracking and last considerably longer than normal concrete.
Their low density.
A less dense, and hence lighter material means that HPFRCCs could eventually require much less
energy to produce and handle, deeming them a more economic building material. Because of HPFRCCs'
lightweight composition and ability to strain harden, it has been proposed that they could eventually
become a more durable and efficient alternative to typical concrete.

HPFRCCs include the following ingredients: fine aggregates, a superplasticizer, polymeric or metallic
fibers, cement, and water. Thus the principal difference between HPFRCC and typical concrete
composition lies in HPFRCCs' lack of coarse aggregates. Typically, a fine aggregate such as silica sand is
used in HPFRCCs.
One aspect of HPFRCC design involves preventing crack propagation, or the tendency of a crack to
increase in length, ultimately leading to material fracture. This occurrence is hindered by the presence
of fiber bridging, a property that most HPFRCCs are specifically designed to possess. Fiber bridging is the
act of several fibers exerting a force across the width of a crack in an attempt to prevent the crack from
developing further. This capability is what gives bendable concrete its ductile properties.

Proposed uses for HPFRCCs include bridge decks, concrete pipes, roads, structures subjected to seismic
and non-seismic loads, and other applications where a lightweight, strong and durable building material
is desired. Though HPFRCCs have been tested extensively in the lab and been employed in a few
commercial building projects, further long term research and real world application is needed to prove
the true benefits of this material.
The newly developed fiber reinforced concrete is named as Engineered Cementitious Composite (ECC).

It is 500 times more resistant to cracking
It is 40 percent lighter than traditional concrete
It can sustain strain-hardening up to several percent strain, resulting in a material ductility of at least
two orders of magnitude higher when compared to normal concrete.
It has unique cracking behavior . When loaded to beyond the elastic range, ECC maintains crack width to
below 100 m, even when deformed to several percent tensile strains.

The basic mechanical properties of ECC are :

ECC Material Properties
Ultimate Tensile Strength ( CU ) 4.6 MPa
Ultimate Strain ( CU ) 5.6 %
First Crack Stress ( fc ) 2.5 MPa
First Crack Strain ( fc ) .021 %
Modulus of Elasticity ( E ) 22 GPa

ECC's tensile strain hardening behavior has a capacity in the range of 3-7%,which means that unlike
common concrete, which is brittle and breaks under that amount of strain, ECC will bend under the
same stress, like a piece of sheet metal. The high ductility is achieved by optimizing the microstructure
of the composite employing micromechanical models. ECC looks exactly like regular concrete, but under
excessive strain, the ECC concrete bends because the distinctively coated matrix of fibers in the cement
is allowed to slide within the cement. ECC is made using the same ingredients of regular concrete but
without the use of coarse aggregate.


ECC has already been used by the Michigan Department of Transportation to patch a portion of the
Grove Street Bridge deck over Interstate 94. The ECC patch was used as a replacement to the previously
existent expansion joint that linked two deck slabs. Expansion joints, commonly used in bridges to allow
for the seasonal expansion and contraction of the concrete decks, are an example of a ubiquitous
construction practice that could eventually be eliminated through the use of bendable concrete. Other
existent structures composed of ECC, include the Curtis Road Bridge in Ann Arbor, MI and the Mihara
Bridge in Hokkaido, Japan. The deck of the Mihara Bridge, composed of bendable concrete, is only five
centimeters thick and has an expected lifetime of one-hundred years.




Comparison to other composite materials:
Properties FRC Common HPFRCC ECC
Design
N.A. Use high Vf
Micromechanics based,
minimize Vf for cost and
Methodology processibility
Fiber
Any type, Vf usually
less than 2%; df for
steel ~ 500
micrometer
Mostly steel, Vf usually
> 5%; df ~ 150
micrometer
Tailored, polymer fibers,
Vf usually less than 2%;
df < 50 micrometer
Matrix Coarse aggregates Fine aggregates
Controlled for matrix
toughness, flaw size;
fine sand
Interface Not controlled Not controlled
Chemical and frictional
bonds controlled for
bridging properties
Mechanical
Properties
Strain-softening: Strain-hardening: Strain-hardening:
Tensile strain 0.1% <1.5% >3% (typical); 8% max
Crack width Unlimited
Typically several
hundred micrometers,
unlimited beyond 1.5%
strain
Typically < 100
micrometers during
strain-hardening[1]
Note: FRC=Fiber-Reinforced Cement. HPFRCC=High-Performance Fiber Reinforced Cementitious
Composites
NANOMATERIALS

NANOTUBES AND NANOWIRES AS REINFORCEMENT:

In developing nano-composite materials, nanotubes and nanowires are expected to greatly improve
the properties of the composites. Silicon carbide nanowires have been regarded as an excellent
reinforcement for composites due to the high intrinsic strength of the materials. However, the silicon
carbide nanowires have a smooth surface and are easily pulled out when the composites break because
of the weak adhesion between the nanowires and the matrix. Therefore, we need to fabricate a
contoured surface of the silicon carbide nanowires in order to improve the adhesion.
This led to the invention of a new type of silicon carbide nanowires periodically twinned SiC
nanowires, which have a contoured surface on the nanoscale. The nanowires with a hexagonal cross
section, a diameter of 50300nm and a length of tens to hundreds of micrometers feature a zigzag
arrangement of periodically twinned segments with a uniform thickness along the entire growth length.
Computer simulation demonstrates that the zigzag columnar structure is formed by the stacking of
hexagonal discs of {111} planes of SiC. A minimum surface energy and strain energy argument explain
the formation of periodic twins in the SiC nanowires.
The twinning structure has made the nanowires exhibit different luminescence and chemical stability. A
Chinese group showed that the silicon carbide nanowires with beaded morphology can greatly enhance
the tensile strength of an epoxy composite. Therefore, the new type of twinned SiC nanowires is
expected to find important applications in nano-composites.





MODIFICATION OF GLASSS FIBER USING PLAZMA POLYMERIZATION TECHNIQUE :

The plasma treated E-glass fiber improves the mechanical properties of acrylic resin denture base
material, polymethylmethacrlyate (PMMA). Plasma surface treatment of fibers is used as reinforcement
in composite materials to modify the chemical and physical properties of their surfaces with tailored
fibermatrix bonding strength.
Three different types of monomer 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA),
triethyleneglycoldimethylether (TEGDME) and ethylenediamine (EDA) were used in the plasma
polymerization modification of glass fibers. A radiofrequency generator was used to sustain plasma in a
glass vacuum chamber. Glass fibers were modified at the same glow-discharge power of 25W and
exposure time of 30min for each monomer. Fibers were incorporated into the acrylic with 1% (w/w)
loading except control group. Specimens were prepared using a standard mould of 3cm0.5cm0.8cm in
dimension with eight specimens in each group. Samples were subjected to a flexural strength test set up
at a crosshead speed of 5mm/min. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to examine the
microstructure and X-ray photoelectron

Concluding Remarks
It has long been a concrete technologist's dream to discover a method of making concrete at the lowest
possible water: cement ratio while maintaining high workability. To a considerable extent this dream
may be fulfilled with the advent of superplasticizers. They have added a new dimension to the
application of admixtures, and have made it possible to produce concrete with compressive strength of
the order of 90 MPa.

Superplasticizers have other possible applications. Energy conservation and diminishing supplies of high
quality raw materials will increasingly necessitate the use of marginal quality cements and aggregates. In
such instances the use of superplasticizers may permit production of concrete at low water:cement
ratios that will be strong enough to meet normal performance requirements. There are literally
countless possible applications of superplasticizers, for example, in the production of fly ash concrete,
blast furnace slag cement concrete, composites with various types of fibres and lightweight concrete. In
addition, the dispersing effect of superplasticizers is not limited to portland cement and may find
application in other cementitious systems.

The fact that superplasticizers show remarkable advantages in producing concrete should not imply that
there are no problems associated with their use. A satisfactory solution to the high rate of slump loss in
superplasticized concrete is yet to be found and the relative effects of materials, production methods
and external conditions that influence this phenomenon are not completely understood. Further study
will be necessary of the compatibility of other admixtures such as retarders, accelerators and air-
entraining agents in combination with superplasticizers. Though surface area, tricalcium aluminate, and
sulphate contents seem to influence slump, no definite trend has been established.

Most available data on superplasticized concrete have been obtained using SMF- and SNF-based
superplasticizers. Even within a single type, variations in behaviour have occurred, possibly because of
the differences in molecular weight and in the type of cation associated with the superplasticizer.
Consequently it is difficult to predict exactly the properties and behaviour of superplasticized concrete.
As more data become available, especially on the long-term behaviour of these concretes, it will be
possible to formulate standards and codes of practice. The future use of superplasticizers will, however,
be dictated by cost factors (of admixture and operating costs) and by acceptance by industry

Posted by The Civil Engineer at 20:38

Posted by Syazli Fathi at 21:29 2 comments:
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Research Area Definition
Research will involve the whole life-cycle of the wide range of infrastructure e.g. buildings, bridges,
dams, underground constructions, offshore platform, pipelines and ocean structures, which covers the
planning, design, construction, performance, maintenance and assessment. The aim of the group is to
conduct research and developments on the most advanced technologies for analyzing, predicting and
optimizing infrastructure performance. The main gaps to be filled are those between researchers and
practitioners in maintenance, management and life-cycle performance of infrastructure systems, and
those between professionals working on the different types of infrastructures.

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