Chapter 1

Dynamic Force
Analysis
13.1 INTRODUCTION
Dynamic forces are associated with accelerating masses. As all machines
some accelerating parts, dynamic forces are always present when the mac .
opera~e. In situations where dynamic forces are dominant or comparable
magmtudes of external forces and operating speeds are high, dynamic anal
has to be carried out. For example, in case of rotors which rotate at s
more than 80 000 rpm, even the slightest eccentricity of the centre of
f~om ~heaxis of rot~tion produces very high dynamic forces. This may le
vibrations, wear, noise or even machine failure.
13.2 D'ALEMBERT'S PRINCIPLE
D' Alembert' s principle states that the inertia forces and couples, and the ex
forces and torques on a body together give statical equilibrium.
. Inerti~ is a property of matter by virtue of which a body resists any c
m velocity.
Inertia force F
i
=-mfg (l
where m = mass of body, fg = acceleration of centre of mass of the body.
Negative sign indicates that the force acts in the opposite direction to
the ~cc.eleration ..The.force acts through centre of mass of the body.
Similarly, an inertia couple resists any change in the angular velocity.
Inertia couple,
where
C =-I a (1
I s
Ig=moment of inertia about an axis passing through centre of
G and perpendicular to plane of rotation of the body
a =angular acceleration of the body.
LF = F I' F2, F3, etc. = external forces on-the body
LT = Tg1' Tg2' Tg3, etc. = external torques on the body about cen
mass G.
Let
and
D namic Force Anal sis
According to D'Alembert's principle, the vector sum of forces and torques
couples) has to be zero, i.e.
(Of LF +F =0 (13.3)
I
aJ ld
LT +C, =0 (13.4)
These equations are similar to equation of a body in static equilibrium, i.e.
F '" 0 and LT =O.
~ This suggests that first the magnitudes and the directions of inertia forces
d couples can be determined, after which they can be treated just like static
a
1
n
ds on the mechanism. Thus, a dynamic analysis problem is reduced to one
oa 1 .
requiring static ana YSIS.
3 3
EQUIVALENT OFFSET INERTIA FORCE
I.
In plane motions involving accelerations, the inertia force acts on abody through
its centre of mass. However, if the body is acted upon by forces such that their
resultant does not pass through the centre of mass, a couple also acts on the
body. In graphical solutions, it is possible to replace inertia force and inertia
couple by an equivalent offset inertia force which can account for both. This is
done by displacing the line of action of the inertia force from the centre of
mass. The perpendicular displacement h of the force from the centre of mass is
such that the torque so produced is equal to the inertia couple acting on the
body.
i.e. T;= c,
F, X h =C;
_ C; -Iga mk
2
a k
2
a
h= -=--=--=-
F; -mfg mfg fg
h is taken in such a way that the force produces a moment about the centre of
mass, which is opposite in sense to angular acceleration a.
or
or
(13.5)
13.4 DYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF FOUR-LINK MECHANISM
For dynamic analysis of four-link mechanisms, the following procedure may be
adopted:
1. Draw the velocity and acceleration diagrams of the mechanism from the
configuration diagram by usual methods.
2. Determine the linear acceleration of centre of masses of various links,
and also the angular accelerations of the links.
3. Calculate the inertia forces and inertia couples from the relations F; =-mfg
and C;= -Iga.
4. Replace F; with equivalent offset inertia force to take into account F; as
well as C;.
5. Assume equivalent offset inertia forces on the links as static forces and
analyse the mechanism by any of the methods outlined in Chapter 12.
THeo ofMiiChmes
Example 13.1 The dimensions of a four-linkmechanismare,
AB = 500 mm, BC = 660 mm, CD = 560mmand AD =1000 mm.
The link AB has an angular velocity of 10.5 rad/s counter-clockwise and
angular retardation of 26 rad/s
2
at the instantwhen it makes an angle of 600 .
~~~~ ~
The mass of the links BC and CD is 4.2kg/mlenght. The link AB has a rn
3.54 kg, the centre of which lies at 200 mmfrom A and a moment of ine:
S
0
88500 kg.rnrrr'. ia of
.Neglecting gra:ity and fricti~n effects, determine the instantaneous value of the
dnve torque required to be applied on AB toovercome theinertia forces.
Solution
Draw the configuration diagram ABCD of the mechanism to a suitable sc I
[Fig. 13.1(a)]. The velocity and acceleration diagrams of thesame have been show a.e
F
3 n m
igs 1 .l(b) and (c).
b
c
(b)
L2 =253.so
L3 = 238
L4 = 222
a, d
(c)
Fig. 13.1
D namic Force Anal sis 493
from acceleration diagram,
c =(ab)2 = (5.25)2 = 55.1 m1s2
fha AB 0.5
/,' = ax AB = 26 x 0.5 = 13 m1s2
Jba
/,c = (bc)2 = (3.4)2 = 17.5 rnls2
Jcb BC 0.66
/,c =(dc)2 = (3.9)2 = 27.2 m1s2
Jcd DC 0.56
MasS of the links '
~ = 3.54 kg, m3 = 0.66 x 4.2 = 2.77 kg, m4 = 0.56 X 4.2 = 2.35 kg
Let G
2
, G
3
and G
4
denote thecentres of masses of links AB, BC and CD respectively.
G liesat 200 mmfromA and G
3
and G
4
at the midpoints of BC and CD respectively.
L~catethese points in the acceleration diagram. Measure the accelerations of G2, G3
andG4
Fg2 =22.6 m1s2 L253S
Fg3 =52.0 m1s2 L238
Fg4 = 25.7 m1s2 L222
Nowfind the inertia on the links. These act through their respective centres of mass
inthedirections opposite to that of accelerations. .
F2 = md
g
2 = 80 N L73.5 (253S - 180)
F3 = md
g
3 = 144N L58 (238 - 180)
F4= m
4
f
g
4 = 60 N L42 (222 - 180)
To determine the inertia couples, angular accelerations of the links are to be found.
a
2
= 26 rad/s
2
clockwise
a
3
= f;= ~~6~ = 34.1.rad/s? counter-clockwise
f/ 443
a
4
= -.EL = 0 '6 = 79.1 rad/s? counter-clockwise
CD .5
Then, c,= 19a
However, the inertia couples can be taken into account by replacing the inertia
forceswith equivalent offset inertia forces.
Now,
2 Ig _ 88500 2
k2 = ~ - ~ = 25 000 mm
Links3 and 4 have uniform cross-sections,
k
2 = ~ = (660)2 = 36 300 2
3 12 12 mm
From velocity diagram,
Vb or ab = w
ba
X AB = 10.5x 0.5 = 5.25m1s
Vcd or be =3.4 m1s and Vc or de =3.9m1s
k2 _ [2 _ (560)2 _ 26 133 2
4 - 12- 12 - mm
k
2
a 25000 x 26
112 = -f = 22600 = 28.8 mm
g2
494
Theor 0 Machines
36300 x 34.1
h3 = 52000 = 23.8 mm
26133 x79.1
h4 = 25700 = 80.4 mm
Also,
r
2
= 200 +
28.8
= 325 mm
sin13.5
r3 = 330-
23.8
= 297 mm
sin46.5
80.3
r4 = 280 + sin600 = 373 mm
An inertia couple acts in a direction opposite to that of the angular acceleration.
Thus, offsets hz, h3 and h4 areto besuch that therequired inertia couples areset up. For
example, angular acceleration of link 2 is clockwise (being retardation), therefore
inertia couple must be counter-clockwise. Links 2 and 3 have counter-clockwis~
accelerations and thus the inertia couples are to be clockwise.
Now, assume equivalent offset inertia forces on the links as static forces and solve.
This has been done in Examples 12.7 and 12.10.
The required input torque =25 N.m (counter-clockwise)
13.5 DYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF SLIDER-CRANK MECHANISM
The steps outline for dynamic analysis of a four-link mechanism also hold
good for slider-crank mechanism and the analysis can becarried out in exactly
the same manner.
However, an analytical approach is also being described in detail in the
following sections.
13.6 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION OF PISTON
Figure 13.2 shows a slider-crank mechanism in which the crank OA rotates in
the clockwise direction. 1 and r are the lengths of the connecting rod and the
crank respectively.
Let x =displacement of piston frominner-dead centre
At the moment when thecrank has turned through angle ()fromthe inner-dead
centre,
Fig. 13.2
495
D narnic Force Analysis
x=B1B=BO-BIO
= BO - (BIA
I
+AIO)
= (l +r) - (l cos f3 +cos 8)
= (nr +r) - (nr cos f3 +r cos 8)
= r [en +1 ) -(n cos f3 +cos 8)]
cos f3 = ~1- sin
2
f3 = ~1- ;:
(taking Ilr =n)
(13.6)
=
x =r[(n +1 ) - (~ n2 -sin
2
() +cos ()]
= r[ (1- cos () +(n - ~ n2 - sin
2
()] (13.7)
If theconnecting rod is very large as compared to crank, n2.will belarge and
themaximum value of sin
2
() can be unity. Then ~n2 - sin
2
() will be
approachingR or n, and
x =r (1 - cos () (13.8)
Thisistheexpression for asimpleharmonic motion. Thus, thepiston executes
asimpleharmonic motion when the connecting rod is large.
Velocity of Piston
dx dx d()
v= -=--
dt d() dt
=~ [r{(l - cos () +n - (n
2
- sin
2
()II2}] dd()
d() t
= r[ (0+sin() +0-i(n
2
- sin
2
()1/ 2 (-2 sin() cos()] W
= rw [sin e +_r=s=in=2=()==]
2~n2 - sin
2
()
If n2 . . 2 Ll
IS large compared to sm u,
v =rW[Sin e +Si;~]
(13.9)
(13.10)
496
Theo 0 Machines
sin2e
If ~ can be neglected (when n is quite large),
II=ru) sin e
Acceleration of Piston
J= dv =dv de
dt de dt
d [ (. sin 2e )]
= de rta sin e +~ W
(
2cos 28)
= rw cose + 2n W
(
cos 28)
= roJ cose +--n-
(13.12)
If n is very very large,
J=rw
2
cos 0 as in case of SHM
When 0 = 0
0
i.e. at IDC, J = roi(l +~)
When 0 = 180
0
, i.e. at ODC,J = rw
2
( -1+~)
At 0 =180
0
, when the direction of motion is reversed,
J= rw 2(1-~) (13.'
Note that this expression of acceleration has been obtained by differentiatiDI
the approximate expression for the velocity. It is, usually, very cumbersome
differentiate the exact expression for velocity. However, this gives satisfactol1
results.
(13.13)
13.7 ANGULAR VELOCITY AND ANGULAR ACCELERATION
CONNECTING ROD
As y =I sin 13 =r sin 0
. 13 sin0
sm =--
. n
Differentiating with respect to time,
df3 1 de
cos 13 - =-cos 0-
dt n dt
cos0
w e =w 11====
nl.~ n2 - sin
2
e
n
(n ::::I/f )
or
D namic Force Anal sis 497
is the angular velocity of the connecting rod
here OJe
1/ 1.' cos e
OJ=W-,=====
e ~ n2 _ sin
2
e
a; ==angular acceleration of the connecting rod
J .,et
dOJ
c
dto; dO
==dt = dO dt
_ OJ ~ [cos 0 (n
2
- sin
2
Or1l2] OJ
- dO
==cJ [-cos 0 ~ (n
2
- sin
2
0)-3/2 (-2sin 0 cos0)
+ (n
2
- sin
2
0)-1/2 (- sin0) ]
(13.15)
[
n2 -1 1
=_OJ
2
sin 0
(n2 _ sin2 0 )3/2
Thenegative sign indicates that the sense of angular acceleration of the rod
issuchthat it tends to reduce the angle 13. Thus, in the given case, the angular
accelerationof the connecting rod is clockwise.
(l3.16)
13.8 ENGINE FORCE ANALYSIS
Anengine is acted upon by various forces such as weight of reciprocating
massesand connecting rod, gas forces, forces due to friction and inertia forces
dueto acceleration and retardation of engine elements, the last being dynamic
innature. Inthis section, the analysis is made of theforces neglecting theeffect
of theweight and the inertia effect of the connecting rod.
(i) Piston Effort (Effective Driving Force)
Pistoneffort is termed as the net or effective force applied on the piston. In
reCiprocatingengines, the reciprocating masses accelerate during the first half
of thestroke and the inertia force tends to resist the same. Thus, the net force
onthepiston is decreased. During the later half of the stroke, the reciprocating
~asses decelerate and the inertia force opposes this deceleration or acts in the
t~rec~ionof the applied gas pressure and thus, increases the effective force on
ePIston.
d l.na vertical engine, the weight of thereciprocating masses assists the piston
~nng the outstroke (down stroke), thus, increasing the piston effort by an
eff~U~tequal to the weight of thepiston. During theinstroke (upstroke), piston
rt IS decreased by the same amount.
Theory 0 Machines
Let A., =area of the cover end
A2 =area of the piston rod end
P: =pressure on the cover end
P2 =pressure on the rod end
m=mass of the reciprocating parts
Force on the piston due to gas pressure, Fp =PIA, - P2A2
Inertia force, Fb = mf = mrar ( cas 8 +co: 2J) )
which is in the opposite direction to that of the acceleration of the piston
Net (effective) force on the piston, F =Fp - Fb (1 3 .
In case friction resistance F
f
is also taken into account, .1
Force on the piston, F =Fp - Fb - F
f
In case of vertical engines, the weight of the piston or reciprocating parts
acts as force and thus,
Force on the piston, F =Fp +mg - Fb - F
f
(U) Force (thrust) along the Connecting Rod
Let Fe =Force in the connecting rod (Fig. 13.3)
Then equating the horizontal components of forces,
F
Fe X cos f3 =F or F =--
e cos f3
F,
(8+ f3) Ft
Fig. 13.3
o
(Ui) Thrust on the Sides of Cylinder
It is the normal reaction on the cylinder walls.
F; = Fe sin f3 = F tan f3
(iv) Crank Effort
Force .is exerted on the crankpin as a result of the force on the piston. en
effort 1S the net effort (force) applied at the crankpin perpendicular to the c
which gives the required turning moment on the crankshaft.
499
Dnamic Force Anal sis
t F, :::;crank effort
~ F
t
x r =Fe r sine8+13)
F, =Fe sin(8+ 13)
'.
= ~f3 sine8 +f3)
cos
(refer to Fig.l3.3)
(13.20)
Thrust on the Bearings
(II) mponent of F along the crank (in the radial direction) produces a thrust
TheCO e .
the crankshaft beanngs.
00 F
F = Fe cos(8 +f3) = --13 cos(8 +13)
r cos
8
TURNING MOMENT ON CRANKSHAFT
13.
T= F, X r
= ~f3 sin (8 +f3) X r =Fr
f3
(sin 8 cos f3 +cos 8 sin f3)
cos cos
= Fr(sin 8 +cos 8 sin f3 co! f3 )
= Fr(sin 8 +cos 8_
si
_
n
_811~==1===J
n _~n2 -sin
2
8
n
(
. 8 2sin 8 cos 8 J
= Fr sm +-=====
2~n2 - sin
2
8
=F,(Sin0 +2~n~~ :~n20 J
Also as r sin (8 +f3) =OD cos f3
T= F, x r
= ~f3 r sin (8 +f3)
COS
(13.21)
[From Eq. (13.20)]
= ~f3 (OD cos f3)
cos
=Fx OD
E>cample 13.2 A horizontal gas engine running at 210 rpmhas abore of 220 mrn
anda stroke of 440 mm. The connecting rod is 924 mrn long and the reciprocating
Pansweigh 20 kg. When thecrank has turned through anangle of 30 fromtheinner
deadcentre, thegas pressures onthecover and thecrank sides are500 kN/ m2 and 60
kN/rn
2
respectively. Diameter of the piston rod is 40 mm. Determine
(13.22)
Theo 0 Machines
501 D namic Force Anal sis
(i) turning moment on the crank shaft
(ii) thrust on thebearings
(iii) acceleration of theflywheel which has a mass of 8kg and radius of
600 mmwhile the power of theengine is 22 kW. g
Solution
r = 0.44/ 2 = 0.22 m, I = 0.924 m, N = 210 rpm, m= 20 kg, e = 300
2n x 210
n = Ilr = 0.924/ 0.22 = 4.2, w = 60 = 22 radls
net force on thepiston
) thenet load on the gudgeon pin
) thethrust on the cylinder walls . ..,
) the d t which the gudgeon pin load IS reversed 10 direction.
thespee a
)
~..l.,tion 1- 027 m N = 1800rpm, p = 650 kN/m2,
)II" 006 m, -. ,
r ,;:; 2'kg, d = 0.1 m, e = 20
~I.
", ~r Fig. 13.4,
)!.ef
e
n = Ilr = 0.27/ 0.06 = 4.5,
_ 2n x1800 =188.5 rad/s
w - 60
I
B'
sin a = s~ne = sin 30
p =0.119 or (3=6.837
n 4.2
Fp = (PIAl - P02)
= (500 x 10
3
x ~ X 0.22
2
- 60 X 10
3
X ~ X (0.222 _ 0.042)
= 19007- 2206
= 16801 N
270
1/ 2.2e
cos (3=-V n - SIn
n
= _1_~4.5
2
_ sin
2
20 = 0.9971
4.5
(3= 4.36
. n _ sine = sin 20 = 0.076 or (3= 4.360)
(or sin p - n 4.5
Forcedueto gas pressure, Fp= Area x Pressure
- !i(d'P xp = n (0.1)2 x650 X 10
3
- 4 4
= 5105 N
Inertiaforce, r, = mror (cas e +co~2(})
= 1.2 x 0.06 x (188.5)2(cas 200+co~.~Oo)
Inertia force, r, = mf = mrw 2 (cas e +co~2e )
= 20 x 0.22 x (22f(cos 30 +cas 60
0
J = 2098 N
4.2
Piston effort, F = Fp - Fb
= 16801 - 2098 = 14703 N
(i) Turning moment, T = F n sin (e +(3) x r
cos p
B.D.C.
Fig. 13.4
14703
cas 6.837 sin (30 +6.837) x 0.22 = 1953 N.m
= 2840 N
(i) Net (effective) force on the piston, F = Fp - Fb +mg
= 5105 - 2840 +1.2 x 9.81
= 2276.8 N
(ii) Net load on the gudgeon pin = Force in the connecting rod
F 2276.8
= cas (3= 0.9971 = 2283.4 N
(iii) Thrust on the cylinder walls = F tan (3= 2276.8 tan 4.36 = 173.5 N
(iv) Speed at which the gudgeon pin load is reversed in direction,
F = Fp _ mrto: ( cose +co~2(}) +mg
0= 5105 - 1.2 x 0.06w
2
(cas 20 +cO~.~OO)+1.2 x 9.81
0.07991 w
2
= 5116.8
04 2nN = 253.04, N = 2416.3 rpm
W= 253. , 60
(ii) Thrust on thebearings, F, = F n cas (e +(3)
cas p
14703
cas 6.837 cas (30 +6.837) = ] 1 852 N
(iii) Accelerating torque = Turning moment - Resisting torque
Resisting torque can be found from
P = T w or 22000= T x 22 or T = 1000N.m
:. Accelerating torque = 1953 - 1000
or I a = mk? - . a = 953 or 8x 0.6
2
x a = 953
or Acceleration of flywheel, a= 330.9 rad/s?
Example 13.3 The crank and connecting rod of a vertical petrol engine, runni
at 1800 rprn are 60 mm and 270 mm respectively. The diameter of the piston
100 mm and the ma s of the reciprocating parts is 1.2 kg. During the expansiOlJ :
stroke when the crank has turned 20 from the top dead centre, the gas pressure
650 kN/m2. Determine
502
Theo 0 Machines
Example 13.4 In avertical double-acting steamengine. the connecting J 1
times the crank. Weight of the reciprocating parts is ]20 kg and the stroke
piston is 440 mm. The engine runs at 250 rpm. If the net load on the piston
steam pressure is 25 kN when the crank has turned through an angle of 12()O
the top dead centre, determine
(i) the thrust in the connecting rod
(ii) the pressure on slide bars
(iii) the tangential force on the crank pin
(iv) the thrust on the bearings
(v) the turning moment on the crankshaft.
Solution
r = 0.44/2 = 0.22 m, N = 250 rpm, F = 25 kN, m= 120kg, ()= 120, n = 4.5,
co= 2n :0
250
= 26.18 radls
sin f3 = sin() = sin 120 = 0.1925
n 4.5
f3=11.1 or
(
cos 28)
Accelerating force, Fb = mroJ- cos() +-n-
= 120x 0.22 x (26.18)2(cos 1200+cos~~:OO) )
= -11 058 N
Force on the piston, F = Fp +mg - Fb
= 25 000 +120 x 9.81 - (- 11 058)
= 37 235 N
(i) Thrust in the connecting rod,
F 37235
Fe = cos f3 = cos 11.1 = 37 945 N
(ii) Pressure on slide bars,
F; = F tan f3 = 37 235 tan 11.1 = 7305 N
(iii) Tangential force on the crank pin
F, = Fe sin () +f3) = 37 945 x sin(l20 +11.10) = 28 594 N
(iv) Thrust on the bearings,
F, = Fe cos () +f3) = 37 945 x cos(120 +11.1) = - 24 944 N
(v) Turning moment on the crankshaft
T= F, x r = 28 ~94 x 0.22 = 6290.7 N.m
Example 13.5 The crank and the connecting rod of avertical single cylinder
engine running at 1800 rpm are 60 mm and 240 mm respectively. The diame
the piston is 80 mm and the mass of the reciprocating parts is 1.2 kg. At a
during thepower stroke when thepiston has moved 20 mmfromthetop dead
position, thepressure on the piston is 800 kN/m2. Determine
Dynamic Force na YSIS
i) the net force on the piston
(\ the thrust in the connecting rod
~~\ the thrust on the sides of cylinder walls
(1.J \ he en<rinespeed at which the above values are zero.
(Iv) t eo
S
olution
_ 0.06 m, l = 0.24 m, N = 1800 rpm, m = 1.2 kg,
r - 024/0.06 = 4, d = 0.08 m
/1 := .
2n x 1800 _ 1885 dI
co= 60 - .ras
Draw the configuration for the given. po~ition to some
al
(Pig 13.5) and obtain angle () which IS found to be
Sc e o
43.5
0

1
20
T
sin f3 = Si: () = sin ~3.5 = 0.1721
or f3 = 9.91
0
Forcedue to gas pressure,
Fp = Area x Pressure = ~(d)2 X P
= n (0.08)2 x 800 x 10
3
4
= 4021 N
2( COS28)
Acceleratingforce, Fb = mrco cos() +-n-
Fig. 13.5
(
(cos870))
= 1.2 x 0.06 x (188.5)2 cos 43.5 + 4 = 1889N
(i) Force on the piston, F = Fp +mg - Fb
= 4021 +1.2 x 9.81 - 1889
= 2144 N
(ii) Thrust in the connecting rod,
F-~= 2144 =2176N
e - cos f3 cos 9.91
(iii) Thrust on the sides of cylinder walls,
F; = F tan f3 = 2176 tan 9.91
0
= 380 N
(iv) The above values are zero at the speed when the force on the piston F is zero.
F = Fp _ mrco
2
( cos() +co: 28) +mg
0= 4021 - 1.2 x 0.06 co2(cos 43.5 +COS:70) +1.2 x 9.81
0.05317 o.i = 4032.8, co= 75849
2~ON = 275.4, N = 2630 rpm,
Tne w rar:nlne;..-------------,
13.9 DYNAMICALLY EQUIVALENT SYSTEM
In the previous section, the expression for the turning moment of the cranksh
has been obtained for the net force F on the piston. This force F may be the g
force with or without the consideration of inertia force acting on the piston.
the mass of the connecting rod is also significant, the inertia due to the sam
should also be taken into account. As neither the mass of the connecting rod i
uniformly distributed nor the motion is linear, its inertia cannot be found as
such. Usually, the inertia of the connecting rod is taken into account by consid_
ering a dynamically-equiv alent system. Dynamically-equivalent system means
that the rigid link is replaced by a link with two point masses in such a way that
it has the same motion as the rigid link when subjected to the same force, i.e.
the centre of mass of the equivalent link has the same linear acceleration and
the link has the same angular acceleration.
Figure 13.6(a) shows a rigid body of mass mwith centre of mass at G. Let it
be acted upon by a force F which produces linear acceleration f of the centre of
mass as well as the angular acceleration of the body as the force F does not
pass through G.
~G
(a) I
I
i
G
:
)
B o
) 0 o
I~ ~I
b d
(b)
Fig. 13.6
As we know, F = m . f and F . e = I. a
F
Acceleration of G, f =-
m
F'e
Angular acceleration of the body, a=-1-
Where e = perpendicular distance of F from G
And I=moment of inertia of the body about perpendicular axis through G
Now to have the Dynamically-equivalent system, let the replaced massle
link [Fig.13.6(b) has two point masses m
1
(at Band m
2
at D) at distances ban
d respectively from the centre of mass G as shown in Fig. 13.6(b).
I. To satisfy the first condition, as the force F is to. be same, the sum of
equivalent masses ml and m2 has to be equal to m to have the s
acceleration. Thus, m =m
l
+m
2
.
To satisfy the second condition, the numerator F . e and the denominator
Z I must remain same. F is already taken same, thus, e has to be sa~e
which means that the perpendicular distance of F from G should remain
same or the combined centre of mass of the equivalent system remains at
G. This is possible if nub =~d.
have the same moment of inertia of the equivalent system about perpen-
. ~~ar axis through their combined centre of mass G, we must have
dIe 1= m
l
. b +md2 . d
ThuS, any distributed.ma.ss can be re~laced b~~wo point masses to have the
dynamical properties If the following conditions are fulfilled:
same . h I
(i) the sum of the two masses IS eq~al. to t e. tota mass
C) the combined centre of mass coincides With that of the rod
iii) the moment of inertia of two point masses about perpendicular axis through
(Ul .
their combined centre of mass IS equal to that of the rod.
13.10 INERTIA OF THE CONNECTING ROD
Let the connecting rod be replaced by an equivalent massless link with t:-v0
point masses as shown in Fig. 13.7. Let m be the total mass of the connecting
rod and one of the masses be located at the small end B. Let the second mass
beplaced at D and
I( ~I
B
G A
10
!
01
If
I
~I
~I
~
b a
I
(a) I
I
0 A
B G
10 ! 0 01
I(
I
)1
ma
) iE
d
mb
b
md
I
(b)
Fig. 13.7
Take
,
Then,
an d
mb = mass at B, md = mass at D
BG =band DG =d
From (i) and (ii)
mb +md= m
mb . b =md' d
mb + (mb ~) =m
(i)
(ii)
Or
or
d
mb=m--
b+d
b
md= mb+d
1= m
b
b
2
+ m
d
d
2
=m_d~b2 +m_b~d2
b+d b+d
= mbd(b+d)
b+d
= mbd (13
Let k =radius of gyration of the connecting rod about an axis through .
of mass G perpendicular to the plane of motion.
Then mk! =mbd
or . k! =bd . (13
This result can be compared with that of an equivalent length of a si
pendulum in the following manner:
The equivalent length of a simple pendulum is given by
e (~2_
'<': +b=d+b
b -
where b is the distance of the point of suspension from centre of mass of
body and the k is the radius of gyration. Thus, in the present case, d +b (=
is the equivalent length if the rod is suspended from point B, and Dis
centre of oscillation or percussion.
However, in the analysis of the connecting rod, it is much more conve .
if the two point masses are considered to be located at the centre of the two
bearing, i.e. at A and B.
Let ma =mass at A, distance AG =a
Then, ma +mb =m
Similarly,
Also,
b b
m=m-- =m-
a a +b I
a a
mb=m-- =m-
a+b I
I' =mab
Assuming a >d, I' >I.
This means that by considering the two masses at A and B instead of at
and B, the inertia torque is increased from the actual value (T =lac). The e
is corrected by incorporating a correction couple.
Then, Correction couple, j},T =a, (mab - mbd)
=mba; (a - d)
=mba, [(a +b) - (b +d)]
= mba, (l - L) (taking b +d =L)
D namic Force f\:na SIS
. correction couple must be applied in the opposite direction to that of
f\11slied inertia torque. As the direction of the applied inertia torque is
We apP pposite to the direction of the angular acceleration, the direction of the
aYs a I . . .th
~w . n couple will be the same as that of angular acce eration i.e, in e
rr
ectlO
c? tion of decreasing angle f3. .
dlf
eC
orrection couple will be produced by two equal, parallel and opposite
fhe c . di 1 h li
s F acting at the gudgen pin and crankpin ends. perpen ~cuar to t e me
forCetrok~(Fig. 13.8). Force at B is taken by the reaction of guides.
of s
A .... ..
~ ~
\
leos/3 L-J
k.-----:...:.:..~------+ \feos 01
Fig. 13.8
Turning moment at crankshaft due to force at A or correction torque,
T; =Fy x r cas ()
= ~ x r cos () (.: j},T = Fyi cas f3)
Icas f3
j},T cas ()
= (1/ r) cas f3
cos ()
= j},T 1
n-~ n2 -sin
2
()
n
= j},T cas () (13.26)
J n2 - sin? ()
This correction torque is to be deducted from the inertia torque acting on the
crankshaft.
Also, due to the weight of the mass at A, a torque is exerted on the crank-
shaft which is given by
Ta =(mag)r cas () (13.27)
In case of vertical engines, a torque is also exerted on the crankshaft due to
Weight of mass at B and the expression will be similar to Eq. (1 3.21 ), i.e.,
eo 0 Machines
r, =(mbg) r[Sin 8 + sin 28 J
2~n2 _ sin2 8 (13.
The net torque or turning moment on the crankshaft will be the algeb .
~cl ~
(i) the turning moment due to force of gas pressure (T)
(ii) the inertia torque due to inertia force at the piston as a result of inert'
the reciprocating mass including the mass of the portion of the con~a Of
~~~ ~
(iii) the inertia torque due to weight (force) of the mass at the crank pin whi h
is the portion of the mass of the connecting rod taken at the crank pin (:J
(iv) the inertia torque due to correction couple (Tc)
(v) the ~g moment due to weight (force) of the piston in case of vertical
engmes.
Usually, it is convenient to combine the forces at the piston occurring in (ll)
and (v).
13.1 1 INERTIA FORCE IN RECIPROCATING ENGINES
(GRAPHICAL METHOD)
The inertia forces in reciprocating engines can be obtained graphically as fol-
lows (Fig. 13.9).
1. Draw the acceleration diagram by Klein's construction (Refer Sec. 3.9).
Remember that the acceleration diagram is turned through 180 from the
actual diagram and therefore, the directions of accelerations are towards
o[Fig. 13.9(a)].
2. Replace the mass of the connecting rod by dynamically equivalent system
of two masses. If one mass is placed at B, the other will be at D given by
d = k!/ b, where k is the radius of gyration and b and d are the distances of
centre of mass from Band D respectively.
Point D can also be obtained graphically. Draw GE.1 AB at G and take
GE =k. Make LBED =90, and obtain point Don AB.
3. Obtain the accelerations of points G and D from the acceleration diagram
by locating the points g) and d) on Ab
i
which represents the total accel-
eration of the connecting rod.
As AdlAD and AglAG are equal to AblAB, Dd, and Gg, can be
drawn parallel to OB. Thus, d.O and giO represent accelerations of points
D and G respectively.
4. The acceleration of the mass at B is along BO and in the direction B to O.
Therefore, the inertia force due to this mass acts in the opposite direction.
5. The acceleration of the mass at D is parallel to d.O and in the direction dt
to 0, therefore, the inertia force due to this mass acts in the opposite
direction through D. Draw a line parallel to Od, through D to represent
the direction of the inertia force.
D namic Force Anal sis 509
I Q
,f'-,-----------I
II <, I
I I', I
I I', I
;' I <,
I I
I I
I I
I I
e : I
---j...
I
I
I
Fj
~-
, I
-, I
'I
,], F,
I ''T,
I ,
I '
I
I
HD
o
E
(a)
r.
F,
r;
Fj
W
Fb
(b)
Fig. 13.9
Let the lines of action of the two inertia forces due to masses at B and D
meet at L. Then the resultant of the forces which is the total inertia force of the
connecting rod and is parallel to Og, must also pass through point L. There-
fore, draw a line parallel to Og, through L to represent the direction of the
Inertia force of connecting rod.
Now, the connecting rod is under the action of following forces:
Inertia force of reciprocating part F, along OB,
The reaction of the guide Fn' magnitude and direction sense unknown
Inertia force of the connecting rod F;
The weight of the connecting rod W (=mg)
Tangential force F, at the crank pin, to be found
Radial force F, at the crank pin along OA, magnitude and direction sense
unknown.
Produce the lines of action of F; and Fn to meet at J, the instantaneous centre
Of the connecting rod. Draw JP and JQ perpendicular to the lines of action of F;
and Weight W respectively.
10
Theo 0 Machines
For the equilibrium of the connecting rod, taking moments about I
F, x fA =Fb x IB +F, x IP +mg X IQ '
Ob.tain the val~e o~ F( from it and draw the force polygon to fin
magrutudes and directions of forces F, and FIl [Fig.13.9(b)]. 111< 1
In the above equation, F, is the force required for the static eq 'l'b'
th h
.. h c UI I 01 1 -'
e mec arusm or It IS t e rorce required at the crank pin to ov -.q
. . f th . . ercOllle
inertia 0 e reciprocatmg parts and of the connecting rod If it . di
. . In Ie
clockwise torque, then
Inertia torque on the crankshaft = F, x OA counter-clockwise
Ex~mple 13.6 The following data relate to theconnecting rod of arecip
engine:
Mass =50 kg
Distance between bearing centres = 900 mm
Diameter of big end bearing =100mm
Diameter of small end bearing =80 mm
Time of oscillation when the connecting rod is suspended from
big end = 1.7s
small end =1.85 s
Determine:
(i) ~e radius of gyration k of therod about an axis through centre of mass pe
dicular to the plane of oscillation
(ii) the moment of inertia of therod about the same axis, and
(iii) thedynamically equivalent systemof theconnecting rodcomprising two m
one at the small end bearing centre.
Solution
Refer Fig. 13.10.
Let La = length of equivalent simple pendulum when
suspended from the top of big end bearing
Lb = length of equivalent simple pendulum when
suspended from the top of small end bear-
ing
a = distance of centre of mass G from top of
big-end bearing
b = distance of centre of mass G from top of
small-end bearing
ta =2nf!i and tb = 2nfX i
or 1.7=2nf!i ,and
La =0.7181 m and
1.85 =2n) La
9.81
Lb= 0.8505 m
or
k2 k2
or a + a= 0.7181 and b + b = 0.8505
or ~ = 0.7181a - a
2
= 0.8505b _ b
2
T
b b'
a
Fig. 13.10
Dynamic Force Analysis
511
100 80
b =" 900 + 2+2= 990 nun =0.99 m or a = 0.99 - b
a-l-
t es 0.7181(0.99 _ b) _ (0.99 - b)2 = 0.8505b - b
2
n be
corn
2
:. (I 0.7109 _ 0.7181b - (0.9801 +b
2
- 1.98b) = 850~b - b
or 0.4115b =0.2692
b = 0.654 mand a = 0.99 - 0.654 = 0.336 m
~ =0.8505 x 0.654 - (0.654)2 = 0.1286
k = 0.358 m
or MOl, I = m~ = 50 X (0.358)2 =6.4 kg.nr'
. e of centre of mass of connecting rod from the centre of small end bearing,
DlstanC
, _ 654- (80/2) =614 nun
b -th second mass be placed at D. Take GD =d and md =mass at D
Let e
e 0.1285
d =b' =0.614 =0.209 m
Then,
mx.b' 50xO.614
md =b' +d =0.614 +0.209
37
.
3
kg
m; = 50 - 37.3 =12.7 kg,( m; =mass at the small end bearing centre)
Example 13.7 The following data relate to a horizontal reciprocating engine:
Massof reciprocating parts = 120kg, crank length =90 mm,
enginespeed =600 rpm
Connecting rod:
Mass = 90 kg
Length between centres = 450 mm
Distance of centre of mass frombig end centre =180mm
Radius of gyration about an axis through centre of mass = 150 mm
Find the magnitude and the direction of the inertia torque on the crankshaft when
thecrank has turned 30 fromthe inner-dead centre.
Solution
It isrequired to find the inertia torque or turning moment on the crankshaft due to the
inertiaof the piston as well as of theconnecting rod. This can be obtained by analytical
Or graphical methods.
Analytical Method
2nN 2nx 600
OJ =60= 60 = 62.8 rad/s
Divide the mass of the connecting rod into two parts (refer Fig. 13.11).
(
450-180)
Mass at crank pin, ma = 90 x 450 = 54 kg
Mass at gudgeon pin, mb = 90 - 54 =36 kg
Total mass of reciprocating parts, m = 120+36 =156kg
. ., 2( COS2B)
ACceleratIOnof the reciprocatmg parts, f = rOJ cose +-n-
512
Theory 0 Machines
G
~A""""'"
o . . .
JJ. _
Ft
Fig. 13.11
As e is less than 90, it is towards right and thus the inertia force is t
owards left.
I
. 2( cos 2())
nertia force, Fb = mf = mrto cose +~n-
= 156 x0.09 x (62.8)2(cos 300+COS
5
600)
= 53 490 N
Inertia torque due to reciprocating parts,
r, = Fr [Sine +~=s"",in=2(}==l
2~n2 - sin
2
e
= 53 490 x0.09 [Sin 30 + sin60 1
2~(5)2 - sin
2
30
= 2826 N.m (counter-clockwise as inertia force is towards 1
Correction couple due to assumed second mass of connecting rod at A,
!J.T= macb(l- L) [Eq. (I3.~
where b = 450 - 180 = 270 mm, 1= 450 mm
and L =b + kb
2
=270 + (l;~r=353.3 mm
[Eg. (13.16)]
=-(62.8)2 sin 30[ 52-1 ] =-3847 rad/s''
(25- sin' 30)3/ 2 .
.. !J.T=90 x (-384.7) x 0.27 x (0.45 - 0.3533)
= -903.97 N.m
. T~e di.rection?f t~e correction c?uple will be the same as that of angular accel~
tron, I.~. m the direction of decreasing angle f3 as discussed in Sec. 13.7. Thus- It
clockwise.
Dynamic Force Analysis
513
~
'. correction torque on the crankshaft,
T; =!J.T cos f)
~ n2 - sin' f)
cos 30
=-903.97 x -;=~===
~25- sin
2
30';-
=-157.4 N.m
correction torque is tobe deducted fromthe inertia torque on the crankshaft or as the
e
F dueto !J.T(which is clockwise) is towards left of the crankshaft, the correction
fore y .
qu
e is counter-clockwise.
(Of .
Torquedue to weight of mass at A, To= (mo g) r cos e
=54 x 9.81 x 0.09 x cos 30
= 41.3 N.m counter-clockwise
. Total inertia torque on the crankshaft =Tb - T, +To
.' 2826 - (-157.4) +41.3
= 3024.7 N. mcounter-clockwise
Graphical Method
Drawthe configuration diagram OAB of the engine mechanism to a convenient scale
(Fig. 13.12) and its velocity and acceleration diagrams by Klein's construction (Refer
Section3.9).
Va =tor =62.8 x 0.09 =5.65 rnls
fa =0)2r =(62.8)2 x0.09 =355 m/s2
Locate points b, and gl in the acceleration diagram to find the accelerations of
points B and G. Measure blO and gp. As length OA in the diagram represents the
accelerationof A relative to 0, i.e. 355 rnls2, therefore, A can be obtained from
length bP
fb = 355 x length OA
fb =343.2 rnls2
fg = 345 rnls2
Fb =mb X fb = 120 x343.2 =41 186N
F, =m xfg =90 x 345 =31 050 N
Complete the diagram of Fig. 13.12(a) as discussed in Sec. 13.11. Taking moments
aboutI,
FtxIA =FbX IB+ FixIP+ mgxIQ
F,: 515 =41186 x 300 +31 050 x 152 +90 x 9.81 x 268
F
t
=33 615.5 N
T =F( x r =33615.5 x 0.9 =3025.4 N.m
Instead of taking moments about the I-centre, principle of virtual work can also be
apPliedto obtain the torque as follows:
On the velocity diagram [Fig. 13.12(b)], locate the points b, hand g corresponding
to B, Hand G respectively and take the components of velocities in the directions of
forces F
b
, F; and mg. In Klein's construction, the velocity diagram in turned through
90. Then
It is found to be
Similarly,
T x 0) =Fb X Vb +F; x V" +mg X Vg
T x 62.8 = 41 186 x 3.29 +31 050 x 1.67+90 x 9.81 x 2.94
T =2157.6 +825.7 +41.3 = 3024.6 N.m
Theo 0 Machines
I
-- - - - - - - - - - - - Q
/'" I
I I <, I
I
I -,
I '
I I
/ I
p": I
I'
I
I
I
W
(mg)
,
,
.....
.....
.....
.....
.....
.....
.....
E
(a)
a
w
(c)
r,
Ft
R
5.65
(m/s) r,
(b)
Fig. 13.12
o
If it is desired to find the resultant force on the crank, complete the force diagram as
shown in Fig. 13.12(c).
Resultant force on the crank pin, R = 70 000 N at 0
Example 13.8 The connecting rod of a vertical reciprocating engine is 2 m long
between centres and weighs 250 kg. The mass centre is 800 mm from the big end
bearing. When suspended as a pendulum from the gudgeon pin axis, it makes 8
complete oscillations in 22 seconds. Calculate the radius of gyration of the rod about
an axis through its mass centre. The crank is 400 mm long and rotates at 200 rprn.
Find the inertia torque exerted on the crankshaft when the crank has turned through
40 from the top dead centre and the piston is moving downwards.
. Solution
Analytical Method
Divide the mass of the rod into two parts (Fig. 13.13),
Mass at the crank pin,
ma = 250 x 2.0- 0.8 = 150 kg
2.0
Mass at the gudgeon pin,
mb = 250 - 150 = J 00 kg
Dnamic Force Anal sis
(
cos W)
f"" mrw
2
cos e +-n-
(
27r X 200)2 ( cos 800)
"" 100 x 0.4 x 60 cos 40 + 2/ 0.4
"" 100 x 0.4 x438.6 x 0.8
_ 14049 N
. is a vertical engine, the weight (force) of the
AS It f the connecting rod at the piston pin also can be
.000 . .
p OrU . ed with this force I.e.
cO(1lb
lO
f
ce ==14049 - 100 x 9.81 = 13068 N
Net Of (upwards)
t, ==Fr (,in6+ ~"'" W, I
2 n2 - SIn e )
"13968 X 0.4(,in40
0
+2)~i~:'40" J
==13 068 x 0.4 x 0.7421
==3879.1 N.m counter-clockwise
e
We have, b + b = L
where b = 2.0 - 0.8 = 1.2 m and L can be found from
It 22 _ ~ L
t = 27r\j g or 8-27r 9.81
or L =1.88 m
12 ~ ==1.88 or J? = 0.816 or k = 0.903
. + 1.2
Or Radius of gyration =903 mm
a; = _W2 sin e [(n2 _n:i:/ e)3/ 2]
=-438.6 sin 40
Fig; 13.13
==-55.5 rad/s
2
f).T = ma.b (1 -L)
= 250 X (-55.5) - 1.2 - (2.0 - 1.88)
=-1998 N.m ... Ie
The direction of the correction couple will be in the direction of decreasing ang
~as discussed earlier. Thus, it is clockwise.
516 Theo 0 Machines
The correction torque on the crankshaft,
cose cos 40
Tc = 6.T I . = -1998 x I = - 308.7 N
"n2 - sm
2
e ,,25 - sin
2
400 m
Correction torque is to be deducted from the inertia torque on the crankshaft
the force Fy due to 6.T (which is clockwise) is towards left on the upper . or
crankshaft, the correction torque is counter-clockwise. SIde
Torque due to weight of mass at A, Ta= mag r sin e
= 150x 9.81 X 0.4 sin 40
= 378.3 N.mclockwise
Total inertia torque on crankshaft = Tb - T; +Ta
= 3879.1 - (-308.7) - 378.3
= 3809.5 N.m
Graphical Method
Draw the configuration diagram OAB of the engine mechanism to a convenient
(Fig. 13.14) and its velocity and acceleration diagrams by Klein's construction. (
Sec. 3.9.)
2nN 2nx200
(j) = 60= 60 = 20.94 rad/s
fa = (j)2r = (20.94)2 X 0.4 = 175.4 rnIs2
p
....
/ .
/ .
/ .
/ <,
--c...--..----~- - - - -- - - =r: - - - -- -- --
/
/
/
/
B Q
Fr
Fig. 13.14
~
complete thediagram of Fig. 13.14 as discussed in Sec. 13.11. Locate points b, and
.0 theacceleration diagram to find theaccelerations of points B and G. Measure blO
gl~giO. As length OA inthediagram represents the acceleration of A relative to 0, i.e.
1Ii154 rn/s
2
, therefore, fb can be obtained from
)1 .
length bP
fb = 175.4 X length OA
. foundto befb= 143.8 rn/s
2
Similarly,fg= 153.4 mls2
It I~owever, in this problem as the mass of the reciprocating parts is not given, inertia
dueto same is not to be calculated and thus, fb is not required.
force
,,' F, = m xfg = 250 x 153.4 = 38350 N
0",
rakingmoments about I, F, xfA = F, X IP - mg xIQ
F, x260.9 = 38350 x76.2 - 250 x9.81 x 176
F, = 9546 N.m
T = F, x r = 9546 x0.4 = 3818 N.m
Example 13.9 For Example 13.8, determine theturning moment onthecrankshaft
if the bore of the cylinder is 700 mm and the gas pressure is 600 kN/m2. Also
considerthemass of the piston which is 120kg.
Solution
Totalreciprocating mass at B = 100 +120= 220 kg
Forcedueto reciprocating mass,
( )
2 ( )
2n x200 cos 80
F = 220 x 0.4 x 60 cos 40 + 2/0.4
= 220 x0.4 x438.6 x0.8
= 30877 N
Netforceon the piston = 30 877 - 100 x9.81 = 29 896 N
In . [. 40 sin 80 1
ertiatorque = 29896 x0.4 sin + ~
2 25- sin
2
40
= 29896 x 0.4 x 0.7421
= 8874.3 N.m
N .
etInertiatorque on crankshaft = 8874.3 - (-308.7) - 378.3 = 8804.7 N.m = 8.8047
Ow areaof the cylinder bore = ~(0.7)2 = 0.384 85 m2
Gas force = 0.384 85 x 600 = 230.9 kN
Turning moment = 230.9 x 0.4 x 0.1421
10 = 68.54 N.m
erefore, turning moment available at thecrankshaft = 68.54 - 8.8047
= 59.735 kN.m
!l(arn ple 13.10 The piston diameter of aninternal combustion engine is 125mm
~d thestroke is 220 mm. The connecting rod is4.5 times thecrank length and has a
tnassof 50 kg. The mass of the reciprocating parts is 30 kg. The centre of mass of
a~connecting rod is 170 mmfrom the crank pin centre and the radius of gyration
ur an axis through the centre of mass is 148 mm. The engine runs at 320 rpm.
----~n:l!J -------~-Tlieory OJ lVlacmnes
Find the magnitude and the direction of the inertia force and the cortes
torque on the crankshaft when the angle turned by the crank is 140
0
fromthe
dead centre.
Solution
Analytical Method
r = 220/2 =110 mm, N = 320 rpm, d = 125mm, 1= 110x 4.5 = 495 rnm
2nN _ 2n x 320 _ 33 5 d/
w =60- 60 - . ra s
Divide the mass of the connecting rod into two parts. (Refer Fig. 13.15.)
.A
B
r.
F - .-._._._._.
b 77"77777
Fig. 13.IS
(
495 -170)
Mass at crank pin, ma = 50 x 495 = 32.83 kg
Mass at gudgeon pin, mb = 50 - 32.83 =17.17 kg
Total mass of reciprocating parts, m = 30 + 17.17 = 47.17 kg
Acceleration of the reciprocating parts, f = mroi" ( cos8+co: 28)
As 8is more than 90
0
, it is negative or towards left and thus, the inertia f
towards right.
Inertia force, r,= mf = mrw
2
(COS8+co: 28)
(
cos 280
0
) 36
= 47.17 x 0.11 x (33.5)2 cos 140
0
+ 4.5 = -42
Inertia torque due to reciprocating parts,
[
sin 28 1
Tb = Fr sin8 + ~
2 n2 -sin2 8
[
sin280
0
]
= -4236 x 0.11 sin 140
0
+ ~ 2 2
2 (4.5) - sin 140
0
= -248 N.m
(clockwise as inertia force is towards right)
... --------~--""R:Y:-n-a:-m=::ic:-F}7;;;oO::;rc~P"e 'AnalYSIS 519
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~~~~~~~~- - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~~~- - ~
correction couple due to as umed second mass of connecting rod at A,
sr ==macb(l- L) [Eq. (13.25)]
where b = 495 - 170= 325 mrn, 1= 495 mrn
L = b + s: = 325 + (148)2 ==392.4 mm
and b 325
a; = _w
2
sin 8[(/12_nS2i:2~)3/ 2 ] [Eq. (13.16)]
==-(35.5)2 sin 140
0
[ 4.5
2
-1 ] ==-157.17 rad/s''
(4.5-sin
2
140
0
)312
.. I1T = 50 x (-157.17) x 0.325 x (0.495 - 0.3924) = -262.04 N.m
The direction of the correction couple will be the same as that of angular accelera-
tion, i.e. in the direction of decreasing angle f3 as discussed in Sec. 13.7. Thus, it is
clockwise.
:. Correction torque on the crankshaft,
cosl40
= -262.04 x I = 45.07 N'm
'V 4.5
2
- sin
2
140
0
Correction torque is to be deducted from the inertia torque on the crankshaft or as
the force Fy due to 11T (which is clockwise) is towards right of the crankshaft, the
correctiontorque is clockwise.
Torque due to weight of mass at A, Ta = (mag) r cos 8
= 32.83 x 9.81 x 0.11 x cos 140
0
= -27.14 N.m counter-clockwise
:. Total inertia torque on the crankshaft ==Tb - T; +Ta
= -248 - 45.07 - 27.14
= 320.2 clockwise
Graphical Method
Drawthe configuration diagram OAB of the engine mechanism to a convenient scale
(Fig. 13.16) and its velocity and acceleration diagrams by Klein's construction.
_ 2n N _ 2n x 320 _ 33 5 d/
w - 60 - 60 - . ra s
Va ==car ==33.5 x 0.11 = 3.685 mls
fa ==w
2
r = (33.5)2 x 0.11 = 123.4 mls2
.Locate points b J and gj in the acceleration diagram to find the accelerations of
PoUltsBand G. Measure bjO and giO. As length OA in the diagram represents the
aCcelerationof A relative to 0, i.e. 123.4 mls2, therefore.j', can be obtained from
It
IS fOUndto be
qO
fb = 123.4 x OA
fb = 89.6 mls2
o;,e;v
lheor 0 'Machines
E
/'
/'
/'
/'
/'
/'
/'
/'
/'
/'
/'
/'/' G
/'
/'
/'
Q
Fig. 13.16
Similarly, I
g
= 106.7 rnls2
.. Fb= mb X Ib = 30 x 89.6 = 2688 N, F
i
= m <t, = 50 x 106.7 = 5335 N
Complete the diagram of Fig. 13.16 as discussed in Sec. 13.11. Taking moments
about I,
F,: fA = FbX IB +FiX IP +mg xIQ
F, x 0.64 = 2688 x 0.340 +5335 x 0.138 +50 x 9.81 x 0.322
r, = 2825.1 N
T = F, x r = 2825.1 x 0.11= 310.7 N.m
The difference of results by analytical and graphical methods can bedue to practical
error in drawing the Klei~'s construction and also because theequation used in analyti-
cal solution for acceleration are only approximate.
Example 13.11 Fig. 13.17(a) shows thelink mechanism of aquick-return mecha-
nismof the slotted lever type with the following dimensions:
OA = 40 mrn, OP = 20 mm, AR = 70 rnm, RS = 30 mm.
The crank OA rotates at 210 rpm. The centres of mass of thelinks AR and RS 810
at their respective mid points. The mass of link AR is 15kg and radius of gyrati
265 mmabout thecentre of mass. The mass of link RS is 6kg and radius of gyrati
90 mrn about the centre of mass. Reciprocating mass is 5 kg at slider S. Dete
the torque required to be applied on the crank OP to overcome the inertia forces
the mechanism.
Dynamic F'orce Analysis 521
s
P
350'
o,a 5
vs-'-- -'
2.76 -~ 4.12
(b)
(a)
fcr
OJ ,a1 51
~~
\
fsr
(c)
\
f~ \
r1 \
-
-
\ >
f~a
qa
d1 \
\
fpo
\
\
e \
qp \
\
\
\
-
-
P1
\
\
fcr
(d)
\..1..- qp
qp
Fig. 13.17
SO l u t i o n
Firstof all, draw theconfiguration diagram to some suitable scale and find thedynamic
equivalentmasses on links AR and RS.
link AR: m = 15kg, 1= 700 mrn, k = 265 mrn
Placingone dynamic mass at A and theother at D where D is located by
k2 265
2
AD = AG, + AG = 350 + 350 = 550.6 mm
N '
ow, mass at D is calculated from, md x AD = m x GD
Or
Or md x 550.6 = 15x 350
md = 9.54 kg and ma = 15- 9.54 = 5.46 kg
522 Thea a Machines
Link RS: m= 6 kg, 1 = 300 mm, k = 90 mm
Placing one dynamic mass at S and the other at E where E is located by
k2 90
2
SE = SG' + SG' = 150+ 150 = 204 mm
Now, mass at E is calculated from, me X SE = m X SG'
or me X 204 = 6 X 150
or me = 4.41 kg and ms = 1.59 kg
Total mass at S, ms = 1.59 +5= 6.59 kg
Velocity and Acceleration Diagrams
Draw the velocity and acceleration diagrams as shown inFig. 13.17. The procedure
been described in Example 3.7. Locate point d and e in the velocity dia
corresponding to points D and E respectively in the configuration diagram and in
similar way d] and e] in the acceleration diagram.
Acceleration of D = a.d. = 36.1 rnIs2
Inertia force of mass at D = 9.54 X 36.1 = 344.8 N
Velocity of D = ad
Taking its components along and .1 to inertia force at D,
Component along the force =2.76 mls
Work done =344.8 X 2.76 =952 N.m
Acceleration of E = 36.63 rnIs2
Inertia force of mass at E = 4.41 X 36.63 = 161.2 N
Velocity of E = oe
Taking its components along and .1 to inertia force at E,
Component along the force = 4.12 rnIs
Work done = 161.2 x4.12 = 664 N.m
Acceleration of S =32.8 mls2
Inertia force of mass at S = 6.59 x 32.8 = 216 N
Velocity of S = os = 4.5 mls
Work done = 216 x4.5 = 973 N.m
Total work done = 952 +664 +973 = 2589 N.m
This work must be equal to the torque to be applied to the crankshaft.
Let Fp be the force applied by the slider on the link AR which is .1 to AR.
Velocity of E =op
Its components along the force = oq = 3.26 mls
Work done by Fp = (Fp x3.26)
Equating (i) and (ii), Fp x3.26 = 2589
.. Fp =794 N
Thus, the required torque =Fp xh
h = 149.&mm (on measurement fromthe configuration diagram)
T = 568 x0.1498 = 119N.m
13.12 TURNING-MOMENT DIAGRAMS
During one revolution of the crankshaft of a steam engine or IC eng
torque on it varies and is given by
T= F, x r
Dynamic Force Analysis 523
= Fr(sin B + sin 28) [refer Eq. (3.21)]
2) n2 - sin
2
B
bere F is the net piston effort.
W A plot of Tvs. B.is known a~turning-m~ment di~gram. Th~inertia effect of
the connecting rod IS, .usual~y, Ignored while drawing these diagrams, but can
taken into account If desired,
beAs T = F/ X r, a plot of F, vs. (J (known as crank effort diagram) is identical
aturning-mom~nt diagram.
to Turning-moment diagrams for different types of engines are being given
beloW:
I.Single-cylinder Double-acting Steam Engine
Figure 13.18 shows a turning-moment diagram for a single-cylinder double-
acting steam engine. Crank angle (J is represented along the x-axis and the
turning-moment along the y-axis. It can be observed that during the outstroke
(ogp) the turning moment is maximum when the crank angle is a little less than
90 and zero when the crank angle is zero and 180. A somewhat similar
turning-moment diagram is obtained during the instroke (pkg).
9
c
Q) I.
E
o
E
OJ
c:
'c
~
o a c 3m2 d
Crankangle
Fig. 13.18
Note that the area of the turning-moment diagram is proportional to the
Workdone per revolution as the work is the product of turning-moment and the
angle turned.
The mean torque against which the engine works is given by
~a~~. ..
De :::: 2,. where oe IS the mean torque and IS the mean height of the
tu .
I11ing-moment diagram.
e ':"hen the crank turns from angle oa to ob (Fig. 13.18), the work done by the
t:
gIne
.is represented by area afghb. But the work done against the resisting
thrque IS representing by the area ajhb. Thus, the engine has done more work
fg~ W~at has been taken from it. The excess work is represented by the area
fh, . ThIS excess work increases the speed of the engine and is stored in the
J Wheel.
524
namic Force Anal sis
Theor a Machines
11211
During the crank travel from ob or oc, the work needed for the ex.
resistance is proportional to bhjc, whereas the work produced by the engi
represented by the area under hpj. Thus, during this period, more work
been taken from the engine that is produced. The loss is made up by
flywheel which gives up some of its energy and the speed decreases during
period.
Similarly, during the period of crank travel from oc to od, excess WOrk
again developed and is stored in the flywheel and the speed of the en .
increases. During the crank travel from od to oa, the loss of work is made
by flywheel and the speed again decreases.
The areas fgh, hpj, jkl and lqf represent fluctuations of energy of the ft
wheel. When the crank is at b, the flywheel has absorbed energy while
crank has moved fromato b and thereby, the speed of the engine is maxim
At c, theflywheel has given out energy while the crank has moved fromb to
and thus, theengine has aminimum speed. Similarly, the engine speed isa
maximum at d and minimum at a. Thus, there are two maximum and
minimum speeds for the turning-moment diagram.
The greatest speed is the greater of the two maximum speeds and theI
speed is the lesser of the two minimum speeds.
The difference between the greatest and the least speeds of the engine0
one revolution'is known as thefluctuation of speed.
2. Single-cylinder Four-stroke Engine
In case of a four-stroke internal combustion engine, the diagram repeats i
after every two revolutions instead of one revolution as for a steam engine.
can be seen from the diagram (Fig. 13.19) that for the majority of the su .
stroke, turning moment is negative but becomes positive after point p. .
the compression stroke, it is totally negative. It is positive throughout
expansion stroke and again negative for most of the exhaust stroke.
In has aless variation than that for a single cylinder. In a three-cylinder
dill~r~having its cranks at 120, the variation is still less.
eJ lgI~ure 13.20 shows the turning moment diagram for amulticylinder engine.
fIg ean torque line ab intersects theturning moment curve at c, d, e, f, g and
'file ~ area under the wavy curve is equal to the area oabk. As discussed
h ~ e the speed of the engine will be maximum when the crank positions
"<ber, h d .. di d
e... pond to d, f and ,an rrurumumcorrespon mg to c, e an g.
c
ocres
'E
Q)
E
o
E
Cl
c
'c
~ k
o Crankangle 21 f
Fig. 13.20
13.13 FLUCTUATION OF ENERGY
Letai, a3, and as be the areas in work units of the portions above the mean
torqueab of the turning-moment diagram (Fig. 13.20). These areas represent
quantitiesof energies added to the flywheel. Similarly, areas a2' a4 and a6
belowab represent quantities of energies taken fromthe flywheel.
Theenergies of the flywheel corresponding to positions of the crank are as
follows:
'E
Q)
E
o
E
. ~o~- - ~~~- - - - ~- - - - ~~- - ~~4~r r
~
Crank position Flywheel energy
c E
d E+ a,
e E +a, - ~
f E+~-~+~
g E +a, - a2 +a3- a4
h E +a, - a2 +a3- a4 +as
c E+~-~+~-~+~-~
~~omthe two values of the energies of the flywheel corresponding to the
PoSItionc, it is concluded that
aI-a2 +a3- a4 +as- a6 = 0 .
Wh1'hegreatest of these energies is the maximum kinetic energy of the fly- -
eel and for the corresponding crank position, the speed is maximum.
IhTheleast of these energies is the least kinetic energy of theflywheel and for
ecorresponding crank position, the speed is minimum.
flyThedifference between the maximum and minimum kinetic energies of the
Ihi:
heel
. is known as the maximum fluctuation of energy, whereas the ratio of
!be maximumfluctuation of energy to the work done per cycle is defined as
cOefficient of fluctuation of energy.
Exhaust
Fig. 13.19
3. Multi-cylinder. Engines
As observed in the foregoing paragraphs, the turning-moment diagram
single-cylinder engine varies considerably and agreater variation of th~s
observed in case of four-stroke, single-cylinder engine. For engines with
than one cylinder, the total crankshaft torque at any instant is given by the.
of the torques developed by each cylinder at the instant. For example.
engine has two cylinders with cranks at 90, the resultant turning rn
528 Theory of Machines
The difference between the greatest speed and the least speed is know
the maximum fluctuation of speed and the ratio of the maximum fluctuation
speed to the mean speed is the coefficient of fluctuation of speed. n
13.14 FLYWHEELS
A flywheel is used to control the variations in speed during each cycle f
engine. A flywheel of suitable dimensions attached to the crankshaft 0
the moment of inertia of the rotating parts quite large and thus, a~ts
reservoir of energy. During theperiods when the supply of energy is moreas
required, it stores energy and during the periods the requirements is more
the supply, it releases energy.
Let I=moment of inertia of the flywheel
0) 1 =maximum speed
0)2 = minimum speed
0) =mean speed
E =kinetic energy of the flywheel at mean speed
e =maximum fluctuation of energy
K =coefficient of fluctuation of speed
1212122
e = "210)1 -"2 10)2 = "2I(O)! - 0)2)
or
e
2E
Example 13.12 A punching machine carries out 6holes per minute. Each
40 mmdiameter in 35 mmthick plate requires 8N.mof energy/mrn/ of thes
area. The punch has a stroke of 95 nun. Find the power of the motor required
mean speed of theflywheel is 20 mls.
If total fluctuation of speed is not to exceed 3% of the mean speed, dete
mass of the flywheel.
Solution
d = 40 mm, K = 0.03, t = 35 mm, Stroke = 95 mm, v = 20 rnIs
As 6 holes are punched in one minute, time required to punch one hole is 10s.
Energy requiredlhole 'or energy supplied by the motor in 10seconds
= area of hole x energy required /mm
2
= ndt x 8= 35 186N.m
Energy supplied by the motor in 1 second = 351~86= 3518.6 N.m
Power of the motor, P = 3518.6 W or 3.5186 kW
The punch travels a distance of 190 nun (upstroke +downstroke) in 10
(6 holes are punched in 1 minute).
.. Actual time required to punch a hole in 35 mmthick plate = 1~00x 35 = l.842 s
energy supplied by the motor in 1.842 s =3518.6 x 1.842 =6481 N.m
e ergy supplied by the flywheel
n e = Energy requiredlhole - Energy supplied by the motor in 1.842 s
= 35 186- 6481 = 28705 N.m
2 xK xE = 28 705
or
2xO.03xE=28705 or E=478417
im~ = 478417 or im (20)2 = 478417 or m= 2392 kg
or
Example 13.13 The turning-moment diagram for a petrol engine is drawn to a
vertical scale of 1nun = 500 N.m and ahorizontal scale of lmm = 3. The turning-
moment diagram repeats itself after every half revolution of the crankshaft. The
areasabove and below the mean torque line are:'60, -580, 80, -380,870, and -250
rom2. The rotating parts have amass of 55 kg and radius of gyration of 2.1 m. If the
enginespeed is 1600rpm, determine the coefficient of fluctuation of speed.
solution
Letflywheel KE at a = E
at b = E +260, at c = E +260 - 580 = E - 320
at d =E - 320 +80 = E - 240, at e = E - 240 - 380 = E - 620
atf =E - 620 +870 =E +250
at g=E +250 - 250 =E
Maximum energy =E +260
Minimum energy = E - 620
(refer Fig. 13.21)
(atb)
(at e)
870
1
Turning
moment
Crankangle ---
580 380 250
Fig. 13.21
M'
aXtrnumfluctuation of energy,
e
max
=(E +260) - (E - 620) x Hor. scale x Vert. scale
= 880 x (3 x 1~0) x 500 = 23038 N.m
K= _e_= __e_= 23038
I w
2
mk
2
w
2
(600)2
55X 2.12X 2n ~~
K = 0.0034 or 0.34%
Examp le 1 3.1 4 The turning moment diagram for a multicylinder engine
been drawn to avertical scale of 1mm= 650 N.mand ahorizontal scale of 1 nun
4.5
0
The areas above and below the mean torque line are -28, +380, -260, +31
-300, +242, -380, +265 and -229 mm".
The fluctuation of speed is limited to 1.8%of themean speed which is 400 rp
Density of the rim material is 7000 kg/nr' and width of the rim is 4.5 times i
thickness. The centrifugal stress (hoop stress) in the rim material is limited
6 N/mm2. Neglecting the effect of the boss and arms, determine the diameter
cross-section of the flywheel rim.
Solution
p = 7000 kg/m
3
,f = 6 X 10
6
N/m2, N = 400 rpm, K = 0.018 +0.Q18= 0.036, b = 4.5t
From the consideration of strength of materials,
!= pv
2
or 6 x 10
6
= 7000 X v
2
v = 29.28 mls
ndn = n x d x 400 = 2928 or d = 1.398 m
60 60 .
Let flywheel KE at a = E
at b = E - 28
at c = E - 28 +380 = E +352
at d = E +352 - 260 = E +92
at e = E +92 +310 = E +402
at!= E +402 - 300 = E +102
at g = E +102 +242 = E +344
at h = E +344 - 380 = E - 36
atj = E - 36 +265 = E +229
at k = E +229 - 229 = E
Maximum energy = E +402 (at e),
Minimum energy = E - 36 (at h)
Maximum fluctuation of energy,
e
max
= (E +402) - (E - 36) x Hor. scale x Vert. scale
= 438 x (4.5 x I~O) x 650 = 22 360 N.m
or
380
a
b
C 28
<Il
E
0
E
Ol
c
c
~
0
300 380
Crankangle
Fig. 1 3.22
229
1
1
1
I
I
1
1
2n
,--==================~~ D~y ~n ~a ~m ~~~r ~o ~~~c e ~R ~n ~a ~r y ~s ~l s ~~5~2~9~ __ ~
0.036 = 22360 m = 724.5 kg
mC~8J en~400 r '
Of Density x Volume = 724.5 or p x (zd) x t x 4.5t = 724.5
or 7000 x n x 1.398 x t x 4.5t = 724.5
or t::: 0.0512 m or 51.2 mm, b = 4.5 x 51.2 = 230.3 mm
Examp le 1 3.1 S A three-cylinder single-acting engine has its cranks at 1200 The
turning moment diagram for each cycle is a triangle for the power stroke with a
maximumtorque of 60 N'm at 60
0
after thedead centre of thecorresponding crank.
Thereis no torque on the return stroke. The engine runs at 400 rpm. Determine
(i) the power developed
(ii) the coefficient of fluctuation of speed if the mass of theflywheel is 10kg and
radius of gyration 88 mm
(iii) the coefficient of fluctuation of energy
(iv) themaximum angular acceleration of flywheel.
Solution
The turning moment diagram for each cylinder is shown in Fig. 13.23(a) and
theresultant turning moment diagram for the three cylinders combine is shown in
Fig. l3.23(b). .
(i) Work done/cycle = Area of three triangles = 3 x (60 x n/2) = 90n
Work done/cycle 90n
Mean torque = Angle turned =2n = 45 N.m
2n x 400
P = Tw ::: 45 x 60 = 1885W or 1.885kW
(ii) As the area above or below the mean torque line is the maximum fluctuation of
energy,
60x n 1
emax = 180 x (60- 45) x 2"= 2.5 tt N.m
2.5n = 0.0578 or 5.78%
10x 0.088
2
en~400J
(iii) Coefficient of fluctuation of energy,
K = Maximum fluctuation of energy
e Work done/cycle
;g; = 0.0278
0
0
120
0
80
0
240
0
300
0
360
0
Crankangle ---~
(b)
60
0
Fig. 13.23
(iv) Maximum fluctuation of torque = 60 - 45 = 15N.m
.. t1T= 15N.m
or fa =mk? -a =15 or 10x (0.088)2 x a =15
or a= 193.7 rad/s"
Example 13.16 The turning moment diagram of afour-stroke engine is ass
to be represented by four triangles, the areas of which fromthe line of zero p
are
Suction stroke = 440 mm2
Compression stroke = 1600 mm2
Expansion stroke = 7200 mm2
Exhaust stroke = 660 mm2
Each mnr' of area represents 3 N.m of energy. If the resisting torque is
determine themass of therimof aflywheel to keep the speed between 218 and
rpmwhen the mean radius of the rimis to be 1.25m...
namu: rorce Ana SlS---------~.1.
O hl t i o n . ' "
S. afour-stroke engme, thus, acycle is completed m2n radians. The turrung moment
It IS . F'
diagram is shown in rg. 13.24.
I
Tmax
E
r
Turning
moment
(N.m.)
Tmean
0
Crankangle
Fig. 13.24
Theenergy is produced only in the expansion stroke, whereas in other three strokes
itisspent only.
Net energy produced in one cycle
= [7200 - (440 +1600+660)] x 3
= 13 500 N.m
Also T
mean
x 4 n = 13 500 or T
mean
= 1074 N.m
Energyproduced during expansion stroke = 7200 x 3 = 21 600 N.m
Also Tmax X n
2
Intriangle ABE,
= 21 600 or T
max
= 13 751 N.m
CD EG 13751-1074 12677
AB = EF - 13751 13751 = 0.9219
Or CD = 0.9219 x x = 2.896 rad
andrnaximumfluctuation of energy,
e =Area CDE =CD; EG =2.896~12677 =18356 N.m
= i XmX 1.252[(~~y (222
2
-218
2
)]
= 15.0786 m m= 1217.4kg
Example 13.17 The torque delivered by atwo-stroke engine is represented
T = (1000 +300 sin 28 - 500 cos 28) N.m
Where 8 is the angle turned by the crank from the inner-dead centre. The en
speed is 250 rpm. The mass of the flywheel is 400 kg and radius of gyration
mm. Determine
(i) the power developed
(ii) the total percentage fluctuation of speed
(iii) the angular acceleration of flywheel when the crank has rotated through
angle of 60 from the inner-dead centre
(iv) the maximum angular acceleration and retardation of theflywheel.
So l u t i o n
The expression for torque being afunction of 28, thecycle is repeated every 180of
crank rotation (Fig. 13.25).
~
. 00
C')
00 C) )
It) a
It)
( 00
Turning
moment
(N.m.)
500cas 28
--------------
------------ ..... t'- -- /
..".." ..7<....;.. -'X300:~: :~n-2:00cas 28
I I I -. \ \
/ f ~/.-.". - i-.:;. .:-~:.. -\,-,~/~TIr -~
,;" . '
.....I 1 --
ii'
i i i
i i i
i i i
i i i
, , ,
180 60 90 120
Crankangle
150 0 30
Fig. 13.25
(i)
11t
T = - fTd8
mean n 0
= -.L 1(1000+300sin 28- 500cos 28) d8 .
no
D namic Force Analysis 533
[
J
" 1 300 500 .
= - 10008- -cos 28- -sm 28
n 2 2 0
=1- [(lOOOn- 150- 0) - (0- 150- 0)]
n
=1000 N.m
2n x 250
P = TO) = 1000 x 60 = 26180 W or 26.18 kW
(ii) At any instant, t!T =T- Tmean
= (1000 +300 sin 28 -500 cos 28) - 1000
=300 sin 28 -500 cos 28
t!T is zero, when 300 sin 28 - 500 cos 28 =0
or 300 sin 28 = 500 cos 28 or tan 28 = ~
or 28 = 59 or 239, 8= 29.5 or 119S
119.5
e
max
= f t!Td8 =
29.5
119.so
f (300sin 28- 500cos 20) 0
29.so
= [-150 cos 28- 250sin 28]1i :~: = 583.1 N.m
K= __ e_
mk20)2
583.1
= 0.01329 or 1.329%
400 X (004)2 X (2n ;0
250
J
(iii) Acceleration or deceleration is produced by excess or deficit torque than the
mean value at any instant.
t! T = 300 sin28 - 500 cos28
when 8= 60,
t! T = 259.8 - (-250) = 509.8 N.m
or La= mkl a =509.8
or 400 x (004/ x a= 509.8 or a= 7.966 rad/s
2
(iv) For t!Tmax and t!T
min
d d
d8 (t!T) = dO (300 sin 28 - 500 cos 28) = 0
Or
2 X 300 cos 20 +2 x500 sin 28 =0
or 600 cos 20 = -1000 sin 20 or tan 20 = -0.6
Or 20 =149.04 and329.04 or 0 = 74.52 and 164.52
When20 = 149.04, T= 1583.1 N.m, t!T =583.1 N.m
When20= 329.04, T= 416.9 N.m, t!T= -583.1 N.m
As values of t!T at maximum and minimum torque T are same, maximum
acceleration is equal to maximum retardation.
Or t!T= mkla = 583.J or 400 x (OAf x a = 583.1
Maximum acceleration or retardation, a=9.11 rad/s
2
Theo 0 Machines
!,:::p ~; (!!>I: 18~~ac~~)e ~s coupled to a.two-stroke engine which p
s d i Sin .rn, where 8 IS the crank angle. The me
pee s 400 rpm. The flywheel and the other rotating parts attached t an
have amass of 350 kg at aradius of gyration of 220 mm Cal I 0 the
(i) the power of the engine . cu ate
(ii) the total fluctuation of speed of the flywheel when
(a) the resisting torque is constant
(b) theresisting torque is (800 +80 sin 8) N.m
Solution
m =350 kg, N =400 rpm, k =220 mm, W =2n x 400
60 = 41.89 rad/s
The expression for torque being a function of 38 th I'
1200of the crank rotation (Fig. 13.26). ' e eye e IS repeated after
1 80 sin 38
Turning
moment
(N.m.)
60 90
Crankangle
1 20 1 50
Fig. 13.26
1
2tr13
(i) Tmean =2n/ 3 !Td8
1 80
3 2tr/ 3
= 2n !(800+180sin38)d8 = in[8008-1~OcOS38Itr/ 3 =800
P = Toi =800 x 41.89 =33512 W
(ii) (a) At any instant, !1T = T - T
mean
. = 800 +180 sin 38 - 800 = 180 sin 38
!1T IS zero when 180sin 38 = 0
or when sin 38 = 0
or 38 = 0
0
or 180
0
or 0 = 0
0
or 60
0
Dynamic Force Analysis
60" 60"
e
max
=f !1Tdt = f (180sin38)d8
0 0
K __ e_ = 120 =0.00404 or 0.404%
- mew 2 350x (0.22)2 x (41.89)2
(b) !1T = T of engine - T of machine
= (800 +180 sin 38) - (800 +80 sin8)
=180sin 38 - 80 sin 0
!1T is zero when, 180 sin 30 - 80 sin 8= 0
or 180 sin 38 = 80 sin 8 or 180(3 sin 0 - 4 sin
3
8) = 80 sin 0
or 3 - 4 sin
2
8 1~ = 0.4444 or sin
2
0 = 0.639
or sin 8= 0.799 or 1 3 = 53 and 12r
127
0
127
0
e = f !1TdO = f (180sin 30 - 80sin O)dO
rnax
53
0
53
0
127
0
[
180cos 30 80 oJ
=- + cos
3 530
= -60 cos 381
0
+80 cos 127
0
+60 cos 159
0
- 80 cos 53
0
=-208.3 N.m
K =_e_ = 208.3 =0.007 =0.7%
mew
2
350x (0.22)2 x (41.89)2
/
Example 13.19 The torque delivered by a two-stroke engine is represented by
T =(1200 +1400 sin8 +210 sin 28 +21sin 30) N.m
Where 0 is the angle turned by the crank from the inner-dead centre. The engine
speedis 210 rpm. Determine the power of the engine and the minimum mass of the
flywheel if its radius of gyrition is 800 mmand themaximum fluctuation of speed is
tobe1.5% of the mean.
Solution
k 800mm, N = 210 rpm, K = 0.015 +0.015 = 0.03
Theexpression for torque being a function of 0, 28 and 38 the cycle is repeated after
every360
0
of the crank rotation (Fig. 13.27).
1 tr
T =-fTd8
mean n 0
2tr
=-2
1
f (1200+1400sin 8+210sin 28 +21sin 38)d8
n 0
1 [ 210 21 Itr
= 2n 12008+1400cos 8+TCOS 28 +2COS 38
(i)
=2~ [(2400n+1400 +105+10.5) - (0 +1400 +105 +10.5)]
36 Theo 0 Machines
1 400sin9+ 21 0 sin 29+ 21 sin 39
1 200
I
1 400 sin9 I
- - - - - - 1- - - - - -
//21 0 sin 29 I
,(~~~:.~.:.~.:.~.~---' "',I ~1 sin 39 "~>~.:
-----------r~:~-~J ~~~~::T---------:/i:\~-.~.~~
I i .,--t. .>:" i -.
i i' i "''.
i i i
i i i
i i i
i i i
i i i
!! !
1
Turning
moment
(N.m.)
0
0
30
0
60
0
90
0
Crankangle ---+-
1 20
0
1 50
0
1 80
0
21 0
0
Fig. 13.27
(ii)
::: 1200 N.m
p::: TOJ::: 1200 X 2n x 210 :::26 390 W
60
At any instant, tl T :::T- Tmean
:::(1200 +1400 sin8 - 210 sin 28 +21 sin 38) - 1200
::: 1400sin 8+210 sin 28 +21 sin 38
tlT is zero when 1400 sin 8+210 sin 28 +21 sin 38::: 0
This will beso when 8is 180
0
or 360
0
This can beeasily seen fromtheplot
the turning moment diagram.
or 26.39 kW
1r 1r
e
max
::: J tlTdt::: J (1200+1400sin 8 +210sin 28 +21sin 38) d8
o 0
[
210 21 J 1r
::: 1400cos 8 +TCOS W +'2cos 38 0
:::[(-1400 +105- 10.5) - (1400 +105 +10.5)]
:::2821 N.m
Now,
0.03 ::: -=2.::;82:.::1 __ ~
(0 8)
2 (2n x210)2
mx . x 60
2821
0.03 =mx 3.095
m::: 303.8 kg
D namic Force Anal sis 537
E" af1'lple I 3.20 In a machine, the intermittent operations demand the torque to
applied as follows: ..
b C. During thefirst half revolution, thetorque Increases uniformly from800N.mto
3000 N.m
During next one revolutions, the torque remains constant
During next one revolution, the torque decreases uniformly from 3000 N.m to
800N.m
During last 1Y2 revolution, the torque remains constant.
Thus, a cycle is completed in 4 revolutions. The molar to which the machine is
upled exerts a constant torque at a mean speed of 250 rpm. A flywheel of mass
~~OOkg and radius of gyration of 500 mm is fitted to the shaft. Determine
(i) thepower of the motor
(ii) thetotal fluctuation of speed of the machine shaft.
Solution
m= 1800kg, N::: 250 rpm, k::: 500 mm
(i) Refer Fig. 13.28.
Torque for one complete cycle, T::: area OABCDEF
or T::: Area OAEF +Area ABL +Area LBCM -Area MCD
::: 8n x 800 + !!..x 2200 +2n x 2200 + 2n x 2200
2 2
::: 14 lOOnN.m
T
mean
::: 14~~on 1762.5 N.m
2n x 250
p :::TmOJ::: 1762.5 x 60 46 142 W or 46.142 kW
c
Q)
E
o
E
OJ
c
'c
~
K
o E
L- ~ ~ I ~F
5n: 8n:
Crankangle
Fig. 13.28
(ii) lG::: AL x BG :::n x 3000- 1762.5
BL 3000 - 800 ::: 1.767
HK _ CH 3000-1762.5
- MD x CM :::2n x 3000 _ 800 :::3.534
Fluctuation of energy is equal to the area above the mean torque line.
e :::Area lBCK :::area lBG +area GBCH +area HCK
:::(3000 - 176.5) [1.~67 +2n +3.~34] ::: 11 055 N.m
Theo of Machines
11055
1800X (0.5)2 x(2n: ~0250J
or 3.58% = 0.0358
1 . Dynamic forces are associated with accelerating masses. As all rnac .
have some accelerating parts, dynamic forces are always present when
machines operate.
2. D'Alembert's principle states that the inertia forces and couples, and
external forces and torques on abody together give statical equilibrium.
3. In graphical solutions, it is possible to replace inertia force and in
couple by an equiv alent offset inertia force which can account for
This is done by displacing the line of action of the inertia force from
centre of mass.
4. The sense of angular acceleration of theconnecting rod is such that it
to reduce the angle of the connecting rod with the line of stroke.
5. Piston effort is the net or effective force applied on the piston.
6. Inertia force on thepiston, Fb =mf =mrco? (cos e +co: 2e)
7. Crank effort is the net effort (force) applied at the crankpin perpendic
to the crank which gives the required turning moment on the crankshaft.
8. Turning moment duetoforceF onthepiston =Fr [sin e + sin2e
2 n2 -sin
2
S
9. Dynamically-equiv alent system means that the rigid link is replaced
link with two point masses in such away that it has thesame motion as
rigid link when subjected to the same force, i.e. the centre of mass of
equivalent link has the same linear acceleration and the link has the
angular acceleration.
10. Distributed mass of arod can be replaced by two point masses to have
same dynamical properties if thesumof thetwo masses isequal tothe
mass, the combined centre of mass coincides with that of the rod and
moment of inertia of two point masses about perpendicular axis
their combined centre of mass is equal to that of the rod.
11. In the analysis of the connecting rod, the two point masses are consi
to be located at the centre of the two end bearings and then acorrecti
applied for the error involved.
12. A plot of T vs. e is known as turning-moment diagram.
13. The difference between themaximum and minimum kinetic energies of
flywheel is known as the maximum fluctuation of energy.
14. The difference between the greatest speed and the least speed is knoWll
the maximum fluctuation of speed.
15. A flywheel is used to control the variations in speed during each cye
an engine.
e e
16. Coefficient of fluctuation of speed is given by K = /w
2
= 2
----------~'n"'.--.--;'"="iO':o:;-;r;;::c:;;"e ? \:na SIS
3 1 State and explain D'Alembert's principle.
1 .
13.2 What do you mean by equiv alent offset inerti~force? Explain",
= 3 Derive anexpression for theangular acceleration of theconnecting rod of a
III 13.
1i reCIprocating engine.
; 4 What is meant by piston effort and crank effort?
.~ 13. Derive a relation for the turning moment at the crankshaft in terms of
- 13.5 nk
piston effort and the angle turned by the cra . .
6 What do you mean by dynamically equiv alent system? Explam.
13. In what way the inertia of the connecting rod of a reciprocating engine is
13.7
taken into account?
8
When and why is the correction couple applied while considering the iner-
13.
tia of the connecting rod of areciprocating engine?
9
Describe the graphical method of considering the inertia of the connecting
13.
rod of areciprocating engine.
13.10 What are turning-moment diagrams? Why are they drawn?
13.11 Define the terms coefficient of fluctuation of energy and coefficient of
fluctuation of speed.
13.12 What is aflywheel? What is its use? .
13.13 Find arelation for the coefficient of fluctuation of speed in terms of maxi-
mum fluctuation of energy and the kinetic energy of the flywheel at mean
speed.
13.14 In a four-link mechanism ABCD, the link AB revolves with an angular
velocity of 10 radls and angular acceleration of 25 radis
2
at the instant
when it makes an angle of 45 with AD, the fixed link. The lengths of the
links are:
AB = CD = 800 mm, BC = 1000mrn, and AD = 1500 mm.
The mass of the links is 4 kg/mlength. Determine thetorque required to
overcome theinertia forces, neglecting the gravitational effects. Assume all
links to be of uniform cross-sections. (82.2 N.m)
13.15 The following data relate to afour-link mechanism:
Link Length Mass MOl about an axis through centre of mass
AB 60 mm 0.2 kg 80 kg.mm/
BC 200 mm 0.4 kg 1600kg.mnr'
CD 100mm 0.6 kg 400 kg.rnrrr'
AD 140mm
AD is the fixed link. The centres of mass for the links BC and CD lie at
their midpoints, whereas the centre of mass for link AB lies at A. Find the
drive torque on the link AB at the instant when it rotates at an angu~ar
velocity of 47.5 radls counter-clockwise and LDAB 135. Neglect gravity
effects. (1.96 N.m clockwise)
13.16 The effective steam pressure on the piston of a vertical steam engine is
200 kN/m
2
N when the crank is 40 from the inner-dead centre on the
down stroke. The crank length is 300 mm and the connecting rod length
1200mm. The diameter of thecylinder is 800mm. What will be thetorque
on the crankshaft if the engine speed is 300 rpm and the mass of the
reciprocating parts 250 kg? (9~16 N.m)
13.17 The length of the connecting rod of a gas engine is 500 mm and Its centre
of gravity lies at 165mmfromthe crank pin centre. The rod has amass of
1neo acmnes
13.18
80 kg and a radius of gyration of 182 mm about an axis through the
of mass. The stroke of piston is 225 mm and the crank speed is 300
Determine the inertia force on the crankshaft when the crank has
(a) 30 and (b) 135 from the inner-dead centre. (302.3 N.m; 226.7
The connecting rod of an IC engine is 450 rom long and has a
2 kg. The centre of mass of the rod is 300 rom from the small end
radius of gyration about an axis through this centre is 175 rom. The
the piston and the gudgen pin is 2.5 kg and the stroke is 300 mrn.
cylinder diameter is 115 rom. Determine the magnitude and the direction
the torque applied on the crankshaft when the crank is 40 and the piston
moving away from the inner dead centre under an effective gas pressure
2 Nrnm''. the engine speed is 1000 rpm. (1994
The connecting rod of a vertical high-speed engine is 600 rom long .
tween centres and has a mass of 3 kg. Its centre of mass lies at 200
from the big-end bearing. When suspended as a pendulum from the
geon pin axis, it makes 45 complete oscillations in 30 seconds. The pi
stroke is 250 mm. The mass of the reciprocating parts is 1.2 kg. Det
the inertia torque on the crankshaft when the crank makes an angle of I
with top-dead centre. The engine speed is 1500 rpm. (361. 7 N
A constant torque 2.5 kW motor drives a riveting machine. The mass of
moving parts including the flywheel is 125 kg at 700 mm radius.
riveting operation absorbs 1000 J of energy and takes one second. Speed
the flywheel is 240 rpm before riveting. Determine
(i) the number of rivets closed per hour, and
(ii) the reduction in speed after the riveting operation. (900; 52.7
The turning-moment diagram for apetrol engine is drawn to a vertical
of 1 mm to 6 N.m and a horizontal scale of 1 mm to 10. The
moment repeats itself after every half revolution of engine. The areas
and below the mean torque line are:
305, 710, 50, 350, 980 and 275 mrrr'
The rotating parts amount to a mass of 40 kg at a radius of gyration
140 mm. Calculate the coefficient of fluctuation of speed if the speed
the engine is 1500 rpm. (O.5S
The cranks of a three-cylinder single-acting engine are set equally at 1
The engine speed is 540 rpm. The turning-moment diagram for each cy
der is a triangle for the power stroke with a maximum torque of 100 N.J J l
60 after dead-centre of the corresponding crank. On the return stroke,
torque is sensibly zero. Determine
(a) the power developed
(b) the coefficient of fluctuation of speed if the flywheel has a mass
7.5 kg with a radius of gyration of 65 rom.
(c) the coefficient of fluctuation of energy
(d) the maximum angular acceleration of the flywheel.
(4.24 kW; 12.9%; 2.78%; 789 .
A certain machine requires a torque of (1500 +200 sin 8) N.m to ~
where 8 is the angle of rotation of the shaft. The machine is
coupled to an engine which produces a torque of (1500 +200 sin 26)
The flywheel and the other rotating parts attached to the engine bll
13.19
13.20
13.21
13.22
13.23
uml1 rar
T}l ;I.- ..
mass of 300 kg at a radius of gyration of 200 mm. If the mean speed is 200
rpm, find
(a) the fluctuation of energy
(b) the total percentage fluctuation of speed
(c) the maximum and the minimu~ ~gular acceleration of the flywheel
and the corresponding shaft posiuons.
(490 N.m; 9.3%; 10 rad/s', 35.5"; 33.35 rad/s", 127.9)